Villanueva, Lyanna Andrea N. Mr. Joevel G.

Bisenio

XII-Diligence February 26,2020

BIOLOGY II

A.

1.) What is Crossopterygian? How it is connected to frog evolution?

 Crossopterygian, (subclass Crossopterygii), any member of a group of primitive, lobe-

finned, bony fishes believed to have given rise to the amphibians and all other

land vertebrates. They appeared at the beginning of the Devonian Period (about 416

million years ago) but are now represented by only two species

of coelacanths (Latimeria). The way it is connected to frog revolution is simple because

frogs have the characteristics like they have bones, limbs and part of the terrestrial

vertebrates.

2.) Explain why amphibians may be considered bio indicator species. What may be some

possible cause for their decline in an environment?

 Amphibians make good indicator species because we live in two environments, land and

water, and have thin skin that we sometimes breathe through. Our thin skin can also

absorb toxic chemicals, radiation, and diseases. If there are lots of frogs and

other amphibians in a habitat, it means the ecosystem is healthy. The amphibian

declines are linked to natural forces such as competition, predation, reproduction and

disease, as well as human-induced stresses such as habitat

destruction, environmental contamination, invasive species and climate change,

researchers said.

3.) Enumerate atleast 10 prominent adaptive characteristics of a frog.

 a. Frogs have very good eyesight.  They bulge out the sides of their heads in order for the

frog to see in nearly all directions.  

b. Frogs also have amazing sense of hearing. 

c. Frogs have very powerful back legs and webbed feet that help them jump great distances,

as well as, swim. 

d. Frogs have many predators.

e. Frogs have skin that may be brightly colored or camouflaged.

f. The frog's skin is thin, which allows for air to pass through, in effect allowing him to

breathe through his skin. 

g. Frogs have small waist, no neck and a broad, flat skull make his body streamlined for

swimming. 

h. They are born with gills in order to live and breathe in water but as they grow into an

adult they breathe through their lungs which replace those gills; and their skin which has

numerous blood vessels that can also absorb oxygen.

i. Frog changes in physical appearance.

j. Frogs are cold-blooded. A frog's body temperature is the same as the surrounding

temperature.

4.) Why would a frog die without mucus gland?

 Some frogs are slimy because they are covered in a mucous coating. Frogs die without

muscous gland because this is their coating that helps them keep their skin moist which

helps them breathe through their skin. The mucous often contains other chemicals, like

antibacterial or anti fungals to help protect the frog.

B.

1.) In each species of frog female's inner ear is attuned to the pitch of the mating call of the male.

Why is it important that the ear be so attuned?

 Frogs produce a rich variety of sounds, calls, and songs during their courtship and mating

rituals. The callers, usually males, make stereotyped sounds in order to advertise their

location, their mating readiness and their willingness to defend their territory and their

listeners respond to the calls by return calling, by approach, and by going silent. These

responses have been shown to be important for species recognition, mate assessment, and

localization.

2.) Frog do not have ribs. Why is this so?

 Frog doesn't have neck so it doesn't have ribcage ,as well as it is an Amphibian.

3.) Search a picture of a jumping frog. What does the series of exposure of jumping frog in the

picture suggested?

When the frogs are ready to leap their tendons stretch as far as they can. At this point, the 

muscles of the legs shorten, transferring energy to the tendons then  blast off as the tendons 

recoil as a spring.
4.) How does a frog breathe during period of estivation?

 They use their skin to soak in the oxygen their bodies require. When frogs hibernate, they

utilize the skin for any and all breathing. Damp skin is a must for subcutaneous gas

exchange. If a frog's skin becomes dry, it will no longer be able to take in oxygen.

C.

1.) Why frog is a representative animal for dissection? List 5 to 10 reason

a. Their bodies provide a good overview of the organ systems of a complex living thing.

b. Students can learn about ecology and evolution through frog dissection. 

c. They're an appropriate size for dissection in the classroom and make the process

manageable for students and teachers.

d. Frogs have a relatively short life span to begin with, and while some species are rare in

some places, others are abundant and are therefore prime candidates for use in

dissection. 

e. It's mostly the ease of access thing. 

2.) Differentiate frog from toad

o Frogs and toads are both amphibians and they are similar in many ways, but they are also

different in a few ways. To be completely accurate, toads are actually a classification of

frog. That is to say that, technically, toads are a kind of frog.

o Generally, frogs spend most of their lives in or near water. Toads on the other hand, get

out on land a little more and find their way into gardens and yards. Frogs also usually

have moist slimy skin, while toads have dry bumpy skin. That is usually the best way to

tell them apart.

o Frog eggs are found in a mass while toad eggs are more in a chain.
3.) Classification of frog and toad

o Domain: Eukarya

o Kingdom: Animalia

o Phylum: Chordata

o Subphylum: Vertebrata

o Class: Amphibia Order:

o Anura Family: Ranidae

o Genus: Rana

o Species: Rana pipiens

4.) Differentiate male and female frog

The best time to distinguish male frogs from female frogs is during mating season. That's

because the bulk of the unmistakable differences dictating gender are most apparent during

reproductive activity. In most species, both genders have similar appearances with few clues

as to male or female. If the males of a particular species are colored bright or dull, then so are

the females.

o Size

For many frog species, the females are significantly larger than the males. This is to

accommodate the amphibian mating process called amplexus. The male climbs on top of the

female and she supports his weight as she discharges eggs and he spreads sperm on top of

them. He is smaller so that his weight does not crush her. Her body is larger also to provide

ample storage and transport room for the eggs.

o Reproductive Organs
 Male and female frogs have differing genitals, but even this fact isn't particularly accessible

in determining if an individual frog is male or female. This is because frog genitalia for both

genders is housed within the frogs body. A male frog has two interior testicles and spermatic

canal -- not a penis -- that produce the sperm. A female frog has ovaries and oviducts, as well

as a uterus that stores the eggs until release, but is not involved in gestation.

o Other Physical Differences

A small round disc called the tympanum covers the ears of both male and female frogs. On

males of most frog species, the circumference of this small disc is larger than the eye of the

frog. On females of most frog species, the disc's circumference is equal to the size of the

frog's eye. During breeding season, the males develop gripper pads on their thumbs to aid

them in amplexus. The females do not grow these pads. Males also develop a dark throat

color during mating season that sets them apart from females, according to the Minnesota

Department of Natural Resources. Otherwise, male and female frogs of each species tend to

have the same coloring.

o Male Only Behaviors

While eating habits, defensive maneuvers, use of camouflage and shedding of skin is the

same for male and female frogs, there are a couple of behaviors that only male frogs engage

in. The first is singing for a mate during the breeding season. The second is the "hugging" or

"humping" aspect of amplexus. Male frogs don't restrict performing this behavior to only on

female frogs. They will attach themselves to logs, rocks, trees, shoes and backpacks and

hump until the mood passes.

D. Gross Anatomy of Frog

1.) Aspect of the body

 The most notable features or aspects of a frog are their powerful hind legs, allowing

them to leap long distances and their long tongue; being able to catch insects mid-

flight without moving their entire body.

2.) Cardinal directions

o Tail or tail-like structures

o Part of the body lying toward the tail or posterior end

o Cranial (anterior), dorsal, caudal (Posterior), ventral

3.) Oblique direction

o Slanting position

4.) Other terms used in dissection

o Anterior: In front of, front

o Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the rear

o Distal: Away from, farther from the origin

o Proximal: Near, closer to the origin

o Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back

o Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly

o Superior: Above, over

o Inferior: Below, under

o Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line

o Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the side • Rostral: Toward the front •

Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail

 o Bilateral: Involving both sides of the body

o Unilateral: Involving one side of the body

o Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body

o Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body

o Parietal: Relating to a body cavity wall

o Visceral: Relating to organs within body cavities

o Axial: Around a central axis

o Intermediate: Between two structures

5.) Plane and axes

o Lateral/Sagittal Plane: Left and right regions

o Median/Midsagittal Plane: Equal left and right regions

o Parasagittal Plane: Unequal left and right regions

o Frontal/Coronal Plane: Front (Anterior) and back (Posterior) regions

o Transverse Plane: Midsection

E. External Anatomy of a Frog

1.) Body division of a frog

o Dorsal- refers to the back region

o Ventral- refers to the belly region

o Posterior- refers to the tail region

o Anterior- refers to the head region

2.) The parts of the head

o External nares or nostrils - Anterior openings for the entry or exit of air
 o Esophagus - Tube that connects the mouth and the stomach in a frog

o Tympanic Membrane - The eardrum - receives sound waves

o Glottis - The opening from the mouth into the respiratory system

o Tongue - Muscular structure attached to the front of the mouth which is extended to catch

insects (its food)

o Maxillary Teeth - Sharp teeth in the maxilla of a frogs mouth that function in holding

captured prey

o Vomerine Teeth - Small projections in the top of a frog’s mouth that function in holding

and captured prey

o Eustachian tube openings - Openings in the mouth that lead to tubes that connect to the

middle ear to equalize air pressure

3.) The parts of the dorsal side of the trunk

o Cloacal opening – the hole at the posterior end of the frog (it’s the anus but has more

functions)

4.) The parts of the paired appendages

o forelimbs – short extensions from the anterior end of the trunk

o arm – the uppermost section of the forelimb extending from the shoulder to the elbow

o forearm – the middle section of the forelimb extending from the elbow to the wrist

o hand – the lowermost section of the forelimb extending outward from the wrist

o hindlimbs – long extensions from the posterior end of the trunk

o thigh – the uppermost section of the hindlimb extending from the hips to the knee

o shank – the middle section of the hindlimb extending from the knee to the ankle

o foot – the lowermost section of the hindlimb extending outward from the ankle
 o digits – the fingers and toes; note: there are four finger digits but five toe digits

F. Classification of muscles based on action

Frogs depend on several types of muscles to carry out their normal daily activities such as

pumping blood, breathing, moving about, and retrieving food. The three types of muscle are:

o striated (skeletal)- Striated muscles are composed of elongated fibers and are used for

actions such as hopping

o cardiac (heart)-  a highly specialized component of the heart, which appears similar to

striated muscle, but functions involuntarily in a manner comparable to smooth muscle

o smooth-  smaller than striated ones and have a distinctly different appearance; allied

with autonomic or involuntary systems, smooth muscle tissues can be found in the

digestive system, the blood vessels, and a large number of the internal organs

G. Naming of Muscles

Dorsal Muscle of Head, Ventral Muscle of Head, Dorsal thigh

pectoral and abdominal pectoral and abdominal

Temporalis Mylohyoid Tricep femoris

Depressor mandibula Geniohyoid Gluteus

Dorsalis scapula Cucullaris Submentalis Bicepsfemoris

Latissimus dorsi Sternoradialis Semimembranosus

Longissimus dorsi Scapulohumeralis or deltoid Piriformis

Illiolumbaris Tricep brachii

Coccygeosacral Cutaeous pectoris

Coccygeoiliacus Pectoralis epicoracoidea

Pectoralis sternalis Pectoralis

 abdominis

Rectus abdominis

External oblique Transversus

abdominis
Ventral thigh Muscle of the shank Ventral shank
Tricep femoris Gastrocnemius Gastrocnemius

Sartorious Peroneus Tibialis posticus

Adductor longus Tibialis anticus Extensor cruris

Adductor magnus Flexor tarsi anterior

Gracillis major Tibialis anticus

Gracillis minor

Semitendinosus

H. Identifying and tabulate the Origin / insertion / action of a muscle

Name of Muscle ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION

TEMPORALIS Side of the skull Near the posterior of Closes the mouth

between eye and the lower jaw

tympanic ring
DEPRESSOR Tympanic ring and Lower jaw Opens the mouth

MANDIBULA Dorsal fascia

DORSALIS SCAPULA Suprascapula Humerus Protracts forelimb

CUCULLARIS Mid-dorsal line Portion of the pectoral Draws forelimb

girdle upward
LATISSIMUS DORSI Lumbo-dorsal Lateral side of the Draws forelimb

Fascia proximal end of the upward and

 humerus background
LONGISSIMUS DORSI Anterior third of the Posterior end of the Elevates the head

urostyle skull and dorsal

surfaces of the

vertebrae
ILLIOLUMBARIS Anterior part of the Transverse processes of Bends the back

ilium the trunk vertebrae

COCCYGEOSACRAL Lateral side of the Transverse processes of Draws the back and

half of the urostyle the sacral vertebrae urostyle nearer to

each other
COCCYGEOILIACUS Lateral side of the Ilium Helps extend the

posterior half of the back and fixes the

urostyle urostyle with

respect to the pelvic

girdle
MYLOHYOID Lower jaw Median line Raises the floor of

the mouth
GENIOHYOID Mandibular hyoid depresses mandible

symphysis and pulls hyoid

apparatus anteriorly

SUBMENTALIS Anterior tipof the Anterior angleof the Raisesthe tipof the

mandible lower jaw lower jaw

STERNORADIALIS Episternumand Proximal endof the Flexor of the

omosternum radius forearm

DELTOID Median line Humerus Pulls the arm

forward
TRICEP BRACHII Episternum Radio-ulna Flexes the forearm
CUTAEOUS Xiphisternum and Dermis of the skin at Tense the skin
 PECTORIS from the anterior the pectoral region which overlies the

margin of the sheath pectoral region

that covers the

rectus abdominis
PECTORALIS Clavicular head- Lateral lip of bicipital Clavicular

EPICORACOIDEA medial half clavicle. groove of humerus and head:flexes and

Sternocostal head- anterior lip of deltoid adducts arm.

lateral manubrium tuberosity Sternal head:

and sternum, six adducts and

upper costal medially rotates

cartilages and arm

external oblique

aponeurosis
PECTORALIS manubrium of xiphoid stabilization,

STERNALIS sternum or clavicle process, pectoral fascia, depression,

lower ribs, costal abduction or

cartilages or rectus protraction, internal

sheath rotation and

downward rotation

of the scapula
RECTUS ABDOMINIS Pubis Sternum Supports the

abdomen and holds

the sternum
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE Rectus abdominis Linea alba Compresses the

and Dorsal fascia abdomen

TRICEP FEMORIS Pelvic girdle Tibio-fibula Adducts the thigh
 and extends the

shank
GLUTEUS Pubis Tibiofibula Flexes the shank

and adducts the

thigh
BICEPFEMORIS Ischium Tendon on the knee and Adducts the thigh

fascia of the shank and flexes the legs

SEMIMEMBRANOSUS Ischium Tibio-fibula Adducts the thigh

and flexes the shank

PIRIFORMIS Urostyle Femur Pulls the urostyle to

one side and draws

the femur
SARTORIOUS Ilium Tibio-fibula Flexes the shank

and adducts the

thigh
ADDUCTOR LONGUS Ilium Femur Pulls the thigh

forward and ventrad

ADDUCTOR Ischium and Pubis Femur Adducts the thigh

MAGNUS and leg

GRACILLIS MAJOR Ischium Tibio-fibula Flexes the shank

and adducts the

thigh
GRACILLIS MINOR Ischium Tibio-fibula Flexes the shank

and adducts the

thigh
SEMITENDINOSUS Ischium Tibio-fibula Adducts the femur

and flexes the legs

GASTROCNEMIUS Femur Tendon of Achilles Extends the foot

and flexes the shank

 PERONEUS Femur Tibio-fibula and Draws the shank

Fibulare against the thigh,

extends and twists

the foot
TIBIALIS ANTICUS Femur Tibiale and fibulare Extends the leg and

flexes the foot

TIBIALIS POSTICUS Femur Astragsalus Flexes and twists

the ankle
EXTENSOR CRURIS Femur Tibio-fibula Extends the shank
FLEXOR TARSI Anterior surface of Proximal of the Flexor of the foot

INTERIOR the middle and astragalus and fascia of

distal half of the the foot

tibiofibula

I. Buccal Cavity

1.) Roof of Buccal Cavity

Name Description
Vomerine Teeth Used for holding prey, located at the roof of

the mouth

Maxillary Teeth Used for holding prey, located around the

edge of the mouth

Internal Nares breathing, connect to lungs

Tympanic Membrane eardrum, located behind eyes

Nictitating Membrane clear eyelid, protects the eye

Esophagus opening of the passageway for good, from

 the mouth to the stomach

2.) Floor of Buccal Cavity

Name Description
Eustachian Tubes equalize pressure in inner ear
Glottis Tube leading to the lungs
Tongue Front attached, aids in grabbing prey

J. Digestive System

1.) Digestive Tube

Name Description
Stomach Stores food and mixes it with enzymes to

begin digestion.
Small Intestine The principal organ of digestion and

absorption of digested food.

Duodenum The anterior (front) part of the small intestine

into which food passes from the stomach

Large Intestine Posterior organ of the digestive system which

stores undigested food

Cloaca Organ through which the products of the frogs

digestive and urogenital system pass when

discharged from the body

2.) Digestive Gland

Name Description
Gastric glands secrete acid as well as pepsin
Liver Secretes bile and processes digested food

molecules
Pancreas gland which secretes digestive enzymes into
 the duodenum
Intestinal Gland secretes intestinal juice which contains

different enzymes

K. Respiratory System

1.) External

Name Description
Skin where mucous glands are distributed

throughout

2.) Internal

Name Description
Mouth are a pair of thin walled, oval, hollow, soft

and spongy elastic sacs

Trachea represented by a laryngotracheal chamber; no

distinct tracheal tract exist, due to absence of

neck in frogs.
Lungs a pair of thin walled, oval, hollow, soft and

spongy elastic sacs