SPTOPICS

SPTOPICS
MODULE 2

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MODULE INTRODUCTION

Fluid Mechanics and Soil Mechanics are two of the fundamental subjects of the
Civil Engineering course covering half of the Hydraulics and Geotechnical
Engineering part of the Civil Engineering Licensure Examinations. It is therefore
essential that these subjects are focused on and given much detail when
reviewing.

This module shall be subdivided into two parts which will correspond to each
mentioned subject.

TIP #1: Formulas, formulae, and a lot more. No need to memorize them all

TIP #2: AGAIN, IT IS BETTER IF YOU ALSO TRY SOLVING PROBLEMS

WHICH ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THIS MODULE.

TIP #3: It is better to solve a problem 10 times and succeed in the last than solve
and succeed in the first time during review.

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MODULE OUTLINE

This module will cover these selected subjects and subtopics:

I. FLUID MECHANICS II. SOIL MECHANICS

a. Fluid Properties a. Soil Properties
i. Types of Fluids i. Index Properties of Soil
ii. Mass Density ii. Basic Formulae
iii. Unit Weight b. Atterberg Limits
iv. Other Properties i. Shrinkage Limit
b. Hydrostatic Forces and Pressure ii. Plastic Limit
i. Unit Pressure and iii. Liquid Limit
Pascal’s Law iv. Soil Indices
ii. Absolute and Gage c. Soil Classification
Pressure i. USDA
iii. Variations in pressure ii. AASHTO
and Pressure heads iii. USCS
iv. Manometers d. Soil Compaction
v. Hydrostatic Force on plane i. OMC
and curved surfaces ii. Relative Density
c. Bouyancy iii. Other Formulas
i. Archimedes’ Principle e. Soil Permeability
ii. Cases of Bouyancy i. Darcy’s Law
d. Dams ii. Determination of k
i. Types of Dams iii. Flow through Permeable
ii. Analysis of Dams Layers
e. Stability iv. Equivalent Hydraulic
i. Stability of Floating Bodies Conductivity
f. Relative Equilibrium v. Aquifers
i. Rectilinear Translation vi. Flow Nets
ii. Rotation f. Stresses in Soil Mass
i. Effective, Total, Pore
Water Stresses
ii. Seepage and Capillarity

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MODULE 2
PART I

FLUID
MECHANICS

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SUBJECT OVERVIEW
Fluid Mechanics is one of those subjects where there are a lot of formulas
to memorize. In this module, you will be given derivations that would help you in
understanding the various formulas presented by the subject matter.

a. Fluid Properties
i. Types of Fluids
Fluids are generally divided into two categories, ideal fluids and real fluids.
Ideal Fluids:
 Assumed to have no viscosity (no resistance to shear)
 Incompressible
 Have uniform velocity when flowing
 No friction between moving layers of fluid
 No eddy currents or turbulence
Real Fluids:
 Exhibit infinite velocities
 Non-uniform velocity when flowing
 Compressible
 Experience friction and turbulence

TIP #4: Look for clues in the units of the values given, there might be clues
hidden there!

TIP #5: Memorize the constants! They will always help you and never leave you
alone, unlike others who have left without a word. 

ii. Mass Density ρ (rho)

𝑀
𝜌=
𝑉
Where:
ρ = Density Units: English : slugs/ft3
M = Mass of the fluid Metric : g/cm3
V = Volume of the fluid SI : kg/m3

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iii. Unit Weight γ (gamma)

W
γ=
V
Where:
γ = Unit Weight Units: English : lb/ft3
M = Weight of the fluid Metric : dyne/cm3
V = Volume of the fluid SI : KN/m3
iv. Specific Gravity s.g.
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
s. g. =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
γwater = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9.81 kN/m3
ρwater = 1.94 slugs/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3
s.g. (water) = 1
For the other liquids, please refer to the table below
Note: Specific Gravity is a dimensionless variable therefore has no unit.

v. Other Properties
Viscosity
𝑑𝑦
𝜇 = 𝜏
𝑑𝑉
Where:
𝜏 = Shear stress in lb/ft2 or Pa
𝜇 = Absolute Viscosity in lb-sec/ft2 (poises) or Pa-sec
y = distance between the plates in ft or cm
V = velocity in ft/s or m/s

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Kinematic Viscosity
𝜇
𝑣 =
ρ
Surface Tension
4𝜎
𝑝 =
d
Where:
𝜎 = surface tension in N/m
𝑑 = diameter of the droplet in m
p = gage pressure in Pa
Capillarity
4𝜎cos𝜃
ℎ =
γd
Where:
𝜎 = surface tension in N/m
𝑑 = diameter of the tube in m
γ = unit weight in N/m3
h = capillary rise or depression in m
Note: There are other miscellaneous properties of fluids that were not included
in this module. It would be better if you would look them up in books. (Some will
be uploaded in the group).

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Situation 1:
An amount of carbon tetrachloride having a mass of 500 kg and a volume of
0.315 m3 is placed in a container
1. Which of the following most nearly gives the weight of carbon tetrachloride?
a. 4.90 KN
b. 5.16 KN
c. 5.36 KN
d. 3.86 KN

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2. Which of the following most nearly gives the mass density of carbon
tetrachloride?
a. 1785.30 kg/m3
b. 1758.30 kg/m3
c. 1578.30 kg/m3
d. 1587.30 kg/m3
3. Which of the following most nearly gives the unit weight of carbon
tetrachloride?
a. 12.25 kN/ m3
b. 17.02 kN/ m3
c. 16.38 kN/ m3
d. 15.57 kN/ m3
Situation 2:
Kerosene is mixed with 10 ft3 of ethyl alcohol so that the volume of the mixture
in the tank becomes 14 ft3. Determine the specific weight and the specific
gravity of the mixture. Ans. 49.7 lb/ft3 and 0.797
HINT:
ρk = 1.58 slug/ft3
ρea = 1.53 slug/ft3
Situation 3:
An experimental test using human blood at T = 30°C indicates that it exerts a
shear stress of 𝜏 = 0.15 N/m2 on surface A, where the measured velocity
gradient at the surface is 16.8 s-1. Determine its apparent viscosity at
the surface. Ans. 𝝁a = 8.93 x 10-3 N-s/m2
b. Hydrostatic Forces and Pressure
i. Unit Pressure and Pascal’s Law

𝐹
𝑝 =
A
Where:
𝐹 = Force in N
𝐴 = Area in m2
𝑝 = pressure in Pa

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ii. Absolute and Gage Pressure

Pressure may be subdivided into three categories namely, gage pressure,
atmospheric pressure and gage pressure.
Gage pressure – is the pressure above or below the atmosphere and can be
measured by pressure gauges or manometers.
Atmospheric pressure – is the pressure at any one point on the Earth’s surface
from the weight of the air above it. A vacuum is a space that has all matter
removed from it.
At sea level
Pabs = 2166 lb/ft2
= 14.7 psi
= 29.9 inches of mercury
= 760 mm Hg
= 101.325 kPa
Absolute pressure – is the pressure above absolute zero. (vacuum)
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
Considering two points A and B, the difference in pressure between any two
points in a homogenous fluid at rest is equal to the product of the unit weight of
the fluid and the vertical distance between the points.
𝑝𝐵 − 𝑝𝐴 = γh
iii. Variations in pressure and Pressure heads
It is the height “h” of a column of homogenous liquid of unit weight γ that will
produce an intensity pressure of p.
𝑝
= h
𝛾
iv. Manometer
Open Type – has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring
gage pressures.
Differential Type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring
only differences of pressure
Piezometer – the simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube tapped into a
wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m3, what is the
approximate height of Mt. Banahaw if a mercury barometer at the base of the

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mountain reads 654 mm and at the same time another mercury barometer at
the top of the mountain reads 480 mm?
a. 1835.62 m
b. 1748.03 m
c. 1602.19 m
d. 1934.53 m

2. A tank contains oil with specific gravity of 0.80, gasoline with specific gravity of
0.90, and sea water with specific gravity of 1.05. What is the pressure at a depth
of 1.20 m if the depths of the liquids are 0.50 m, 0.60 m, and 0.80 m, respectively?
a. 1812 kg/m2
b. 942 kg/m2
c. 1045 kg/m2
d. 1318 kg/m2

3. A pressure gage at elevation 10 m at the side of a tank containing a liquid

reads 80 kPa. Another gage at elevation 4 m reads 120 kPa. Find the specific
gravity of the liquid.
a. 0.62
b. 0.65
c. 0.73
d. 0.68
4. Butyl carbitol, used in the production of
plastics, is stored in a tank having a U-tube
manometer. If the U-tube is filled with mercury
to level E, determine the pressure in the tank
at point A. Take SHg = 13.55, and Sbc = 0.957.
Refer to the figure to the right.
Ans. 12.7 kPa

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v. Hydrostatic Force on plane and curved surfaces

Applying the previous formulas on a certain surface below the water
surface gives us the formulas for Hydrostatic Pressure or the pressure caused by
water or a liquid to a certain surface (gate). It is derived from the simple formula
of pressure.
𝐹
𝑝 =
A
given that
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
from the formula of pressure heads we can derive,
𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
Where
h = height from the liquid surface up to the
centroid of the certain surface (gate)
A = Area of the certain surface (gate)
𝛾 = unit weight of the liquid
y = location of the hydrostatic force
e = eccentricity
e= y - yc

𝛾𝐼𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑒=
𝐹
Ig = centroidal moment of inertia of the certain surface (gate)
FH = Horizontal Component of the Hydrostatic Force
FV =Vertical Component of the Hydrostatic Force
𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾𝑉
V = Volume above the certain surface (gate)
𝐹𝐻 2 + 𝐹𝑉 2 = 𝐹 2
𝐹𝑉
tan 𝜃 =
𝐹𝐻

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. The gate in the figure is 5 ft wide, is hinged at point B , and rests
against a smooth wall at point A . Compute ( a ) the force on the
gate due to seawater pressure, ( b ) the horizontal force P exerted
by the wall at point A , and ( c ) the
reactions at the hinge B .
Ans. a.) 38,000 lbf b.) 29,300 lbf c.) 30,700 lbf

2. Access plates on the industrial holding tank are bolted shut when the tank is
filled with vegetable oil as shown. Determine the resultant force that this liquid
exerts on plates A and B, and their location measured from the bottom of the
tank. Use the formula method. ρma = 932 kg/m3.
Ans. Plate A : F = 73.1 kN d = 917 mm
Ans. Plate B : F = 40.4 kN d = 2.44 m

3. Determine the resultant force the

water exerts on AB, BC, and CD of the
enclosure, which is 3 m wide.
Ans:
FAB = 58.9 kN
FBC = 147 kN
FCD = 70.7 kN

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c. Buoyancy
The buoyancy of a body immersed in a fluid is that property which will
determine whether the body will sink, rise or float.
• Buoy - to lift; to support; to keep afloat (Merriam Webster dictionary)
• Buoyant force - is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the buoyed
body.

i. Archimedes’ Principle
• A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces.

• A floating body displaces its own weight

in the flui d in which it floats. With the analysis established by Archimedes in the
third century B.C., buoyancy can be determined by:
𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 +𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐵𝐹 = (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑)(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑)
• The buoyant force acting on a fully or partially submerged object is equal to
the net vertical force exerted by the fluid on the body.
• The relative weight of an object in a liquid is gravitational force (weight) minus
the buoyant force

𝑾𝒓𝒆𝒍 = 𝑾−𝑩𝑭
𝑩𝑭 = 𝜸𝑽𝒔𝒖𝒃

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ii. Cases of Buoyancy

CASE 1:
• When the body floats and is partially submerged in the fluid.
• Specific gravity of the object is less than the specific gravity of the liquid.
• The weight is equal to buoyant force.
CASE 2:
• When the body is sinks, or is fully submerged in the fluid.
• Specific gravity of the object is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid
• The weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force acting on it.
CASE 3:
• When specific gravity of the object and the liquid are equal
• When the object is submerged in the fluid, it will neither sink nor float.

Note: In buoyancy, it is important to visualize the effect of the liquid to

the object and vice-versa. It is also important to take into
consideration the container of the liquid where the object is placed.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Situation 1:
A tall cylindrical tank 150 mm in diameter contains water 200 mm deep and oil
(sg=0.80) 30 mm deep. A cylindrical buoy 100 mm in diameter and 120 mm
high is placed vertically inside the tank. The buoy weighs 5 N
1. Which of the following most nearly gives the specific gravity of the buoy?
a. 0.54 b. 0.35 c. 0.45 d. 0.25
2. Which of the following most nearly gives the depth of buoy submerged?
a. 81.12 mm b. 79.65 mm c. 45.07 mm d. 75.69 mm
3. Which of the following most nearly gives the increase in height of the
contents?
a. 41.12 mm b. 63.34 mm c. 33.64 mm d. 23.45 mm
Situation 2:
A cylindrical tank 1 m in diameter and 3 m tall weighs 3.86 KN
1. Which of the following most nearly gives the weight of the lead (specific wt.=
110 kN/m3) that must be placed inside the tank to make the tank float vertically
with 2.50 m submerged in water?
a. 16.91 kN b. 19.25 KN c. 21.14 KN d. 15.40 KN
2. Which of the following most nearly gives the weight of the lead (specific wt=
110 kN/m3) that must be fastened to the outside bottom of the tank to make
the tank float vertically with 2.50 m submerged in water?
a. 21.14 KN b. 15.40 kN c. 19.25 KN d. 16.91 KN
3. Which of the following most nearly gives the weight of the lead (specific wt.=
110 kN/m3) that must be placed inside the tank to make the top of the tank
flushed with the water surface?
a. 19.25 KN b. 16.91 KN c. 15.40 KN d. 21.14 KN
Situation 3:
A stone weigh 468 N in air. When submerged in water it weighs 298 N.
1. Which of the following most nearly gives the volume of the stone?
a. 0.0015 m3 b. 0.0254 m3 c. 0.0173 m3 d. 0.0357 m3
17. Which of the following most nearly gives the unit weight of the stone?
a. 24.03 kN/m3 b. 25.00 kN/m3 c. 26.00 kN/m3 d. 27.05 kN/m3
18. Which of the following most nearly gives the specific gravity of the stone?
a. 2.90 b. 2.25 c. 2.45 d. 2.76

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d. Dams
i. Types of Dams
Gravity Dams – use only the force of gravity to resist water pressure – that is,
they hold back the water by the sheer force of their weight pushing downward.
Embankment Dams - Any dam constructed of excavated natural materials or
of industrial waste materials. Also called an Earth Dam
Masonry Dams - Any dam constructed mainly of stone, brick, or concrete
blocks jointed with mortar. A dam having only a masonry facing should not be
referred to as a masonry dam.
Buttress Dams - contains face slab, buttresses and base slab. Face slab is
provided on the upstream side with some inclination and this slab is supported
by series of buttresses which are nothing but supports. Base slab acts as
foundation for the whole dam which receives the load from buttresses and
face slab.
ii. Analysis of Dams

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• F1 and F2 are the vertical and horizontal components of the hydrostatic

forces acting on the submerged surface on the heel side of the dam.
• F3 and F4 are the vertical and horizontal components of the hydrostatic
forces acting on the submerged surface on the toe side of the dam.
• W1, W2, and W3 are subdivided weight of the dam.
• U1 and U2 are the subdivided hydrostatic uplift force which is a force that
tends to raise the structure through its foundation relative to the amount of
retained body of water.
FACTOR OF SAFETY FOR OVERTURNING
• Determines the safety of the structure against overturning. Calculated by the
summation of all moment acting on the dam.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐹𝑆𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = > 1.00
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑅𝑀
𝐹𝑆𝑜 = > 1.00
𝑂𝑀
Where:
𝑂𝑀 = (𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔)(𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑇𝑜𝑒)
𝑅𝑀 = (𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)(𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑇𝑜𝑒)

FACTOR OF SAFETY FOR SLIDING

• Determines the safety of the structure against sliding due to the hydrostatic
force produced by the retained body
of water. Can be calculated using the principle in mechanics.
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐹𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = > 1.00
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜇𝑅𝑦
𝐹𝑆𝑠 = > 𝟏.𝟎𝟎
𝑅𝑥

Where:
𝑅𝑦 = (𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
𝑅𝑥 = (𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
µ = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the factor of safety for overturning and sliding for the
Dam shown in the figure per linear meter. Unit weight of concrete is
equal to 23.5kN/m3 and the coefficient of friction is equal to 0.60. The
uplift force at the toe and heel is 100%.

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e. Stability

• Another interesting and important problem associated with submerged or

floating bodies is concerned with the stability of the bodies.
• A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium position if, when displaced, it
returns to its equilibrium position.
Conversely, it is in an unstable equilibrium position if, when displaced (even
slightly), it moves to a new equilibrium position.
• Stability considerations are particularly important for submerged or floating
bodies since the centers of buoyancy and gravity do not necessarily coincide.
• A small rotation can result in either a restoring or overturning couple.
i. STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
• For floating bodies the stability problem is more complicated, since as the
body rotates the location of the center of buoyancy (which passes through the
centroid of the displaced volume) may change.

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CASE 1: STABLE
As the body rotates the buoyant force, shifts to pass through the centroid of the
newly formed displaced volume and, as illustrated, combines with the weight,
to form a couple which will cause the body to return to its original equilibrium
position.
A rotation from its equilibrium position will create a restoring couple formed by
the weight, and the buoyant force, which causes the body to rotate back to its
original position. Thus, for this configuration the body is stable.

CASE 2: UNSTABLE
When the floating body rotated, and displaced to a position so that the
buoyant force and weight will result to an overturning couple that is of the
same direction of the rotation, the body will be in unstable condition.

METACENTRIC HEIGHT
The metacentric height is a property of the cross section for the given weight,
and its value gives an indication of the stability of the body.
For a body of varying cross section and draft, such as a ship, the computation
of the metacenter can be very involved.

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COMPUTATIONAL PROCESS
• Such calculations for arbitrary floating bodies have been honed to a fine art
by naval architects, but we can at least outline the basic principle of the static
stability calculation.
• The steps are as follows:
1. Determine the body’s center of mass G and center of buoyancy B.
2. The body is tilted a small angle θ, and a new waterline is established for the
body to float at this angle.
The new position B’ of the center of buoyancy is calculated.
3. A vertical line drawn upward from B’ intersects the line of symmetry at a point
M, called the metacenter, which is independent of the angle.
4. If point M is above G (that is, if the metacentric height MG is positive), a
restoring moment is present and the original position is stable. If M is below
(negative MG), the body is unstable and will overturn if disturbed. Stability
increases with increasing MG.
• Naval architects have developed the general stability concepts into a simple
computation involving the area moment of inertia of the waterline area about
the axis of tilt.

𝐼
𝑀𝐵𝑂 =
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Where:
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A rectangular scow 9m wide, 15m long and 3.60m high, has a draft in sea
water (sg=1.03) of 2.40m. Its center of gravity is 2.70m above the bottom of the
scow. If the scow lists until one side is just at the point of submergence;
a. Determine the Metacentric Height.
b. Determine the Buoyant force acting on the body.
c. Determine the righting or overturning couple.

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2. A rectangular vessel 7m wide, 9m long and 8m high, has a draft in water of

3m. Its center of gravity is 2.50m from the top. The vessel tilted 20o after an
overturning force is applied.
a. Determine the Metacentric Height.
b. Determine the value of the Buoyant force acting on the body
c. Determine the righting or overturning couple.
3. A buoy with circular base is 8m diameter-wide and is 4m high, has a draft in
water of 2m. Its center of gravity is 1.2m from the top. If the buoy tilted until ¾ of
one of its sides is submerged;
a. Determine the Metacentric Height.
b. Determine the Buoyant force acting on the body.
c. Determine the righting or overturning moment.

f. Relative Equilibrium

RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM
• Relative equilibrium of liquid is a condition where the whole mass of liquid
including the vessel in which the liquid is contained, is moving at uniform
accelerated motion with respect to the earth.
• There are two cases of relative equilibrium in liquid namely Linear Translation and
Rotation.

VERTICAL MOTION
• The figure shown below is a mass of liquid moving vertically upward with a
constant acceleration a. The forces acting to a liquid column of depth h from the
surface are weight of the liquid W = 𝛾V, the inertia force REF = ma,
and the pressure force F = pA at the bottom of the column.

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HORIZONTAL MOTION
• If a mass of fluid moves horizontally along a straight line at constant
acceleration a, the liquid surface assume an angle θ with the horizontal, see
figure below.

• For any value of a, the angle θ can be found by considering a fluid particle
of mass m on the surface. The forces acting on the particle are the weight W =
mg, inertia force or reverse effective force REF = ma, and the normal force N
which is the perpendicular reaction at the surface. These three forces are in
equilibrium with their force polygon.

Where:
𝑚𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑚𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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INCLINED MOTION
• The formula can be derived accordingly based on the figure shown;

ROTATION (Rotating Vessel)

• When at rest, the surface of mass of liquid is horizontal at PQ as shown in the
figure. When this mass of liquid is rotated about a vertical axis at constant
angular velocity, ω in radian per second, it will assume the surface to be
parabolic. Every particle is subjected to centripetal force or centrifugal force
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 which produces centripetal acceleration towards the center of
rotation. Other forces that acts are gravity force 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 and normal force 𝑁.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. An open can of water is subjected to an upward acceleration of 4.50m/sec2.
It contains 2.4m of water.
a. What is the pressure at a depth of 1.50m?
b. What is the pressure at the bottom of the can?
2. An open tank containing oil (s = 0.8) is accelerated vertically at 8 m/sec2.
Determine the pressure 3m below the surface if the motion is:
a. Upward with a positive acceleration. (p = 42.74 kPa)
b. Upward with a negative acceleration. (p = 4.34 kPa)
c. Downward with a positive acceleration. (p = 4.34 kPa)
d. Downward with a negative acceleration. (p = 42.74 kPa)
3. A tank 8m long, 6m wide and 5m high contains water at a depth of 2m. It is
accelerated to the right by 16m/sec2 along its length. Determine the volume
spilled and the force acting at the left wall of the tank.
4. An open rectangular tank mounted on a truck is 5 m long, 2 m wide and 2.5
m high is filled with water to a depth of 2 m. Determine the following:
a. Maximum horizontal acceleration that can be imposed on the tank without
spilling any water. (ans: a = 1.962 m/sec2)
b. Force at the right wall (ans: F=61.31kN)
c. Force at the left wall (ans: F=22.07kN)
d. Unbalance Force caused the acceleration (ans: F=39.24kN)
e. If the acceleration is increased to 6 m/sec2, how much water is spilled out?
(Vspilled = 9.78 m3)
f. If the acceleration is increased by 6 m/sec2, how much water is retained?
(Vretained = 7.7 m3)
9. An open cylindrical tank, 5m high, and 6m in diameter is filled with water to a
depth of 4m. It is rotated along its vertical axis.
a. Max rotation without spilling
b. Rotation until the water surface just touches the bottom of the tank
i. Volume retained
ii. Volume spill
iii. Maximum pressure
iv. Minimum pressure
v. Force at the bottom

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c. If rotation is equal to 40rpm

i. Volume retained
ii. Volume spill
iii. Maximum pressure
iv. Minimum pressure
v. Force at the bottom
vi. Force at the Wall

10. A closed cylindrical tank, 5m high, and 6m in diameter is filled with water to
a depth of 4m and has an initial pressure of 19.62kPa. It is rotated along its
vertical axis by 16rad/sec.
a. Maximum Pressure
b. Minimum Pressure
c. Force at the Cover
d. Force at the Bottom
e. Force at the Wall

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MODULE 2
PART II

SOIL
MECHANICS

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SUBJECT OVERVIEW
Soil Mechanics is the foundation of structural analysis since this subject
deals with the strength, stability and properties of the very earth were engineers
construct the supports of every structure being made. It is thus a critical subject
which civil engineers need to master.

a. Soil Properties
i. Index Properties of Soil
These are the basic properties of soil that will be needed throughout the
discussion of this module

LEGEND:
W = Total Weight of Soil (includes water and solids)
V = Total Volume (includes air, water and solids)
Ww = Weight of Water
Ws = Weight of Soil Solids
Vs = Volume of Soil Solids
Vw = Volume of Water
Va = Volume of Air
Vv = Volume of Voids

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In the figure, it is assumed that the weight of the air is minimal as compared to
the weights of both water and the soil solids therefore it is neglected or
assumed to be “0”. In contrast with this, the volume of the air is NOT “0”.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Voids – these are the “SPACES” not occupied by the soil solids therefore these
may come in both liquid and gaseous states in this case, water and air. The
total volume of the voids is equal to the volume of water and the volume of air.
Vv = Va + Vw
Void Ratio – denoted by ( e ) - Defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the
volume of solids. It is expressed in decimal form.
Porosity - denoted by ( n ) - Defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total
volume. It is expressed in percentage and does not exceed 100%
Degree of Saturation – denoted by ( S ) - Defined as the ratio of volume water
to the volume of voids. Expressed in percentage.
Water Content – denoted by ( w )(MC) - Defined as the ratio of Mass/Weight of
water to mass/weight of solids. It is expressed as percentage but used as
decimal in computations.
Specific Gravity of Soil Solids – denoted by ( Gs ) - The specific gravity of any
material is the ratio of its density/unit weight to that of water. It ranges from
2.60-2.80 for most natural soil. A standard method of measuring the specific
gravity of soils uses a calibrated glass flask known as pycnometer. The
pycnometer is first filled with water and set on a balance to find its mass. Then it
is refilled with a known mass of dry soil plus water so the total volume is the
same as before. Again its mass is determined.
Specific Gravity of Soil – denoted by ( G ) – The specific gravity of soil is
DIFFERENT from the specific gravity of soil solids, G refers to the specific gravity
of the bulk of the soil which includes the voids it contains.
Unit Weight/Specific Weight – denoted by ( “γ” (the Greek letter Gamma) ) –
Defined as the ratio of the weight of a substance over its volume. The most
commonly used values of unit weight are that of water which are 9.81 KN/m3
for SI and 62.4 pcf (pounds per cubic foot) for English.
Density/Unit Mass/Specific Mass – denoted by ( “ρ” (the lower case Greek
letter rho) ) – Defined as the ratio of the mass of a substance over its volume.
Air Void Ratio – denoted by ( avr ) – Defined as the ratio of the volume of air
over the total volume.

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MISC.

Relative Density/Degree of Density/Density Index – denoted by (Dr) – Used to

express relative compactness of natural cohensionless soil (coarse grained soil).
It is equal to the ratio of the difference between the maximum void ratio and
the in-situ void ratio and the difference between the maximum void ratio and
the minimum void ratio.
Relative Compaction – denoted by (Re) – Used to express the relative
compactness of both cohesive (fine-grained) and cohesionless (coarse
grained) soil. It is the ratio between the in-situ dry unit weight and the maximum
dry unit weight of the soil.
Swell Factor - denoted by (SF) – it is the ratio of the Volume of the excavated
material and the volume of the in-situ material (borrow pit material or bank
material).
STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE IN SOLVING THE INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL
STEP 1: Identify the “GIVEN” values and their UNITS.
STEP 2: Identify the “UNKNOWNS” AND their UNITS.
STEP 3: Determine which of the formula/s have both the “GIVEN” and the
“UNKNOWN” (requires familiarity of formulas)
STEP 4: If step 3 is feasible, substitute the values to solve for the unknown, if not,
proceed to step 5.
STEP 5: Think of other formulas that can be combined, substituted or derived to
produce “ESSENTIAL VALUES” that can be used directly to solve the
“UNKNOWNS” and use them to obtain said values. (requires MASTERY of
formulas AND CONCEPTS) This is what we call “CRITICAL THINKING”.
Step 6: Since the “ESSENTIAL values” needed for solving the “UNKOWNS” have
now been obtained, Substitute to solve for the “UNKNOWNS”.

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Sample Problem 1
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 9340 cc. and weighs 177.6 N. The
oven dried weight of the soil is 153 N. If Gs= 2.67 calculate:
a. Moist Unit Weight h. Specific Gravity of Soil
b. Dry Unit Weight i. Volume of Air
c. Moisture Content/Water j. Percent Air Content/Air Void
Content Ratio
d. Void Ratio k. The weight of water to be
added in N, for the soil to reach
e. Porosity
a 100% degree of Saturation.
f. Degree of Saturation
g. Saturated Unit Weight

Additional Problems:
You may use these problems for practice. Insert numerical values for the Given
(Blanks have been provided) and solve using both the empirical and the
derived formulae. Your answers should have the same numerical value.
PROBLEM A
A soil sample was obtained and found to have a volume of ____________ and
weighs _____________ in its natural state. After oven-drying, its weight was
measured to be _____________. If the specific gravity of the soil solids was found
out to be __________,
Calculate the following unknowns:

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a. Moist Unit Weight f. Degree of Saturation

b. Dry Unit Weight g. Saturated Unit Weight
c. Moisture Content/Water h. Specific Gravity of Soil
Content
i. Volume of Air
d. Void Ratio
j. Percent Air Content/Air Void
e. Porosity Ratio
PROBLEM B
An undisturbed block sample of clay weighs __________kg and has dimensions
of ______m x ______m x ______m. Its moisture content is ______. Assuming a
reasonable value of the specific gravity of solids, compute:
a.) unit weight
b.) dry unit weight
c.) void ratio
d.) porosity
e.) degree of saturation
PROBLEM C
For a given soil with emax = _______ and emin = ________ , Let Gs = ______. In the
field, the soil is compacted to a moist density of _________ at a moisture content
of _______. Determine the relative density of compaction. Also determine the
submerged unit weight of the soil and its hydraulic gradient.
PROBLEM D
An excavated site is to be filled up with 10,000 cubic meters of soil that should
have a void ratio of _______.
There are four possible borrow pits suitable to supply the demand. The cost of
transporting the soil is _______ for each truck load. Each truck can carry 3 cubic
meters of soil. Which of the following borrow pits would be most economical?
Borrow Pit Transport Cost Void Ratio
A P 325
B P 425
C P 525
D P 625

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b. Atterberg Limits

Atterberg limits are the silver linings that define which phase the soil is in its
current state. It is measured using the moisture content found in the soil.
Shrinkage Limit is the boundary of which the soil can be defined as solid.
Beyond this, the soil will be considered Semisolid.
Plastic Limit is the border which defines the soil as Semisolid. A moisture content
more than which is provided by this will define the soil as Plastic.
Liquid Limit is the perimeter between the soil being a plastic and being a liquid.
The first part of Atterberg Limits is the determination of LL and PL. After
determining them, they are used in one or more of the formulas listed below to
achieve other limits.

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Legend:
w = Moisture Content LL = Liquid Limit
FI= Flow Index PI = Plasticity Index
PL = Plastic Limit TI = Toughness Index

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Sample Problem 1
LIQUID LIMIT
TEST
TEST NUMBER 1 2 3 4
# OF BLOWS 10 16 28 35
WT. OF WET
SOIL +
CONTAINER 22.24 21.19 21.27 26.12
WT. OF DRY
SOIL +
CONTAINER 21.1 19.28 19.25 22.6
WT. OF
CONTAINER 19.2 15.5349 13.790541 11.2451613

PLASTIC LIMIT
TEST
TEST NUMBER 1 2
WT. OF WET
SOIL +
CONTAINER 22.12 21.84
WT. OF DRY
SOIL +
CONTAINER 20.42 20.19
WEIGHT OF
CONTAINER 9.086667 9.8775

a) Determine the Liquid Limit

b) What is the Plasticity Index of the soil?
c) What is the Liquidity Index of the soil if w = 24%
d) What is the Consistency Index?

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Sample Problem 2
In a Liquid Limit, using a penetrometer, the ff. readings were recorded and
tabulated as shown:
Plastic Limit Test
Trial Unit Weight (KN/m3) Dry Unit Weight (KN/m3)
1 128.6 105.4
2 141.4 116.8
3 132.6 109.6
4 134.5 111.2
5 136 113.4

Liquid Limit Test

Moisture Content Cone Penetration (mm)
42.5 16
47.5 17.5
58.1 22.8
60 26

a) Determine the liquid limit of the soil

b) Determine the plasticity index of the soil
c) If the natural moisture content of the soil is 38%, determine the liquidity
index

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c. Soil Classification
Steps in Sieve Analysis
1. Determine the mass of the soil retained on each sieve (i.e. M1, M2,
M3,…… MN) and in the pan MP.
2. Determine the total mass of the soil M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 + …… = Σ M
3. Determine the cumulative mass of the soil retained above each sieve.
For the ith sieve,
M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 + …… + Mi
4. The mass of the soil passing the ith sieve is Σ M – (M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 +
…… + Mi)
5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent finer) is

Σ M – (M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 + … … + Mi)
𝐹= × 100
ΣM
Once the percent finer for each sieve is calculated (step 5), the calculations
are plotted on semi logarithmic graph paper with percent finer as the ordinate
(arithmetic scale) and sieve opening size as the abscissa (logarithmic scale).
This plot is referred to as the particle-size distribution curve.
Particle-Size Distribution Curve
A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four
parameters for a given soil:
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size
distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil
is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage
through soil.
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as
where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.

3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as

4. Sorting coefficient (S0): This parameter is another

measure of uniformity and is generally encountered in
geologic works and expressed as

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Systems of Classification of Soil

1. USDA – UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

2. AASHTO - AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND
TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS
3. USCS – UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

USDA CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

1.

Determine the percentage by dry weight of each:

2. Find the total weight of sand, silt and clay; and convert each weight to a
percentage of the total. (Get the
adjusted percentages which
consequently removes the coarse
fragments from the total
percentage)
3. Use the USDA Soil Classification
Triangle to find the soil classification.

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AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

STEPS IN CLASSIFICATION
1. Use the AASHTO Table to determine the group classification. Begin on the left
side with A-1-a soils and check for each of the criteria. If all have been met,
then this is the group classification.
2. If any criterion is not met, step to the right and repeat the process, continuing
until all the criteria have been satisfied. Do NOT begin at the middle of the
chart.
3. Finally, express the AASHTO soil classification as the group classification
followed by the group index in parentheses. Ex: A-4(20)

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Group Index:
𝑮𝑰 = (𝑭 – 𝟑𝟓)[𝟎.𝟐 + 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓(𝑳𝑳 – 𝟒𝟎)] + 𝟎.𝟎𝟏(𝑭 – 𝟏𝟓)(𝑷𝑰 – 𝟏𝟎)

Where:
F = fines content (passing #200 sieve), percentage
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index

When evaluating group index for A-2-6 or A-2-7 soils, use only the second term.

𝑮𝑰 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟏(𝑭 – 𝟏𝟓)(𝑷𝑰 – 𝟏𝟎)

For all soils, express the GI as a whole #.

Computed GI of less than zero should be reported as zero.

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

STEPS IN CLASSIFYING
Required Information:
•% of sample that is gravel : 4.75mm ≤ d ≤ 75mm
•% of sample that is sand : 0.075mm ≤ d ≤ 4.75mm
•% of sample that is silt & clay: d ≤ 0.075mm

• LL and PI on portion passing #40 sieve

USCS Classification Procedure:

Step (1): Determine F200 (% finer than #200 sieve)

If F200 < 50 % −−> Step (2)
If F200 ≥ 50 % −−> Step(3)

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Step (2): Coarse Fraction is R200 =100 − F200

F1 is the % passing #4, but retained on #200 (i.e. sand)
If F1 < (R200)/2, then the coarse fraction is more gravel than sand.
If F1 > (R200)/2, then the coarse fraction is more sand than gravel.
Go to Figure 5.6

Step (3): Fine−grained soils. Go to Figure 5.4 for inorganic soils and 5.5 from
organic soils.
NOTE:
Values for D60 , D30 , D10 are obtained using the data from grain size analysis.
These values are defined as the DIAMETERS of the grains passing sieve No. 60,
No. 30 and No. 10 respectively.

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Sample Problem 1
Sieve and hydrometer analyses have been performed on a soil sample, and
the results of these tests area are shown. Determine its USDA classification.

Sample Problem 2
The natural soils along a proposed highway alignment have a grain-size
distribution, a liquid limit of 44, and a plastic limit of 21. Determine the AASHTO
soil classification and rate its suitability for pavement support.

Passing #10 sieve (2.00 mm) = 92%

Passing #40 sieve (0.425 mm) = 74%
Passing #200 sieve (0.075 mm) = 54%

Sample Problem 3

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Soils are permeable layers due to the fact the they “naturally” consist of voids.
Through these spaces, water can pass. In this chapter, we would be discussing
how water “permeates” through soil and what the effects of this “permeation”
is.

Definition of Terms:
Permeability - The property of soil that permits the passage of water under a
gradient of force.
- The study of the flow of water through permeable soil media is important
in soil mechanics.
- It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage under
various conditions, for investigating problems involving the pumping of water
for underground construction, and for making stability analyses of earth dams
and earth retaining structures that are subject to seepage forces.
Head – As discussed in Fluid Mechanics, it is the linear equivalent measure
(usually in meters) of a certain term. (e.g. velocity, pressure and elevation) This
is done so variables (energy) with different units can be expressed in terms of a
single unit. This can also be shown in a graph. (Bernoulli’s datum plane for
energy)

Hydraulic Conductivity – (k) - Also known as the Coefficient of Permeability – is

the coefficient used in Darcy’s Law. The most common unit of measurement for
this is “cm/s”. It depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore size distribution,
grain size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles and degree of
saturation of soil.

Hydraulic Gradient – (i) – Also known as the slope – it is defined as the change
in head (Head Loss) over the length corresponding to the heads.

Darcy’s Law – It is an equation formulated by Darcy which is explained having

the velocity equal to Hydraulic Conductivity multiplied to the Hydraulic
Gradient.

Discharge velocity/Velocity – (v) – is the velocity of water flowing through soil

considering the gross cross-sectional area of the soil.

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Seepage Velocity – (vs) – is the actual/real velocity of water flowing through

soils which consider only the area of the voids. It is larger if not equal to the
Discharge Velocity.

Transmissivity – (T) – also known as Transmissibility – it is the product of the

hydraulic conductivity and the saturated thickness of the aquifer. It is the ability
of the aquifer to transmit water through its entire thickness.

Bernoulli’s Equation

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Groundwater Flow Conditions

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow is the smooth and orderly fashion of movement of water through
soil while turbulent flow means water swirls as it moves.
For analysis purposes, we need to distinguish between one-, two- and three-
dimensional flow conditions. A one-dimensional flow condition is one where the
velocity vectors are all parallel and of equal magnitude. In other words, the
water always moves parallel to some axis and through a constant cross-
sectional area.
Two-dimensional flow conditions are present when all of the velocity vectors
are confined to a single plane, but vary in direction and magnitude within that
plane.
Three-dimensional flow is the most general condition. It exists when the velocity
vectors vary in the x,y and z directions. An example would be flow toward a
water well.
ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW
It is the easiest condition to understand. Geotechnical engineers often need to
predict the flow rate, Q, through a soil. We could use Newton’s law of friction
combined with the Navier-Stokes equations of hydrodynamics to describe this
flow condition but the resulting formulas are very complex and are thus
impractical for normal geotechnical engineering analyses. Therefore, a French
engineer named Darcy developed a simpler empirical method. He formulated
the Darcy’s Law which is defined as:

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From this, the equation of flow rate was acquired which states that:

Q = kiA
Where: Q = flow rate
k = hydraulic conductivity
i = hydraulic gradient
A = area perpendicular to the flow direction
The velocity which is described in this condition is not the actual/real velocity
because it considers the gross cross-sectional area of the soil. The real velocity is
called Seepage Velocity which only considers the area of the voids contained
in the soil but due to the complexity of the computations in acquiring the area
of the voids, a formula was derived to solve for the seepage velocity using the
discharge velocity.

Hydraulic Conductivity Tests

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Constant Head Test

In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such
a way that the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains
constant during the test period. After a constant flow rate is established, water
is collected in a graduated flask for a known duration.
The total volume of water collected may be expressed as:

Q = kiA
V = kiAt
Where: V = volume of water collected
A = area of soil specimen
t = time duration when water was collected
In the previous lessons, we have defined “i” to be equal to the headloss over
the length. If the reference datum is zero then.

𝑘ℎ𝐴𝑡
𝑉=
𝐿

Rearranging,
𝑉𝐿
𝐾=
𝐴ℎ𝑡

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FALLING HEAD TEST

Water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head difference h1 at
time t1 = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the soil specimen
such that the final head difference at time t2 is h2.

Rearranging,

𝑎𝐿 ℎ
𝑘= ln( 1)
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2

If t1 is not equal to zero then,

𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln( )
𝐴∆𝑡 ℎ2

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Sample Problem 1

A constant-head permeability test gives

these values:
L= 30 cm
A=area of the specimen= 177 sq.cm
Constant head difference= 50 cm
Water collected in a period 5 min= 350 cc
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in
cm/sec.
Sample Problem 2

For a falling-head permeability test, the following values

are given:
Length of specimen= 200 mm
Area of soil specimen= 1000 sq.mm
Area of standpipe= 40 sq.mm
Head difference at time t=0 = 500 mm
Head difference at time t=180 sec = 300 mm
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in
cm/sec.

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Sample Problem 3

A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer as shown. With

K=5.3x10-5 m/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage
through it in m3/hr/m width if H=3 m and alpha is 8 degrees.

Sample Problem 4

Find the flow rate in m3/sec/m length( at right angles to the cross section
shown) through the permeable soil layer shown, given H=8 m, H1=3 m, h=4 m,
S=50 m, alpha= 8 degrees, and K=0.08 cm/sec.

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Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given
direction changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can
be computed to simplify calculations.

Parallel Flow

This equation was derived from the

formula of flow rate wherein the
concept of flow in parallel pipes was
used.

Series Flow

This equation was derived

from the formula of flow
rate wherein the concept
of flow in series pipes was

used. Alternatively, the

variable “H” can be
changed to “L” when
referring to horizontal flow.

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Sample Problem 5

A layered soil is shown in the figure. Given:

H1= 1.5 m K1= 10-4 cm/sec
H2= 3 m K2= 3.2 x 10-2 cm/sec
H3= 2 m K3= 4.1 x 10-5 cm/sec

Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity

Sample Problem 6

The figure below shows three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm x 100 mm in
cross section. Water is supplied to maintain a constant-head difference of 300
mm across the sample. The hydraulic conductivities of the soils in the direction
of flow through them are as follows:

Find the rate of water supply in

cm3/hr.
Find the equivalent hydraulic
conductivity.
Find the hydraulic gradient.
Find the height hA at the piezometer
attached between A and B.
Find the height hB at the piezometer
attached between B and C.

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Transmissivity

The transmissivity – (T) (in m2/s) also called transmissibility - of an aquifer is the
product of hydraulic conductivity and the saturated thickness of the aquifer,
Ha.
T = kHa
Combining this formula with Darcy’s Law produces the flow rate through an
aquifer of width L:
Q = TiL
Rewriting the equation to express Q as the flow per unit width of the aquifer
gives:
q = Q/L = Ti
Where:
Q = flow rate through the aquifer
q = flow rate per unit width of the aquifer
T = transmissivity
i = hydraulic gradient
L = length of the aquifer perpendicular to the direction of flow
Ha = saturated thickness of the aquifer
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
Two-dimensional flow occurs when all the velocity vectors are confined to a
single plane. Many groundwater flow problems are very close to being two
dimensional and may be analyzed as such. A good example of this would be
FLOW NETS.
Flow Nets
The flow net solution is a graphical method of solving the two-dimensional
LaPlace Equation. This solution has been attributed to Forchheimer (1911) and
the others. Flow nets are based on two mathematical functions: the potential
function, Φ and the flow function, Ψ (also known as the stream function).
Combining the LaPlace Equation and the equations formed by the potential
function, we will be able to draw a curve in the cross-section such that Φ is
constant everywhere along the curve. This is known as an equipotential line
(even though it is a curve, not a line). We also can draw a family of curves in
the cross-section such that Ψ is constant everywhere along the curve. They are
known as flow lines. When presented together, these two families of curves
(one set for potential and one for flow) are known as a flow net.

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𝑁𝐹 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐿∆ℎ
𝑁𝐷 𝑎

Where:
Q = flow rate
k = hydraulic conductivity
L = length of aquifer perpendicular to the cross-section
∆h = head loss through the flow net
NF = Number of flow tubes
ND = Number of equipotential drops
b/a = length to width ratio of pseudo squares (formed by the intersection
of equipotential lines and flow lines)

Potential drop

and

For Anisotropic Soil

use:

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Three-Dimensional Flow
Permeability Test in the Field: Flow to Wells
In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction
of flow can
be determined by performing pumping tests from wells. Using the formula of
flow rate derived from Darcy’s Law we can derive the formula for the test wells.
This setup is also called Unconfined Aquifer.

𝑟
𝑞𝑙𝑛( 1 )
𝑟2
𝑘=
𝜋(ℎ1 − ℎ22 )
2

Where:
Q = flow rate in wells
k = hydraulic conductivity of aquifer
H = saturated thickness of aquifer
h1 = total head in aquifer before pumping (datum = bottom of aquifer)
h2 = total head inside well casing during pumping (datum = bottom of
aquifer)
r1 = farther radius from the test well. (ro if it is the farthest radius also called
radius of influence)
r2 = nearer radius from the test well. (rw if it is the radius of the test well itself
includes casing and gravel pack)

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A confined aquifer is one that is sandwiched between two aquicludes. Thus,

the upper and lower flow boundaries are fixed and the water flows through the
entire depth of the aquifer.

𝑟
𝑞𝑙𝑛( 1 )
𝑟2
𝑘=
2𝜋𝐻(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

The radius of influence ro is the

distance from the well to the
farthest point of drawdown and is
a difficult parameter to assess.
Fortunately, even approximate
estimates are often sufficient
because ln(ro/rw) is always very
large and it is not overly sensitive
to errors in ro. For example, changing ro/rw from 1000 to 5000 increases ln(ro/rw)
by a factor of only 1.2.
Sichart and Kyrieles (1930) presented the following empirical formula that
gives the approximate of ro

ro = 300(ho – hw)√𝑘

This equation can also be written as:

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Sample Problem 7

A pumping test was carried out to determine the permeability of a sand layer in
an unconfined aquifer with the piezometric level before pumping located at
1.85 m below the ground surface. At a steady-state pumping rate of 58.7
cu.m/hr the drawdown in the observation wells were respectively 2.91 m and
0.88 m. The distances of the observation wells from the center of the test well
were 15 m and 35 m respectively. If the location of the aquiclude
(impermeable layer) is 16.2 m below the ground surface, compute the
coefficient of permeability, K.
Sample Problem 8

A permeability pumping test was carried out in a confined aquifer with the
piezometric level before pumping is 2.18 m below the ground surface. The
aquiclude (impermeable layer) has a thickness of 5.7 m measured from the
ground surface and the confined aquifer is 7.6 m deep until it reaches the
aquiclude at the bottom. At a steady pumping rate of 15.6 cu.m/hr the
drawdown in the observation wells were respectively equal to 1.62 and o.47 m.
The distances of the observation wells from the center of the test well were 15
m. and 32 m. respectively.
Compute the depth of water at the farthest observation well.
Compute the coefficient of permeability.
Compute the transmissibility of the impermeable layer.
Sample Problem 9

A 300-mm diameter test well penetrates 24 m below the static water table of
an unconfined aquifer. After 24 hours of pumping at 69 liters/sec. The water
level in an observation well at a distance of 97.5 m from the test well is lowered
0.54 m and the other observation well at a distance of 33.5 m from the test well,
the drawdown is 1.1 m.
(a) What is the rate of flow in cu.m/day.
(b) Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day.
(c) Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in sq.m/day

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