ASME Pressure Vessels PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
ASME PRESSURE VESSELS
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of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil and Structural For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: CSE-110.02 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Analysis and Design of Tanks, Vessels and Piping
ASME Pressure Vessels
MODULE COMPONENT PAGE
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 7
IDENTIFYING TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF PRESSURE

VESSELS........................................................................................................................ 8
Background .......................................................................................................... 8
Vertical Pressure Vessels..................................................................................... 8
Components .............................................................................................. 8
Towers/Columns ........................................................................................ 9
Vertical Drums ......................................................................................... 11
Vertical Reactors ..................................................................................... 12
Horizontal Pressure Vessels............................................................................... 13
Horizontal Drums ..................................................................................... 13
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers ............................................................ 14
Spherical Pressure Vessels................................................................................ 15
Spherical Reactors................................................................................... 15
Spherical Storage Vessels....................................................................... 16
Uses ................................................................................................................... 17
Towers ..................................................................................................... 17
Drums ...................................................................................................... 17
Reactors .................................................................................................. 17
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers ............................................................ 17
Spherical Storage Vessels....................................................................... 18
IDENTIFYING APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS FOR PRESSURE
VESSELS...................................................................................................................... 19
ASME, Section VIII, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code ...................................... 20
Division 1 ................................................................................................. 20
Division 2 ................................................................................................. 20
API Standard 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: Maintenance
Inspection, Rating, Repair and Alteration ........................................................... 21
Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association ....................... 21
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

API Standard 660, Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers for General

Refinery Services ............................................................................................... 21
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing .......................................................................... 21
SAES-B-057, Safety Requirements: Refrigerated and Pressure
Storage Vessels ................................................................................................. 22
SAES-C-001, Design Criteria - Columns ............................................................ 22
SAES-D-001, Design Criteria for Pressure Vessels ........................................... 22
SAES-D-004, Sizing of Unfired Pressure Vessels .............................................. 22
SAES-E-001, Basic Design Criteria for Unfired Heat Transfer
Equipment .......................................................................................................... 23
32-SAMSS-004, Pressure Vessels..................................................................... 23
DISTINGUISHING AMONG TYPES, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND
ALLOWABLE STRESSES OF STEELS THAT ARE USED FOR PRESSURE
VESSELS...................................................................................................................... 24
Types of Steels................................................................................................... 24
Mechanical Properties of Steels ......................................................................... 26
Allowable Stress ................................................................................................. 26
Corrosion Resistance ......................................................................................... 35
Toughness.......................................................................................................... 35
Fabricability ........................................................................................................ 36
Post-Weld Heat Treatment ...................................................................... 36
CALCULATING CIVIL/MECHANICAL LOADS ON PRESSURE VESSELS.................. 38
Thickness Estimates For Vessel Shell Components .......................................... 39
Dead Weight....................................................................................................... 41
Hydrostatic Test Weight ..................................................................................... 43
Pressure: Design Versus Operating .................................................................. 45
Background.............................................................................................. 45
Saudi Aramco Standards ......................................................................... 45
Procedure ................................................................................................ 45
Temperature: Design versus Operating............................................................. 47
Background.............................................................................................. 47
Procedure ................................................................................................ 48
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Wind ................................................................................................................... 49
Background.............................................................................................. 49
Formulas.................................................................................................. 51
Transverse Wind Loading ........................................................................ 52
Earthquake ......................................................................................................... 56
Earthquake Loads.................................................................................... 56
Background.............................................................................................. 56
Formulas.................................................................................................. 57
Appurtenances ................................................................................................... 59
IDENTIFYING MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR STRUCTURAL
SUPPORT AND/OR ATTACHMENTS TO PRESSURE VESSELS .............................. 60
Background ........................................................................................................ 60
Temperature ....................................................................................................... 60
Skirt Support....................................................................................................... 61
Support Legs ...................................................................................................... 62
Support Lugs ...................................................................................................... 65
Saddle Supports ................................................................................................. 66
Support Structures.............................................................................................. 67
Structural Attachments ....................................................................................... 68
Considerations Regarding Repairs and Alterations to Pressure
Vessels .................................................................................................... 69
IDENTIFYING VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS THAT ARE USED
FOR PRESSURE VESSELS......................................................................................... 70
General............................................................................................................... 70
Spread Footings ................................................................................................. 71
Mat Foundations................................................................................................. 73
Concrete Ring Foundations ................................................................................ 74
Pile Foundations With a Concrete Cap............................................................... 75
CALCULATING ANCHOR BOLT STRESSES AND BASEPLATE WIDTH
AND THICKNESS FOR PRESSURE VESSELS, GIVEN A SPECIFIC
LOADING ...................................................................................................................... 77
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Background ........................................................................................................ 77
General Rules..................................................................................................... 77
Anchor Bolts ....................................................................................................... 77
Baseplates.......................................................................................................... 79
Summary ............................................................................................................ 81
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES AND REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR
CALCULATING LOADS ON PRESSURE VESSELS............................ 82
Work Aid 1A: Procedure for Calculating the Dead Weight ................................. 82
Work Aid 1B: Procedure for Calculating Hydrostatic Weight.............................. 84
Work Aid 1C: Procedure for Calculating Design Pressure Based on
Operating Pressure...................................................................... 87
Work Aid 1D: Procedure for Calculating Design Temperature Based
on Operating Temperature........................................................... 88
Work Aid 1E: Procedure and Reference Material for Calculating Wind
Loading ........................................................................................ 89
Work Aid 1F: Procedure and Reference Material for Calculating
Earthquake Loading..................................................................... 92
Work Aid 1G: Procedure for Calculating Loads from Insulation and
Appurtenances............................................................................. 97
Insulation ................................................................................................. 97
Appurtenances......................................................................................... 99
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR
CALCULATING ANCHOR BOLT STRESSES AND
BASEPLATE WIDTH AND THICKNESS FOR PRESSURE
VESSELS, GIVEN A SPECIFIC LOADING......................................... 100
Work Aid 2A: Procedure and Additional Information for Calculating
Anchor Bolt Requirements ......................................................... 100
Work Aid 2B: Procedure and Additional Information for Calculating
Baseplate Requirements for Support Skirts ............................... 104
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................ 108
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Tower ............................................................................................................ 10

Figure 2. Vertical Drum ................................................................................................ 11
Figure 3. Vertical Reactor............................................................................................. 12
Figure 4. Horizontal Drum ............................................................................................ 13
Figure 5. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger ................................................................... 14
Figure 6. Spherical Reactor.......................................................................................... 15
Figure 7. Spherical Storage Vessel .............................................................................. 16
Figure 8. Acceptable Material for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Vessels....................... 25
Figure 9a. Maximum Allowable Stress Values S For Ferrous Materials...................... 27
Figure 10. Dead And Hydrostatic Test Weight Sample Problems ................................ 43
Figure 11. Wind Force on Tall Vessel .......................................................................... 49
Figure 12. Wind Force on Horizontal Vessel ................................................................ 50
Figure 13. Wind Sample Problem Tower...................................................................... 54
Figure 14. Earthquake Loading on a Simple Tall Tower............................................... 57
Figure 15. Support Skirts.............................................................................................. 61
Figure 16. Angle Supports for Small Vessels ............................................................... 63
Figure 17. Orientation of I Supports for Large Vessels ................................................ 63
Figure 18. Loads on Support Legs ............................................................................... 64
Figure 19. Support Lugs............................................................................................... 65
Figure 20. Saddle Supports.......................................................................................... 66
Figure 21. Support Clips............................................................................................... 68
Figure 22. Spread Footings And Pedestals.................................................................. 72
Figure 23. Mat Foundation and Pedestals.................................................................... 73
Figure 24. Concrete Ring Foundation .......................................................................... 74
Figure 25. Pile Foundations With Concrete Cap .......................................................... 76
Figure 29. Height and Gust Correction Factors............................................................ 90
Figure 30. Shape Factor............................................................................................... 91
Figure 31. Effective Diameter, De ................................................................................ 91
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

Figure 32. Site Soil Coefficients ................................................................................... 93

Figure 33. Typical Insulation Densities......................................................................... 97
Figure 34. Number of Anchor Bolts ............................................................................ 101
Figure 35. Allowable Anchor Bolt Stress .................................................................... 102
Figure 36. Anchor Bolt Data ....................................................................................... 103
Figure 37. Allowable Bearing Stress for Concrete...................................................... 105
Figure 38. Baseplate Dimensions............................................................................... 106
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards vi

INTRODUCTION
CSE 110.02, ASME Pressure Vessels, provides civil and

mechanical engineers with an overview of the civil and
mechanical engineering aspects that govern the analysis and
design of pressure vessels.
CSE 110.02 identifies various pressure vessels, their

components and uses, and applicable codes and standards. It
identifies the common types of steels that are used to construct
pressure vessels, their mechanical properties, and the allowable
stresses. It also describes and demonstrates how to calculate
the loads on pressure vessels. In addition, it identifies the
mechanical considerations for additions to or modifications of
attachments to pressure vessels; it identifies the types and uses
of foundations for pressure vessels; and it describes and
demonstrates how to calculate the anchor bolt stresses and
baseplate width and thickness for pressure vessels, given a
specific loading.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

IDENTIFYING TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF PRESSURE VESSELS
Background
This section discusses the following primary types and

components of pressure vessels:
• Vertical
• Horizontal
• Spherical
This section concludes with a description of the uses of specific
types of pressure vessels.
Pressure vessels are pressurized containers that are used in all

stages of processing in the petroleum and petrochemical
industry. Typical pressures for Saudi Aramco applications are
between 103 and 21,000 kPa (15 and 3,000 psig). The
pressure for most vessels is less than 7,000 kPa (1,000 psig).
Temperatures range from -29°C to 815°C (-20°F to 1,500°F).
The majority of vessels have temperatures less than 537°C
(1,000°F). Pressure vessels are supplied in a wide range of
sizes to meet the application needs. Some large refinery
vessels are greater than 10 m (30 ft.) or more in diameter and
greater than 60 m (200 ft.) high.
Pressure vessels accomplish fluid separations, chemical

conversions, and pressurized storage. These processes are
described further in later paragraphs for specific pressure vessel
types.
Vertical Pressure Vessels
This section discusses the following types of vertical pressure

vessels:
• Towers/columns
• Drums
• Reactors
Components
A vertical pressure vessel consists of the following parts:
• Top head
• Shell

• Bottom head
• Support skirt
Towers/Columns
A tower or column is a slender vessel (its height is greater than

its diameter). A tower may have multiple diameters. Figure 1
illustrates a tower and its primary components. Normally,
pressures are not very high, but temperatures can reach 400°C
(750°F). The temperature depends upon the use of the tower.

Nozzle
Head
Tray
Shell
Tray
Nozzle
Cone
Shell
Nozzle
Head
Nozzle
Skirt
support
Figure 1. Tower

Vertical Drums
Vertical drums are small pressure vessels of a single diameter.

They are located at grade and may be supported by legs, lugs
or a skirt. Figure 2 illustrates a vertical drum
and its primary components. The drum length-to-diameter ratio
is usually less than 5. The distinction between tall towers and
vertical drums is the diameter-to-length ratio of
five.
Head
Nozzle
Shell
Head
Support
leg
Figure 2. Vertical Drum

Vertical Reactors
Vertical reactors are cylindrical in shape and contain one or

more internal catalyst beds. Figure 3 illustrates a vertical
reactor and its primary components. The lowest catalyst bed is
supported from the bottom head, and any upper beds are
supported on a steel grid structure.
Inlet
nozzle
Head
Upper
catalyst
Shell bed
Catalyst bed
support grid
Lower
catalyst
bed
Outlet
collector Inert fill
Head
Outlet
Support nozzle
skirt
Figure 3. Vertical Reactor

Horizontal Pressure Vessels
This section describes the following types of horizontal pressure

vessels:
• Horizontal Drums
• Shell-and-tube heat exchangers
Horizontal Drums
Horizontal drums have a wide range of diameters and lengths.

Some horizontal drums are up to 4.25 m (14 ft.) in diameter and
over 30 m (100 ft.) long. A drum consists of the following parts:
• A shell
• Two heads
• Saddle supports
Figure 4 illustrates a horizontal drum and its primary
components.
Nozzle
A
Shell
Head Head
Saddle support
Section A-A
Figure 4. Horizontal Drum

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger is a special purpose pressure

vessel. It consists of the following parts:
• A shell
• Heads
• A tube bundle
• Saddle supports
Figure 5 illustrates a shell-and-tube heat exchanger and its
primary components.
Stationary
head nozzle
Shell
Channel cover
Transverse baffles
Shell or support plates
Shell nozzle
Tie-rods Vent
Lifting lug Tubes
and spacers connection
Channel
cover Drain
Tubesheet
connection
Pass Support Support
saddle saddle Floating
partition
head
Source: © 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.
Figure 5. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

Spherical Pressure Vessels
Spherical pressure vessels are used for pressurized storage or

as reactors. A spherical pressure vessel is a hollow sphere with
nozzles, internal components, and support based on the
application.
Spherical Reactors
Typically, spherical reactors have only one catalyst bed

supported directly from the vessel shell. Figure 6 illustrates a
spherical reactor and its primary components.
Inlet nozzle
Thermowell
nozzle
Manway
Shell
Catalyst
Support
skirt Outlet
collector
Catalyst sampler
Catalyst
pump
nozzle
Outlet nozzle
Figure 6. Spherical Reactor

Spherical Storage Vessels
Spherical storage vessels are designed as pressure vessels

when the design pressure exceeds 103 kPa (15 psig).
Spherical pressure storage vessels are supported on legs, with
cross-bracing for increased stability under wind and earthquake
loading conditions. Figure 7 illustrates a spherical storage
vessel and its primary components.
Shell
Support
leg
Cross
bracing
Figure 7. Spherical Storage Vessel

Uses
Towers
Towers separate hydrocarbon streams into different fractions

that are required at other points in the process. Frequently, the
hydrocarbons are separated based on the different boiling
points of the hydrocarbon fractions. Trays or packing materials
throughout the height of the tower control flow distribution and
velocity to aid the separation process. Nozzles located along
the length of the tower extract the fluid at particular elevations.
Drums
Either horizontal or vertical drums are used when fluid

separation is required and when there is a small volume storage
application. The selection of a horizontal or a vertical drum
depends on the process requirements. For example, a drum
may be required to separate two liquids of different densities or
a vapor from a liquid. Some drums are used as filters, and
others are used as volumes to absorb liquid flow surges from
another part of the process system.
Reactors
A chemical reaction takes place inside a reactor in the presence

of a catalyst. A chemical reaction converts one hydrocarbon
form into another hydrocarbon form that is required at a later
stage of the processing operation. Depending on the process,
operating temperatures can approach 537°C (1,000°F) at
pressures over 7,000 kPa (1,000 psig). Spherical reactors
perform similar functions as vertical reactors. The selection of a
spherical reactor or a vertical reactor is based on process and
volume considerations.
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger is a special purpose pressure

vessel that transfers heat from one fluid to another. The
exchanger may warm or cool a liquid or gas. Most shell-and-
tube heat exchangers are oriented horizontally, but they can be
oriented vertically for some applications.

Spherical Storage Vessels
Spherical storage vessels at atmospheric temperature store

hydrocarbon liquids under pressure. The liquid may be the
result of an intermediate refining step or a final product. The
pressure in the vapor space above the liquid in the sphere
results from either the vapor pressure of the liquid at ambient
temperature or pressurization from an outside source.

IDENTIFYING APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS FOR PRESSURE VESSELS
This section summarizes the scope of the following codes and

standards that apply to pressure vessels:
• ASME, Section VIII, Boiler and Pressure Vessel

Code
• API Standard 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection

Code: Maintenance, Inspection, Rating, Repair and
Alterations
• Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers

Association (TEMA)
• API Standard 660, Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

for General Refinery Services
• SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing
• SAES-B-057, Safety Requirements: Refrigerated

and Pressure Storage Vessels
• SAES-C-001, Design Criteria - Columns
• SAES-D-001, Design Criteria for Pressure Vessels
• SAES-D-004, Sizing of Unfired Pressure Vessels
• SAES-E-001, Basic Design Criteria for Unfired Heat

Transfer Equipment
• 32-SAMSS-004, Pressure Vessels

ASME, Section VIII, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Division 1
Division 1 of Section VIII of the ASME Code provides
requirements for the design, fabrication, inspection, and testing
of pressure vessels, except for the following:
• Fired process tubular heaters
• Pressure containers that are integral parts of
rotating or reciprocating mechanical devices.
• Piping systems and piping components
• Vessels containing water under pressure to serve
strictly as a cushion
• Vessels that have an internal or external operating
pressure less than 103 kPa (15 psig).
• Vessels that have an inside diameter, width, height,
or cross-section diagonal less than 150 mm (6 in.).
• Vessels for human occupancy
Division 1 applies to vessels with pressures greater than 103
kPa (15 psig), but less than 20,685 kPa (3,000 psig). For
vessels with pressures greater than 20,685 kPa (3,000 psig),
Division 1 provides the basic rules, but deviations from and
additions to the rules of Division 1 are usually necessary.
Division 2
Division 2 of Section VIII of the ASME Code is an alternative to

the minimum construction requirements of Division 1. The
allowable design stress for a Division 2 pressure vessel is
greater than a Division 1 vessel, and usually results in thinner
components. However, Division 2 requires more stringent
design standards for components. These more stringent
standards include the following:
• More precise stress calculations
• More stringent quality control, fabrication, and
inspection requirements for materials
• Additional restrictions on permissible design details
A Division 2 design becomes economically attractive for higher
design pressure especially when alloy material is required. In
these cases, the reduced costs of the smaller quantity of
material is greater than the increased costs of the areas where
Division 2 is more stringent.

API Standard 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: Maintenance Inspection,

Rating, Repair and Alteration
This standard covers requirements for inspection, rerating,

repair, and alteration of pressure vessels that are used by the
petroleum and chemical industry. The standard applies to
pressure vessels that have been designed, fabricated,
inspected, and tested in accordance with the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2.
However, this Code does not apply to vessels until they have
been put into service.
Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
The Standards of the Tubular Exchange Manufacturers

Association (TEMA) provide recommendations for specification,
design, fabrication, inspection testing and installation of
shell-and-tube heat exchangers.
API Standard 660, Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Services
API Standard 660 provides requirements for shell-and-tube heat

exchangers. These requirements supplement the TEMA
standards. The requirements cover requirements for design,
fabrication, inspection and testing.
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing
SAES-A-004 provides the pressure testing requirements and

procedures for all plant equipment and piping that is subject to
pressure or vacuum from fluid, gas, or air. This standard
applies to both new and existing equipment.

SAES-B-057, Safety Requirements: Refrigerated and Pressure Storage Vessels
SAES-B-057 provides the design and safety requirements for:
• Low-pressure dome roof tanks that store

refrigerated liquefied gases up to 17 kPa (2.5 psig)
design pressure
• Spheres and spheroids that store flammable
materials with design pressures equal to and
greater than 17 kPa (2.5 psig)
• Horizontal pressure drums that store NGL with
design pressures equal to or greater than 69 kPa
(10 psig)
This standard provides the requirements either specifically or by
reference for the following subjects:
• Foundations and grading

• Diking and drainage
• Tank and vessel spacing
SAES-C-001, Design Criteria - Columns
SAES-C-001 provides mandatory requirements either

specifically or by reference for the process design and
installation of trayed and packed columns or towers.
SAES-D-001, Design Criteria for Pressure Vessels
SAES-D-001 provides additional requirements for vessels

covered by ASME, Section VIII. This standard applies to all
pressure vessels except when both the vessel's design pressure
is less than 1,380 kPa (200 psig) and its volume is less than 2
cu meters (70 cu. ft.).
SAES-D-004, Sizing of Unfired Pressure Vessels
SAES-D-004 establishes design requirements for preparation of

process specifications for vessels.

SAES-E-001, Basic Design Criteria for Unfired Heat Transfer Equipment
SAES-E-001 provides requirements for the design of the

following heat transfer equipment:
• Air-cooled heat exchangers

• Double-pipe heat exchangers
• Shell-and-tube heat exchangers
32-SAMSS-004, Pressure Vessels
32-SAMSS-004 specifies additional requirements for the

purchase of vessels that are designed to meet the ASME code
and is typically a part of the pressure vessel purchase order.
This specification excludes vessels with both a design pressure
less than or equal to 1,380 kPa (200 psi) and a volume less
than or equal to 2 cu. meters (70 cu. ft.).
32-SAMSS-004 specifies requirements for internal

appurtenances, preparation for shipment, vendor
responsibilities, and modifications to Section VIII of the ASME
Code. It lists acceptable materials that are based on the type of
component and the vessel service classification. While the
listed materials are suitable for a wide range of applications,
other material types may be required for particular applications.
When appropriate, the vessel vendor may also propose
alternative materials for Saudi Aramco consideration.

DISTINGUISHING AMONG TYPES, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND

ALLOWABLE STRESSES OF STEELS THAT ARE USED FOR PRESSURE
VESSELS
This section describes the types of steels that are used for
pressure vessels. It also provides information on their
mechanical properties and allowable stresses of these steels.
Types of Steels
Saudi Aramco Materials System Specification 32-SAMSS-004

specifies the acceptable “first choice” material specifications.
Figure 8 lists these acceptable materials according to type of
component and type of service. Particular applications may
require other material types that are not listed. When
appropriate, the vessel vendor may also propose alternative
materials for Saudi Aramco consideration. In either of these
cases, Saudi Aramco must review and approve the material
proposed.

VESSEL SERVICE CLASSIFICATION

HIGH LOW WET
GENERAL TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE SOUR
SERVICE SERVICE SERVICE SERVICE
0° to 350°C (32° 351° to 455°C (651° 0° to -46°C -47° to -101°C To 205°C
VESSEL to 650°F) to 850°F) (+32° to -50°F) (-51° to -150°F) (400°F)
COMPONENT Note (1) Note (1) Note (1) Note (1) Note (1)+
Plate for Shells, SA-516 SA-515 +++ SA-516 SA-203, Gr. D SA-516
Heads, Rolled SA-442 SA-387 SA-537 SA-203, Gr. E (normalized)
Nozzles, Cl 1, Gr. 2 SA-662 SA-737
Reinforcing pads, SA-515
and Stiffeners
Pipe for Nozzles SA-53 Gr. B SA-106 SA-333, Gr. 6 SA-333, Gr. 3 SA-333, Gr ,1 or
(seamless) SA-335, Gr. P11 6
SA-106, Gr. B SA-106, Gr. B
Flanges and SA-105 SA-105 SA-350-LF2 SA-350-LF3 SA-105
Forgings SA-181, Gr. II SA-182, Gr. F11 SA-350-LF1 or
LF2
Fittings++ SA-234 WPB SA-234 WPB or SA-420, Gr. WPL6 SA-420, Gr. WPL3 SA-234 WPB or
WP11 WPC
Bolts SA-193-B7 SA-193-B7 or B16 SA-320-L7 SA-320, Gr. L43 SA-193, Gr. B7M
SA-194-2H or 6 SA-320, Gr. L7M
Nuts SA-194-2H SA-194, Gr. 2H SA-194, Gr. 7 SA-194, Gr. 2HM
Supports and SA-283, Gr. C External: Note (2) SA-516 SA-203, Gr. D External:
attachments Note (2) SA-283, Gr. C SA-537 SA-203, Gr. E SA-283, Gr. C
SA-285, Gr. C SA-36 Note (3) SA-662 Note (2) Note (2)
Note (2) Note (2) SA-36 Note (3)
SA-36 Note (3) SA-285, Gr. C
Note (2)
Internal: Note (2) Internal: Note (2)
SA-285, Gr. C A-576, Gr 1018-
SA-516 1025 Note (4)
SA-387, Cl. 1, Gr. 2 Shell Plate
+ Sour service above 205°C (400°F) is not within scope of this Specification.
++ Grade of material must be the same classification as pipe and plate for the indicated service.
+++ Avoid prolonged exposures to temperature above 425°C (800°F), as the carbide phase of carbon steel may be
converted to graphite.
NOTES:
(1) These temperatures are limiting design temperatures and are not operating temperatures.
(2) That section of attachments extending 305 mm(12 in) or less from the shell head or pressure containing part of any
Division 2 pressure vessel or low temperature service vessel shall be of the same material as the item to which it is
attached. Beyond the 305mm(12 in) or any attachments to Division 1 pressure vessels, the material may be as shown
in this figure.
(3) Shall not be welded directly to shell.
(4) Nonresulfurized, special quality only. Merchant quality ("M" grades) not permitted.
Figure 8. Acceptable Material for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Vessels

Mechanical Properties of Steels
In selecting the steel for a pressure vessel, the following

qualities of the steel are important:
• Allowable stress
• Corrosion resistance
• Toughness
• Fabricability
Allowable Stress
Figures 9a and 9b are from the ASME Code Section II-D and
give the maximum allowable tensile stress at specific
temperatures of some carbon and low-alloy steel plate
specifications. Older editions of the ASME Code Section VIII,
Division 1 or 2, contain similar tables for allowable stress, but for
new construction the latest code values should be used. The
maximum allowable longitudinal compression stress cannot be
greater than the maximum allowable tensile stress, but it can be
less than the maximum allowable tensile stress, depending
upon the situation. The material allowable stress is based on
various measures of the material's strength properties. These
properties include its yield strength, tensile strength, creep and
rupture resistance. To ensure that the material does not fail,
appropriate safety factors are applied to these strength
properties to give the allowable stresses. As the temperature
increases, both the allowable stress and the related material
strength decrease.

Table 1A 1995 SECTION II
Source: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II-D, 1993 Addendum, with permission
from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. pp. 18.
Figure 9a. Maximum Allowable Stress Values S For Ferrous Materials

PART D - PROPERTIES Table 1A
Figure 9a. Maximum Allowable Stress Values S For Ferrous Materials, Cont'd



Figure 9b. Maximum Allowable Stress Values S For Ferrous Materials, Cont'd




Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion deteriorates metals by chemical action. Corrosion is

probably the single most important factor in material selection.
A slight change in the chemical composition of the environment,
such as temperature, can significantly change the corrosion
resistance of a particular metal. As the temperature increases,
the corrosion rate increases. Corrosion rates for various metals
in well-known process environments are based on experience.
Laboratory tests can determine corrosion rates for new process
environments. Typically, a “corrosion allowance” for a pressure
vessel is based on the anticipated corrosion rate and vessel
design life. The corrosion allowance is added to the vessel
component required thicknesses for the specified load
conditions to give the total required vessel thickness. The
corrosion allowance compensates for the metal thinning that
occurs during operation.
Toughness
The toughness of a material is its ability to resist brittle fracture.

Pressure vessel components constructed of ferrous material
occasionally have failed at pressures well below their design
pressure. These failures generally occur at low temperatures
and these failures are brittle rather than ductile. A brittle
fracture shows no leak or warning before failure and is
characterized by a lack of deformation and yielding. A ductile
failure is characterized by deformation and yielding before
failure.
For a brittle fracture to occur, the following conditions must

occur simultaneously at a location in a pressure vessel:
• The material must have an insufficient fracture

toughness at that temperature.
• There must be enough stress in the component to

cause a crack to initiate and grow.
• There must be a defect of critical size in the

component, such as at a weld, to act as a local
stress concentration point and site for crack
initiation.
The brittle fracture occurs without warning the first time the
component is exposed to the above combination of low
temperature, high stress, and critical size defect. Materials for

low temperature service applications must be sufficiently tough

to resist brittle fracture at the minimum design temperature.
Fabricability
A material with outstanding strength, corrosion resistance, and

toughness is useless if it cannot be made into the pressure
vessel component. For example, plate material must have
sufficient ductility to permit rolling, and it must be weldable to
allow assembly into the required shapes. Also, engineers must
consider the effect of welding on material properties.
Welders must use welding procedures that ensure acceptable

strength and quality of the welded joints. To maintain corrosion
resistance, the material chemistry of the weld area must be
equivalent to that of the base material. In all cases, the ASME
Code requires that every welding procedure be specified in
written form and be tested for acceptability. All welders must
pass capability tests. Only capable welders using qualified
welding procedures are permitted to fabricate ASME Code
equipment.
Post-Weld Heat Treatment
Another consideration when selecting materials is the potential

need for post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). PWHT heats the
pressure vessel to a high temperature (after completing the
welding) and holds it there for a specified time. Material
specification and thickness determine the temperature and
holding time required. PWHT might be required for one or more
of the following reasons:
• Stress relief
• Hardness reduction
• Process considerations
Welding is done at extremely high temperatures. When the

welding is completed, the weld and adjacent base material
contract during cooling. This contraction causes stresses in the
component because of constraint in the overall structure. To
ensure that these stresses do not cause a vessel failure, the
welds may require PWHT. The ASME Code contains rules that
govern PWHT for this purpose.

The welding process may produce locally hard regions in the

weld and adjacent area. These locally hard regions occur in
materials with low chrome content. Such materials are less
ductile and more prone to cracking. PWHT reduces these hard
areas in certain materials and restores ductility. Since the
ASME Code does not specify weld hardness requirements,
engineers must specify PWHT for weld hardness reduction.
The last reason for PWHT is related to the previous one, but
goes further. Some process environments, such as high caustic
concentrations, may cause cracking at highly stressed welds in
carbon steel. The residual stresses remaining after welding are
sufficient to cause cracking in these environments. PWHT
relieves the weld stresses to prevent cracking. Again, the
ASME Code does not require PWHT for this purpose, and it
must be specified by the user.

CALCULATING CIVIL/MECHANICAL LOADS ON PRESSURE VESSELS
This section describes and demonstrates how to calculate the

civil/mechanical loads on pressure vessels.
This section covers the following types of loading:
• Dead weight
• Hydrostatic test weight
• Pressure: Design versus operating
• Temperature: Design versus operating
• Wind
• Earthquake
• Appurtenances (live load and dead load)
Saudi Aramco Materials System Specification 32-SAMSS-004

requires that the following loading conditions be used for
designing pressure vessels, their supports, and associated
foundations:
• Design wind load or seismic load, plus all dead

loads excluding operating fluid. The design wind
load is based on a wind velocity of 85 mph. This
loading condition accounts for the situation where
the vessel is totally erected, but is not yet in
operation (no design pressure or design
temperature) nor filled with the operating fluid. It is
assumed that the vessel can be exposed to either
the design wind velocity of 85 mph or earthquake
conditions, but these will not occur simultaneously.
• Internal or external design pressure, plus total

operating weight and design wind load or seismic
load. This loading condition accounts for the normal
operating condition of the vessel. The vessel is
totally erected and is in operation at its normal
design pressure and temperature with the operating
fluid. It is assumed that the vessel can be exposed
to either the design wind velocity of 85 mph or
earthquake conditions, but these will not occur
simultaneously.
• Test pressure, hydrostatic test weight, plus 30 mph

wind. This loading condition accounts for the

situation where the vessel is being hydrostatically

tested with water after erection in the field. The
vessel may be exposed to a wind velocity of 30 mph
during the hydrotest. It is assumed that a hydrotest
would not be done if the wind velocity is higher than
30 mph, and that it would not be done at all during
an earthquake.
Thickness Estimates For Vessel Shell Components
The ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, has many

requirements and equations for designing a pressure vessel.
These equations and requirements determine the minimum
required thickness to withstand the pressures or forces acting
on the vessel and to allow for corrosion in service. In this
section, a simple equation is described that can estimate the
thickness of common pressure vessel shell components. This
equation is based on simplifying one of the ASME Code
equations that determines the thickness of a cylindrical shell.
Applicable Code equations and requirements should be used for
definitive work. PEDP course MEX 202 covers the ASME Code
pressure vessel design equations and requirements in greater
detail.
In the approximate method, the minimum thickness of a shell

component is determined from the following equation:
PDK
t= + CA
2SE
t = Minimum shell thickness which is based on

design pressure, mm (in.)
P = Design pressure at the bottom of the shell

section, kPa (psi)
D = Nominal diameter of the vessel, mm (in.)
K = 1.0 for cylindrical shell
0.5 for hemispherical head
1.0 for 2:1 elliptical head
S = Allowable stress for design conditions from the

ASME Code Section IID, kPa (psi)
E = Weld Joint Efficiency, assume the following:

= 1.0 if full or 100% radiography is specified
= 0.85 for spot radiography, if specified or

unknown
= 0.7 for no radiography (seldom specified)
CA = Corrosion allowance, mm (in.)
SI Note: 1 psi = 6.895 kPa; 1 in. = 25.4 mm
In the above equation, a corrosion allowance has been added to

the minimum shell thickness that is required for design
pressure. Corrosion allowance, CA, is part of the vessel design
requirements, and is based on the expected corrosion that
occurs during the life of the vessel.
The weld joint efficiency, E, accounts for the expected quality of

the welded joints in the vessel shell. Specific values for weld
joint efficiency are specified in the ASME Code, based on the
weld joint details and the amount of specified radiographic
inspection.
Sample Problem 1: Estimating Thicknesses of Pressure Vessel

Components
In this example problem we will estimate the thicknesses of a

cylindrical shell, an ellipsoidal head, and a hemispherical head
due to internal pressure.
Given :
• A diameter of 8 ft.
• A design pressure of 200 psig
• A design temperature of 650°F
• Material is A516, Gr 70
• Corrosion Allowance of .0625 in.
• Spot radiography

Solution:
From Figure 9a for A516, Gr 70, S equals 17,500 psi.
For the cylindrical shell and ellipsoidal head:
t = PDK
2SE + CA
t=
(200 )(96 )(1.0 ) + 0.0625
(2)(17, 500)(.85 )
= .7079 in.
For a hemispherical head:
(200)(96 )(0. 5)
t= + 0.0625
(2)(17, 500)(.85 )
= .3852 in.
For the cylindrical shell and ellipsoidal head, a plate thickness

equal to the next nominal thickness (3/4 inch) could be used for
further estimating work.
For the hemispherical head, a plate thickness equal to the next

nominal thickness (7/16 inch) could be used for further
estimating work.
Dead Weight
The design engineer must design the foundation and support

structure for the weight of the vessel and its contents, internals,
and attachments.
Work Aid 1A provides the procedure for calculating the dead

weight of a vessel.

Sample Problem 2: Dead Weight
Calculate the dead weight for the pressure vessel shown in

Figure 10.
Given:
• Cylindrical shell: 2.5 in. thick, 10 ft. I.D., 70 ft. high

• Hemispherical heads: 1.25 in. thick, 10 ft. I.D.
• Skirt: 1.25 in. thick, 25 ft. high
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1A.
In Step 1: V shs = (π 2)d 2 t

V shs = (π 2) × (10) × (1.25 12) = 16.4 ft 3
2
Vsc = πdht
Vsc = π × 10 × 70 × (2.5 12 )= 458.1 ft 3
V skirt = πdht
V skirt = π × 10 × 25 × (1.25 12) = 81.8 ft 3
In Step 2: Vs= 2 Vshs + Vsc + Vskirt
Vs= 2 16.4 + 458.1 + 81.8 = 572.7 ft3
05/01/95
In Step 3: Ws = Vs st
Ws= 572.7 490 = 280,623 lb.
Answer:
The dead weight of the pressure vessel is approximately

280,600 lb., excluding any internals or appurtenances.

5 ft
10 ft I.D.
70 ft
5 ft
25 ft
10 ft I.D.
Figure 10. Dead And Hydrostatic Test Weight Sample Problems
Hydrostatic Test Weight
When designing supports and foundations, the design engineer

must consider the weight of the empty vessel and the maximum
weight of its contents. Since petroleum products are typically
lighter than water, the heaviest content load usually occurs
during hydrostatic testing. The total weight must include the
weight of all vessel internals, attachments, etc.
Work Aid 1B provides the procedure for calculating hydrostatic

test weight.

Sample Problem 3: Hydrostatic Test Weight
Calculate the hydrostatic test weight for the pressure vessel

shown in Figure 10.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1B.
In Step 1: V hsphere = π / 12 d 3
V hsphere = π / 12 × (10)3 = 261.8 ft 3

V cylinder = (π / 4)d 2 h
V cylinder = π / 4 × (10)2 × 70 = 5,498 ft 3
In Step 2: Vv = 2 × Vhsphere + Vcylinder
Vv = 2 261.8 + 5,498 = 6,022 ft3
In Step 3: Ww = Vv × γw
Ww = 6,022 × 62.4 = 375,773 lb.
In Step 4: WH = Ws + Ww
WH = 280,600 + 375,773 = 656,373 lb. = 656, 400 lb.
Answer:
The hydrostatic test weight of the pressure vessel is

approximately 656,400 lb., excluding any internals and
appurtenances.

Pressure: Design Versus Operating
Background
When designing a pressure vessel, two pressure values may be

indicated: the operating pressure and the design pressure. The
operating pressure is the pressure expected during normal
operation. The design pressure is the maximum pressure that
the vessel is designed to withstand. The design pressure
provides a safety margin to account for fluctuations that occur
during normal operations. The design pressure of a vessel is
based on the pressure at the top of the vessel. This pressure in
most cases is equal to the safety valve set pressure. The safety
valve protects the vessel from over pressure. If the vessel
contains a liquid, the lower sections of the vessel must be
designed for the top head design pressure plus an additional
pressure due to the static head of liquid above the section being
designed. Therefore, when reviewing contractor calculations, it
is common to find that the bottom head and lower shell courses
of a very tall vessel are designed for higher pressure than the
top head or upper shell courses. In addition, the vessel may be
required to be designed for a negative gage pressure or full
vacuum, depending on the operation of the vessel. The design
of large low pressure vessels may be governed by the full or
partial vacuum case.
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-D-001 requires that vessels be designed for an internal

pressure equal to the maximum operating pressure plus 103
kPa (15 psi) or 10% of the maximum operating pressure,
whichever is greater. For vessels in vacuum service, the design
must be based on an external pressure of 103 kPa (15 psi) or
25% more than the maximum external pressure, whichever is
smaller. If a vessel can be steamed out during cleaning or
precommissioning and it is not already designed for vacuum
conditions, the vessel design must be based on an external
pressure of 52 kPa (7.5 psi) at 150°C (300°F). Normally, the
process design engineer uses the above bases when
determining the design pressure and he sets the vessel (top
head) design pressure. The mechanical design engineer then
uses the top head design pressure plus the static head pressure
to determine the design pressure at the bottom of each vessel
section.
Procedure

Work Aid 1C provides the procedure for calculating the design

pressure based on the expected operating pressure.
Sample Problem 4: Determine Design Pressures
Determine the design pressure at the top and bottom heads of a

vessel with a maximum internal operating pressure of 75 psig,
that is 100 ft. high and may be filled with oil having a specific
gravity of 0.9. The vessel may also be steamed out prior to
startup.
Solution: Use Work Aid 1C.
Step 1: Calculate the Top Head Pressure.
PDtop = Po + 15
Since Po < 150 psig; PDtop =75 + 15 = 90 psig
Step 2: Calculate the Static Head Pressure.
γw
P sh = H × ×G
C.F.
P sh = 100 × 62.4 × 0.9 = 39 psi
144
Step 3: Calculate the Bottom Head Pressure.
P Dbot = P Dtop + P sh
P Dbottom = 90 + 39 = 129 psig
Step 4: Determine whether or not the vessel should be

designed for external pressure. Since the vessel can be
steamed out, the vessel should also be designed for 7.5 psi
external pressure at 300 °F.
Answer:
The design pressure of the vessel must be at least 90 psig at

the top head. The bottom head should be designed for a
minimum of 129 psig. The entire vessel should also be
designed for 7.5 psi external pressure.

Temperature: Design versus Operating
Background
When designing a pressure vessel, two design temperatures

are indicated: the design temperature and the Minimum Design
Metal Temperature. The design temperature is the maximum
design temperature and is set slightly above the maximum
operating temperature that may occur during normal operation.
The maximum design temperature is the maximum temperature
that the vessel is designed to withstand and includes a safety
margin for fluctuations that occur during normal operations.
Engineers use the maximum design temperature to determine
the allowable stress of the vessel materials.
The Minimum Design Metal Temperature (MDMT) or Critical

Exposure Temperature (CET) is the minimum metal
temperature coincident with a pressure greater than 25% of the
design pressure. When setting the minimum design
temperature, process engineers usually consider the lowest one
day mean ambient temperature and the temperature during
hydrostatic testing and must also consider auto-refrigeration,
when applicable. The vessel material must have sufficient
toughness to resist brittle fracture at the minimum design
temperature. The maximum and minimum design temperatures
are usually determined by the process engineer.
SAES-D-001 requires that the design temperature for vessels

with operating temperatures at or above -18°C (0°F) be not less
than the maximum operating temperature plus 28°C (50°F).
SAES-D-001 requires that vessels with an operating
temperature below -18°C (0°F) be designed for a temperature
not more than 14°C (25°F) below the minimum operating
temperature.
SAES-D-001 also defines a Minimum Design Metal

Temperature (MDMT) or Critical Exposure Temperature (CET)
as the lowest temperature that a pressure vessel can be
exposed to a pressure more than 25% of the design pressure.
The CET may be based on meteorological site data such as the
lowest one day mean temperature, or the CET may be based on
a temperature of 17°C (30°F) below the lowest expected
hydrotest temperature.

Procedure
Work Aid 1D provides the procedure for calculating the design

temperature based on the expected operating temperature.
Sample Problem 5: Determine Design Temperatures
Determine the design temperatures for a vessel with a minimum

operating temperature of 32°F and a maximum operating
temperature of 500°F.
Solution: Use Work Aid 1D.
Since T o max ≥ 0°F

D.T.≥ 500 + 50
D.T.≥ 550° F
Since T o min ≥ 0° F
M .D.M.T.= T o min = 32° F
Answer:
As a minimum, the vessel must be designed for a minimum

metal temperature of 32°F and a maximum metal temperature
of 550°F.

Wind
Background
If a pressure vessel and its supports are not properly designed,

a strong wind can blow the vessel over or cause its anchor bolts
to break. Therefore, pressure vessel designers must consider
the forces exerted by winds. Figures 11 and 12 provide
diagrams of wind force for typical pressure vessel
configurations.
De
F8
60 ft
F7
50 ft
F6
40 ft
F5
30 ft
F4
25 ft
F3
20 ft
F2
15 ft
F1
Vwind
Mwind
Figure 11. Wind Force on Tall Vessel

Le
FL
De
B
FT
Figure 12. Wind Force on Horizontal Vessel

SAES-D-001 requires that the design of pressure vessels and

supports be based on a wind loading due to a 137 km/h (85
mph) wind at a reference height of 10 m (33 ft.) above grade.
During hydrotest, the design of a pressure vessel and its
supports should be based on a wind loading due to a 48 km/h
(30 mph) wind at the reference elevation.
Formulas
The following equations are based on equations in ANSI/ASCE

7-88 (formerly ANSI A58.1).
The wind pressure at the reference elevation, qr, can be

calculated from the following equation:
qr = C.F. x Vr2
where:
qr = Wind pressure at the reference elevation, Pa

(lb./ft.2)
Vr = Wind velocity at the reference elevation km/h

(mph)
C.F. = A constant and conversion factor which depends

on the density of air at sea level and the units
used in the equation. C.F. equals 0.00256 for
U.S. units and 0.0473 for SI units given above.
Based on the design wind speed of 137 km/h (85 mph), qr is

equal to 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2).
During hydrotest, with a 48.3 km/h (30 mph) wind speed, qr is

equal to 110 Pa (2.3 lb./ft.2).
The wind pressure at a given height, qh, can be calculated from

the following formula:
qh = KhG qr

where:
qh = Wind pressure at a given height above the

reference elevation, Pa (lb./ft2)
kh = Height correction factor which varies with height

above the reference elevation, (dimensionless)
G = Gust response factor based on the maximum

height of the structure (dimensionless)

(lb./ft.2)
Kh and G are found in ASCE 7-88 based on the height and

exposure classification of the location. Excerpts of these tables
are presented in Work Aid 1E for exposure classification C.
Transverse Wind Loading
The transverse wind loading on the vessel is proportional to the

wind pressure at a given elevation, the effective area of the
vessel and the drag coefficient, Cs. The drag coefficient, Cs, is
given in ASCE 7-88 for structures with varying proportions and
degrees of surface roughness. An abbreviated table in Work
Aid 1E applies to most cylindrical pressure vessels.
The transverse wind load on a vessel section can be expressed

as:
F = AKhGCsqr
where:
F = Transverse wind load, N (lbs.)
A = Effective area of the vessel section, m2 (ft.2)
Cs = Surface drag coefficient (dimensionless)
Kh = Height correction factor which varies with height
above the reference elevation, (dimensionless)
G = Gust response factor based on the maximum
height of the structure (dimensionless)
(lb./ft.2)

When calculating the effects of wind on a pressure vessel, an

engineer must calculate the forces caused by the wind and the
resulting bending moment at the base. To do this, the engineer
must calculate the projected windward area of the vessel. The
calculation must either include every attachment to the pressure
vessel or an estimate of the attachments’ effects. To estimate
the attachments’ effects, an effective diameter, De, which
accounts for the attachments (that is, piping, ladders, platforms,
etc.), can be calculated. A method for calculating De is in Work
Aid 1E. Using an effective diameter gives sufficiently accurate
results in most cases.
When the wind load on a tall multidiameter vessel is calculated,

the calculation is usually more accurate if the vessel is divided
into a number of sections. The formulas for the base shear
force and the base overturning moment as a result of wind are
included in Work Aid 1E.
Sample Problem 6: Wind Loadings
Calculate the wind base shear force and overturning moment for
a tower.
Given:
A tower (refer to Figure 13) with the following construction:
• Hemispherical heads
• Skirt support attachment 25 ft. above the ground
• Total tower height of 105 ft
• Top 35 ft. of the shell 15 ft. in diameter
• Bottom 30 ft. of the shell 20 ft. in diameter
• Shell-reducer section 7-1/2 ft. long
• Attached piping, ladders and platforms
• The surface reoughness D'/D ≈ .01

15 ft
7-1/2 ft
35 ft
7-1/2 ft
30 ft
10 ft
25 ft
20 ft
Figure 13. Wind Sample Problem Tower

Solution:
Use Work Aid 1E.
1. Vwind
Determine G based on maximum value of H from
Figure 29
For H = 105, G = 1.16
Determine Cs based on linear interpolation from
Figure 30
H/D = 105/15 = 7
Since D'/D = 0 < D'/D ≈ .01 < D'/D .02
C s = 0.6 + 0.8 = 0.7
2
Determine De based on D for tower with attached
piping and ladders from Figure 31.
For D > 10 with attached piping and platforms, De
= 1.4 x D
For 20 ft. diameter section, De = 1.4 x 20 = 28 ft.
For reducer section, De = 1.4 x (20+15)/2 = 24.5 ft.
For 15 ft. diameter section, De = 1.4 x 15 = 21 ft.
To calculate Vwind using Eqn. 2, assume the tower
is divided into 6 sections.
Vwind = (((0.8)(15-0)(28))+
((0.87)(25-15)(28))+
((1.06)(55-25)(28))+
((1.18)(62.5-55)(24.5))+
((1.29)(97.5-62.5)(21))+
((1.40)(105-97.5)(21))) x ((1.16)(0.7)(18.5))
Vwind = 42,900 lbs.

2. To calculate Mwind using Eqn. 3, assume the tower

is divided into 6 sections.
Mwind = (((0.8)(15-0)(28)(15+0)/2)+
((0.87)(25-15)(28)(25+15)/2)+
((1.06)(55-25)(28)(55+25)/2)+
((1.18)(62.5-55)(24.5)(62.5+55)/2)+
((1.29)(97.5-62.5)(21)(97.5+62.5)/2)+
((1.40)(105-97.5)(21)(105+97.5)/2)) x
((1.16)(0.7)(18.5))
Mwind = 2,312,000 ft.-lbs.
Answer:
The base shear force is 42,900 lb., and the overturning moment
at the base is 2,310,000 ft.-lb.
Earthquake
Earthquake Loads
Background
Pressure vessels must also be designed for earthquake loads

for vessels in seismically active areas. The ground movement
beneath the vessel during an earthquake induces transverse
shearing forces and an overturning moment in the vessel, its
support, and foundation.
SAES-D-001, Design Criteria for Pressure Vessels, requires

that earthquake loads be considered for all pressure vessels
and refers to SAES-M-100, The Saudi Aramco Building Code, to
determine the applicable seismic zone. SAES-M-100 states
that seismic loads do not apply to Aramco Eastern Province
operating areas; however, seismic loads, based on a seismic
Zone 1, apply to the Yanbu NGL plant installation and the Royal
Commission tract at Yanbu. For areas other than the above
mentioned, the manager of the Consulting Services Department
should be contacted prior to the start of design. SAES-M-100 is
a listing of modifications to the U.S. Uniform Building Code
(UBC); therefore, the seismic loads should be calculated in
accordance with the UBC Code.

Formulas
The actual response of a tall multidiameter pressure vessel that

may have non-uniformly distributed masses can be quite
complex, but is easily calculated with computer methods.
However, simple formulas can be developed for a tall, single
diameter, vertical pressure vessel with a uniformly distributed
mass and wall thickness. The procedures in Work Aid 1F are
based on the UBC procedures and these simplifying
assumptions.
Work Aid 1F provides the procedure and reference material for

calculating earthquake loads.
x
Ft
Fe(x)
Vearthquake
Mearthquake
Figure 14. Earthquake Loading on a Simple Tall Tower

Sample Problem 7: Earthquake Loadings
Calculate the earthquake base shear force and overturning

moment for a vertical tower shown in Figure 14.
Given:
A single diameter vertical tower with the following parameters:
• Attachment of the skirt support to the shell 25 ft.

above the ground
• 75 ft. from the skirt attachment point to the top
• Weight of 825,000 lb. when operating
• Located in seismic Zone 1
• Located on rock
• Vessel Outside Diameter, 10 ft
• Thickness of shell and skirt, 1.25 in
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1F.

0.5
Step 1: ( )
T = (2.65 × 10 −5 )
100 2  (8,250)10 
10  1.25 
T = .681 seconds
Step 2: S = 1.0
(1.25)(1)
Step 3: C= 2
(.68) 3
C = 1.615
C = 1.615 =.404 ≥ .075∴ OK
Step 4:
Rw 4
Use C = 1.615

(0.075 )(1)(1.615)(825, 000)

Step 5: V=
4
V = 24,982 lbs.
Step 6: Ft = 0 (since T < 0.7 seconds)
Ft = 0
Step 7: M = 100 (2 (24,982) + 0)/3
M = 1,666,000 ft.-lbs.
Answer:
The base shear force is 24,982 lb., and the overturning moment
is 1,666,000 ft.-lbs.
Appurtenances
When designing or modifying a pressure vessel or designing a

foundation, the design engineer must allow for the weight and
forces that are exerted by any attached appurtenances to the
pressure vessel.
The primary load of the pressure vessel appurtenances is their

weight. When the engineer does not know the actual weights of
the specific items, he may estimate the weight of all vessel
appurtenances with the guidelines provided in Work Aid 1G.
The engineer should also add the weight of any external
insulation or internal lining. A particular appurtenance may also
create a bending moment on the vessel that must be considered
in the local mechanical design of the vessel. The "Identifying
Mechanical Considerations for Structural Support and/or
Attachments to Pressure Vessels" section describes this topic.
Some appurtenances, such as stairs, ladders, and platforms,
also have live loads that engineers must consider in the detailed
design. However, design engineers normally do not need to
consider such localized live loads when designing the vessel
supports and foundation.
Work Aid 1G provides the formulas for calculating or estimating

the dead loads and live loads of appurtenances.

IDENTIFYING MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT

AND/OR ATTACHMENTS TO PRESSURE VESSELS
Background
The primary pressure-retaining shell and heads of a pressure

vessel are designed with adequate wall thickness to withstand
pressure, weight, wind, earthquake, and other imposed loads.
External attachments to the vessel create additional localized
loads. Typical attachments to pressure vessels include vessel
supports, nozzles, platforms, ladders, and piping supports.
These local loads cause localized stresses in the vessel shell
that also must be kept within allowable limits. This section
describes the considerations when evaluating these structural
supports and attachments.
Temperature
A change in temperature changes the size of a material. Most

materials expand as their temperature increases and contract
as their temperature decreases. The components of a pressure
vessel and the support for the pressure vessel change
dimensions as the vessel and the support change temperature.
The pressure vessel support, any associated structure, and
foundation stay near the ambient temperature, while the
temperature of the vessel metal changes. Therefore, the design
of the support structure and the attachments to a pressure
vessel must allow for the expansion and contraction of the
pressure vessel. This allowance is accomplished either by
ensuring that the pressure vessel is free to undergo
unrestrained thermal movement, or by ensuring that restrained
thermal movement does not result in excessive stress in the
vessel shell and support. Local thermal stresses at vessel
attachment points are minimized by the following:
• Reduction of local thermal gradients
• Use of the same material for the attachment as for

the vessel
• Use of design details that reduce abrupt geometric

transitions
• Use of appropriate insulation details

Skirt Support
The skirt support is the most common design of support used
for tall, vertical pressure vessels. Skirts are economical
because they generally transfer the loads from the vessel to the
foundation uniformly around the circumference. Skirts also
transfer the loads to the foundation through anchor bolts and
bearing plates. Figure 15 shows the two most common skirt
details and the attachment of skirts to the vessel.
Butted weld
blends smoothly
into head contour
15° MAX
Straight Flared
Figure 15. Support Skirts
The straight skirt in Figure 15 is most often used. The shell and
skirt centerlines are nearly coincident, and the skirt is butt
welded to the bottom head and blended smoothly into the head
contour. The flared skirt in Figure 15 is used when a high
bending moment at the base requires more and/or larger
diameter anchor bolts than can fit around the circumference of a
straight skirt at the base.
Differential thermal expansion is normally not a factor with skirt-
supported vessels. The skirt is typically long enough and
flexible enough to accommodate the differential radial thermal
expansion between a hot vessel shell and relatively cool skirt
without causing excessive thermal stresses. However, special
consideration is necessary in this area for heavy wall [over 50
mm (2 in.) thick] pressure vessels operating at high
temperatures [over 260°C (500°F)], because sharp thermal
gradients can exist at the skirt-to-shell junction area. In these
cases, special insulation details are often used to keep thermal
stresses within allowable limits.

The following additional considerations affect skirt design:

• The skirt must be designed with adequate thickness
to resist the operating weight load and imposed
bending moment due to either wind or earthquake
(whichever is greater). It must also be designed for
the hydrotest load, plus a 48 Km/h (30 mph) wind.
• The skirt must be designed considering
compressive loads and buckling in accordance with
the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1.
• The maximum stress in the skirt-to-head weld,
accounting for the type of weld and the degree of
inspection, must be kept within allowable limits.
• For tall towers, the skirt thickness is generally
chosen to be at least the thickness of the corroded
bottom shell plate.
• If a large access or pipe opening is located in the
skirt shell, the opening may require reinforcement.
Support Legs
Uniformly spaced columns, which are called support legs,
usually support small and medium-sized vertical vessels at
ground level. Pressurized storage spheres are also typically
supported on legs. To allow easy access under the vessel, the
number of support legs is usually four, unless a larger number
of legs are required to distribute the loadings. Pressurized
storage spheres are typically very large in diameter and require
more than four support legs.
The most often used structural shapes for support legs are
equal leg angles and I-shapes. The support legs usually have
diagonal bracing for lateral loads due to wind or earthquake.
Figure 16 shows the two different ways to weld the angle
supports to the vessel shell. Angles are used for short support
legs when the loads are low. As Figure 17 shows, I-shapes are
used for larger and heavier vessels. The I-shapes oriented as
shown in Detail B of Figure 17 are easier to weld to the shell,
but the orientation shown in Detail A can carry much heavier
eccentric external loads. Round steel pipes often support
pressurized storage spheres. Round pipe is especially suitable
for a column, since it has a large radius of gyration in all
directions and good buckling and torsional resistance. The
centroidal axis of pipe columns are set to coincide with the
centerline of the vessel shell, and eliminate any eccentricity in
the column and baseplate calculations.

A B
Figure 16. Angle Supports for Small Vessels
Figure 17. Orientation of I Supports for Large Vessels

Differential thermal expansion is normally not a factor with leg-
supported vessels. The legs are usually long enough and
flexible enough to accommodate the differential radial thermal
expansion of the vessel without causing high thermal stresses.
Figure 18 shows vertical and horizontal loads that are imposed
on support legs due to weight and wind or seismic forces. The
wind load is horizontal and is assumed to act at the centroid of
the exposed surface. The earthquake load also acts
horizontally, at the center of gravity of the vessel. Compression
and tension reactions act on the columns and their support
bases due to the vessel weight and the overturning moment due
to wind or earthquake. The columns are designed so that their
stresses are within allowable limits, and the columns do not
buckle under the compressive loads. The local details at the leg
attachment to the vessel shell are also designed to keep the
local vessel stresses within allowable limits. To limit the local
vessel stresses, it is sometimes necessary to add a reinforcing
pad to the vessel shell at the support attachment point.

P = Pw or Pe Direction
of wind
or
W = W o or WT H earthquake P
P w = Wind load
P e = Earthquake load
W o = Operating weight
W T = Test weight
Figure 18. Loads on Support Legs

Support Lugs
Figure 19 shows support lugs normally limited to vertical

pressure vessels with small to medium diameters of .3 to 3 m (1
to 10 ft.) and moderate height-to-diameter ratios (5-to-2).
Support lugs are normally supported by structural steel girders
and columns. Slotted holes for the lug anchor bolts permit
differential radial thermal expansion of the vessel shell, which
eliminates the potential for high local thermal stresses in the
vessel shell. In situations with high weight loads at the lugs, low
friction bearing pads (for example, Teflon or polished stainless
steel) under the lugs reduce the frictional load and allows for
easier unrestrained radial thermal expansion. The support
structure must be designed for the lateral friction force as well
as the other loads from the vessel.
Top bar Center of

support area
Gusset Neutral
axis
Base plate
Front view Side view
Detail of support lug
Support lugs
Figure 19. Support Lugs

The detailed design of the support lugs may include a top bar,
multiple vertical gusset plates, and/or a reinforcing plate welded
to the vessel shell. In extreme cases, complete circumferential
reinforcing rings are welded to the vessel shell to further
distribute the imposed loads around the circumference of the
vessel shell. The detailed approach depends on the magnitude
of the loads.
Saddle Supports
As Figure 20 shows, most horizontal cylindrical vessels are

supported by two saddle-type supports. The steel saddle plates
are typically welded to the vessel shell over a contact angle of at
least 120°. One saddle support is fixed to its pedestal while the
other has slotted anchor bolt holes that permit free longitudinal
movement of the vessel. This arrangement allows for
longitudinal thermal expansion of the vessel. Low friction
bearing plates are used at the supports in situations where there
are especially heavy loads. The support pedestals must be
designed for the weight, wind, earthquake, and friction loads
that are imposed by the vessel.
>120°
A-A
Figure 20. Saddle Supports

In most situations, wind or earthquake loading on a horizontal

vessel are not design-governing factors and can be ignored in
designing the vessel. Frictional loads must be considered in the
detailed design of the support pedestal, foundation, and the
saddle support. The design pressure conditions normally set
the overall wall thickness of the vessel shell and heads.
However, the weight loads of a horizontal vessel can

significantly affect the detailed design of the saddle supports.
The saddle reaction loads due to the vessel weight are
concentrated and induce high localized stresses in the shell.
The stress distribution is also a function of the distance between
the saddle support and the vessel end closure. Furthermore,
the shell deformation that occurs over the saddle reduces the
effective stiffness of the vessel shell at the saddles. This
reduced stiffness makes the full cross section of the shell less
effective in carrying the imposed weight loads.
A generally accepted procedure called a “Zick Analysis” is used

to evaluate the design of the vessel and saddle from a weight
support standpoint. The original paper that discussed this
procedure was published in the Welding Journal Research
Supplement in 1951. The author of the paper was L. P. Zick,
and the title was "Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports". The procedure is
discussed in many available pressure vessel texts, and is
highlighted in MEX 202. A Zick Analysis determines the
stresses in the vessel shell at midspan and near the saddles,
including the localized stresses over the saddles. These
stresses are compared to allowable values to determine their
acceptability. In some cases, it may be necessary to widen or
relocate the saddle supports and/or add circumferential stiffener
rings at the saddles to keep the stresses within allowable limits.
Support Structures
Sometimes the vessel support (skirt, legs, or saddles) is

mounted directly on a concrete foundation. In other cases, the
vessel support may be on a support structure of a steel
framework or reinforced concrete. Lug-supported vessels are
usually supported in structural framing consisting of beams and
columns and sometimes bracing.

Structural Attachments
External loads on pressure vessel nozzles or other attachments

on the vessel shell induce local stresses in the vessel shell.
Loads on vessel nozzles are typically imposed by weight and
the thermal expansion of connected piping systems.
These loads may consist of forces and bending moments in all

three coordinate directions. Figure 21 shows structural
attachments to a pressure vessel shell that may support items
such as pipe, ladders, platforms, and other equipment. These
attachments usually impose a weight load and a bending
moment on the vessel shell.
Support clip
Figure 21. Support Clips
The external loads at nozzles and structural attachments cause

higher localized stresses in the vessel shell. If these loads are
high enough, additional reinforcement may be provided at the
nozzle or attachment to keep the local stresses within allowable
limits.

Considerations Regarding Repairs and Alterations to Pressure Vessels
After pressure vessels have been in service, repairs may be

required due to metal corrosion, over-pressure or over-
temperature which distort or crack the components.
Modifications may also be required to install a new nozzle,
process control instrument or attachment clip for a ladder or
platforms. All repairs or modifications to a pressure vessel
should be carefully engineered before any work is done to
ensure that the work meets the latest design, fabrication,
inspection and testing standards of the Code and standards for
original construction. In addition, the Pressure Vessel
Inspection Code, API 510, can usually be used to assess and
give guidance on repairs and alterations. Refer to PEDP MEX
202, Evaluating Pressure Vessel Designs and Installations, for a
more in-depth treatment about the various code requirements
applicable to repairs and alterations.

IDENTIFYING VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS THAT ARE USED FOR

PRESSURE VESSELS
General
A foundation transfers the loads from a pressure vessel and

support structure to the underlying soil or rock. Foundations
may be placed at the ground surface, but more often, they are
placed at some depth below the surface into firm soil or rock to
provide additional stability and to reach below the level of frost
penetration. A properly designed foundation accomplishes the
following:
• Limits settlement to amounts that can be tolerated

by the vessel and associated piping.
• Prevents overturning of the vessel.
• Prevents sliding of the vessel.
An improperly designed or constructed foundation can cause a

pressure vessel to do the following:
• Break its connecting pipes.

• Leak
• Rupture
• Tilt or turn over
The following sections discuss these common types of

foundations:
• Spread footings
• Mat foundations
• Concrete ring foundations
• Pile foundations with a concrete cap

Spread Footings
A spread footing is a concrete pad that supports a single load,

such as a tall vertical pressure vessel. In some cases, spread
footings may support individual legs of a multi-leg supported
vessel if the legs are widely spaced. However, consideration
must then be given to the effect of differential settlement of the
footing under each leg.
Spread footings are generally square or rectangular but may be

circular or octagonal. The base of the spread footing must be
located below the frost line and at a level where the soil or rock
has the required strength and settlement characteristics. When
the required depth of the spread footing exceeds 3 m (10 ft.),
other foundation types, such as piles, may be appropriate.
Typically, a concrete pedestal transfers the load from the
pressure vessel support structure to the footing located at some
nominal depth below final grade. Figure 22 shows two typical
spread footings and pedestals.

Pedestal
;;;;
;;;; Elevation
Spread footing
Rectangular
Pan
;;;;
Pedestal
;; ;;
Pedestal
;;;; Elevation
Octagonal
Spread footing
Plan
Figure 22. Spread Footings And Pedestals

Mat Foundations
A mat foundation is a single concrete pad that covers the entire

area beneath the pressure vessel structure and supports all of
the vessel legs or columns. Whenever the sum of the areas of
individual spread footings exceeds over half of the area beneath
the vessel, mat foundations are usually more economical. A
mat foundation is commonly used when closely spaced legs
support a pressure vessel.
As with spread footings, mat foundations are located at a

nominal depth below frost level on soil and rock that has the
required strength and settlement characteristics. Typically,
pedestals transfer loads from the vessel support structure to the
mat foundation. Figure 23 illustrates a mat foundation and
pedestals.
Pedestal
Mat foundation
Mat foundation
Elevation Plan
Figure 23. Mat Foundation and Pedestals

Concrete Ring Foundations
A concrete ring foundation consists of a continuous strip of

concrete shaped in a circle. A concrete ring foundation is used
when a large pressure vessel is supported by a skirt or a circle
of closely spaced legs. The base of the concrete ring is located
below the frost depth on soil or rock with the required strength
and settlement characteristics. Figure 24 illustrates a concrete
ring foundation.
Paving
Reinforced concrete
Top view
Figure 24. Concrete Ring Foundation

Pile Foundations With a Concrete Cap
Pile foundations are used when the subsurface soil supporting

spread footings, mat, or concrete ring foundations is too weak or
too compressible to provide adequate support for the pressure
vessel. Piles transfer the loads to more suitable material at a
greater depth. Pile foundations also resist high lateral loads or
overturning loads, such as from wind or earthquake.
Piles are structural members with a small cross-sectional area

compared to their length. Piles are usually constructed of steel
or concrete. A structural concrete slab or cap constructed over
the piles distributes the loads from the pressure vessel supports
to the piling system. When the bottom of the pile cap is in the
ground, it should be below the level of frost penetration.
Concrete pedestals transfer the loads from the vessel legs to
the pile cap and piles. Figure 25 illustrates pile foundations with
a concrete cap.

Support
pedestals Paving
Soil
Concrete cap
Piles
Paving
Concrete cap
Soil
Piles
Figure 25. Pile Foundations With Concrete Cap

CALCULATING ANCHOR BOLT STRESSES AND BASEPLATE WIDTH AND

THICKNESS FOR PRESSURE VESSELS, GIVEN A SPECIFIC LOADING
Background
Anchor bolts and a baseplate attach a pressure vessel to its

foundation. The anchor bolts and baseplate must be designed
to secure the pressure vessel under operating and test
conditions, including exposure to the maximum design wind or
earthquake load, whichever is greater. If the anchor bolts are
too close to each other, the ability of the concrete to hold each
anchor bolt is reduced, and the design is compromised.
General Rules
The following general rules apply to the design of anchor bolts

and selection of baseplates:
• The number of anchor bolts in a baseplate should

be a multiple of four, for example, 4, 8, 12, 16.
• Anchor bolts should not be placed closer than 0.5 m
(18 in.) apart (centerline to centerline). A closer
spacing reduces their holding strength in a concrete
foundation.
• No fewer than eight anchor bolts should secure a
tall vessel.
• The area within the root of the bolt threads (the root
area) is the effective area of the anchor bolts. The
anchor bolt root area is used to determine the
anchor bolt stress under the applied loads, and the
bolt number and size that are required to keep the
bolt stress within allowable limits.
Anchor Bolts
Work Aid 2A contains the procedure and additional information

needed to calculate anchor bolt requirements.
Sample Problem 8: Anchor Bolt Calculation
Determine the number of anchor bolts needed and calculate the

size of each bolt for a vertical tower.
Given:
A vertical tower with the following parameters:

• Empty weight of 10,000 lb.

• Earthquake moment of 1,110,000 ft.-lb.
• Design wind moment of 4,000,000 ft.-lb.
• Bolt circle diameter of 11 ft.
• A-325 anchor bolts.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 2A.
In Step 1: M earthquake = 1,110,000ft.lbs.

M wind = 4,000, 000ft.lbs.
∴M wind governs
In Step 2: A B = π d 2abc
4
()
A B = π 112
4
A B = 95 ft.2
In Step 3: C B = π × d abc
C B = π × 11
C B = 34.55 ft.
In Step 4: T= M – W
AB CB
T = ((4,000,000) / 95)− (10,000 / 34.55)
T = 41, 815 lb./ linear ft.
In Step 5: Since 9.55 ft. < dabc < 11.5 ft., N = 20
In Step 6: TC B
BA =
SBN
BA = (41,815 x 34.55)/(44,000 x 20)
BA = 1.642 in.2/bolt
In Step 7: Since 1.642 < 1.744 Bolt size is 1-3/4 in.
Answer:
The tower requires 20 anchor bolts of 1-3/4 in. diameter.

Baseplates
After determining the number and size of anchor bolts, calculate

the width of the baseplate. The width of the baseplate and its
area must be sufficient to keep the bearing stress on the
concrete foundation within acceptable limits. There must be
sufficient distance from the bolt hole to the edge of the
baseplate to provide enough bearing surface for the hold-down
nut. There must be sufficient distance from the leg or skirt to
the bolt holes to permit access to tighten the hold-down nut.
Work Aid 2B provides the procedures and additional information

required to calculate baseplate width.
Sample Problem 9: Baseplate Calculation
For the vertical tower described in the previous sample problem

(Anchor Bolt Calculation), determine the minimum required
width of the support baseplate.
Given:
• Vessel weight during hydrotest is 500,000 lb.
• 4,000 psi ultimate strength concrete is being used

for the foundation.
• Skirt outer diameter is 126 in.
• The skirt thickness is 0.75 in.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 2B.
In Step 1: A S = π D 2sk
4
A S = π (10.5)2
4
A S = 86.6 ft.2
In Step 2: C S = πD sk
C S = π × 10.5
C S = 33.0 ft.

In Step 3: PC = M + W
AS CS
PC = (4,000,000)/86.5) + (500,000/33.0)
PC = 61,400 lb./Linear ft.
In Step 4: PC
L min = × C.F.
fb
f b = 1,400
61, 400
L min =
(1, 400)(12 )
L min = 3.65 in.
In Step 5: (d abc – D sk )
L1 =
2
Since the skirt outside diameter is 126 in. and the bolt circle
(132 − 126)
diameter was specified as 11 ft.= 132 in., L 1 = = 3 in .
2
In Step 6: From Figure 36, the minimum L2min must be 2.25 in. and
L3min = 1.75. in.
L1min = 2.25 + 0.7(.75) = 2.775 in.
Since L1 > L1min use L1
In Step 7: LACT = L1 + L3 + tsk + L4
LACT = 3 + 1.75 + .75 + .75 = 6.25 in.
LACT > Lmin OK
Answer:
The baseplate width must be at least 3.65 inches wide and will probably be over 6-1/4
inches wide to extend inside of the skirt to permit welding the skirt to the baseplate ring
with fillet welds both inside and outside the skirt.

Summary
This module has provided an overview of ASME pressure

vessels. The Participant should be able to identify the general
types of pressure vessels and the rules that govern their
fabrication, design, inspection, and testing. In addition, the
Participant should understand the effect of adding or modifying
attachments to a pressure vessel and the physical structure of a
foundation that supports a pressure vessel. Also, the
Participant should be able to calculate some of the common
loadings on a pressure vessel and the minimum baseplate
dimensions.

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES AND REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR CALCULATING

LOADS ON PRESSURE VESSELS
Work Aid 1A: Procedure for Calculating the Dead Weight
1. Using the appropriate formula(s) from the following list, calculate the volume of
the shell of the pressure vessel:
For the volume of the shell of a sphere:
Vss = πd2t (Eqn. 1)
where:
Vss = Volume of the shell of a sphere, m3 (ft.3)
d = Inside diameter of the sphere, m (ft.)

t = Thickness of the sphere’s shell, m (ft.)
For the volume of the shell of a hemisphere:
π 2
Vshs = d t (Eqn. 2)
2
where:
Vshs = Volume of the shell of a hemisphere, m3 (ft.3)
d = Inside diameter of the hemisphere, m (ft.)

t = Thickness of the hemisphere’s shell, m (ft.)
For the volume of the shell of a cylinder:
Vsc = πdht (Eqn. 3)
where:
Vsc = Volume of the shell of a cylinder, m3 (ft.3)
d = Inside diameter of the cylinder, m (ft.)

h = Height or length of the cylinder, m (ft.)
t = Thickness of the cylinder’s shell, m (ft.)

For the volume of the shell of a conical section:
(d 1 + d 2 ) (d 1 – d 2 )2
V scone = πt +h2 (Eqn. 4)
2 4
where:
Vscone = Volume of the shell of a conical section, m3 (ft.3)
t = Thickness of the shell of the section, m (ft.)
d1 = Inside diameter of the larger end of the section, m (ft.)
d2 = Inside diameter of the smaller end of the section, m (ft.)
h = Height of the section, m (ft.)
The following equation approximates the volume of the shell of a 2:1 semi-
elliptical head:
Vsell = 1.084 x d2t (Eqn. 5)
where:
Vsell = Volume of the shell of a 2:1 semi-elliptical head, m (ft.)3
d = Inside diameter of the major axis, m (ft.)
t = Thickness of the head, m (ft.)
2. Using the following formula calculate the total volume of steel in the vessel shell:
V s = ΣV heads + ΣV shell + V skirt (Eqn. 6)
where:
Vs = Total volume of steel in the vessel shell, m3 (ft.)3
∑Vheads = Volume of steel in the vessel heads, m3 (ft.)3
∑Vshell = Volume of steel in the vessel shells, m3 (ft.)3
Vskirt = Volume of steel in the skirt, m3 (ft.)3

3. Using the following formula calculate the dead weight of the pressure vessel:
W s = V s × γ st (Eqn. 7)
where:
Ws = Dead weight of the pressure vessel, kN (lb.)
Vs = Total volume of the steel in the pressure vessel, m3 (ft.)3
st = Weight density of steel, 77 kN/m3 (490 lb./ft.3)
Work Aid 1B: Procedure for Calculating Hydrostatic Weight
1. Using the appropriate formula(s) below, calculate the volume of the pressure
vessel :
For the volume of a sphere:
V sphere = π d 3 (Eqn. 8)
6
where:
Vsphere = Volume of a sphere, m3 (ft.3)
d = Inside diameter of the sphere, m (ft.)
For the volume of a hemisphere:
π 3
Vhsphere = d (Eqn. 9)
12
where:
Vhsphere = Volume of a hemisphere, m3 (ft.3)
d = Inside diameter of the hemisphere, m (ft.)

For the volume of a cylinder:

π 2
V cylinder = d h (Eqn. 10)
4
where:
Vcylinder = Volume of a cylinder, m3 (ft.)
d = Inside diameter of the cylinder, m (ft.)
h = Height or length of the cylinder, m (ft.)
For the volume of a conical section:
(
V conical reducer = πh d 21 + d 22 + d 1d 2
12 ) (Eqn. 11)
where:
Vconical reducer = Volume of the conical reducer section, m3 (ft.3)
h = Height of the conical section, m (ft.)
d1 = Inside diameter of the larger end of the section, m (ft.)
d2 = Inside diameter of the smaller end of the section, m (ft.)
For the volume of a 2:1 semi-elliptical head:
V ell = π d 3 (Eqn. 12)

24
where:
Vell = Volume of the 2:1 semi-elliptical head, m3 (ft.3)
d = Inside diameter of the major axis of the head, m (ft.)

2. Using the following formula calculate the total internal volume of the pressure
vessel:
V v = ΣV heads + ΣV shells (Eqn. 13)
where:
Vv = Total internal volume in the pressure vessel, m3 (ft.3)
∑Vheads = Total internal volume in the vessel heads, m3 (ft.3)
∑Vshells = Total internal volume in the vessel shells, m3 (ft.3)
3. Using the following formula calculate hydrostatic test water weight of the vessel
shell:
Ww = Vv × γw (Eqn. 14)
where:
Vv = Total internal volume in the pressure vessel, m3 (ft.3)
st = Weight density of water, 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb./ft.3)
4. Calculate the hydrostatic test weight by adding the hydrostatic test water weight
to the dead weight of the shell using the following formula:
WH = Ws + Ww (Eqn. 15)
where:
WH = Hydrostatic test weight, kN (lb.)
Ws = Dead weight of the shell, kN (lb.)
Ww = Hydrostatic test water weight, kN (lb.)

Work Aid 1C: Procedure for Calculating Design Pressure Based on Operating
Pressure
1. Using the appropriate formula below, calculate the top head design pressure
based on the operating pressure.
When Po < 1034 kPa (150 psi):
PDtop = Po + 15 psig (Eqn. 16 U.S.)
PDtop = Po + 103 kPa (Eqn. 16 SI)
When Po ≥ 1034 kPa (150 psi):
PDtop = 1.1 Po (Eqn. 17)
where:
PDtop = Design pressure, kPa ga (psig)
Po = Maximum normal internal operating pressure, kPa ga (psig)
2. The static pressure head of the vessel shell section which is below the top head
can be determined from the following formula:
γw
P sh = H × ×G (Eqn. 18)
C.F.
where:
Psh = Pressure due to static head effects, kPa (psi)
C.F. = Conversion factor 1 for SI units, 144 for US units
H = Depth below surface, m (ft.)
w = Weight density of water, 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb./ft.3)
G = Specific gravity (dimensionless)

3. The design pressure of a vessel section below the top head can be found from
the following formula:
PDbot = PDtop + Psh (Eqn. 19)
where:
PDbot = Design pressure at the bottom of shell section kPa (psig)
PDtop = Top head design pressure, kPa (psig)
Psh = Pressure due to static head effects, kPa (psi)
4. Determine if the vessel can be subjected to external pressure or vacuum.
(a) If the vessel is in vacuum service, design for an external pressure equal to
the smaller of 103 kPa (15 psi) or 25% more than the maximum possible
external pressure.
(b) If the vessel can be steamed out and is not already designed for vacuum,
design for an external pressure of 52 kPa (7.5 psi) at 150°C (300°F).
Work Aid 1D: Procedure for Calculating Design Temperature Based on

Operating Temperature
1. Using the appropriate formulas below, calculate the design temperatures based
on the operating temperatures.
When Tomax ≥ -17.8°C (0°F):
D.T. ≥ Tomax + 28°C (Eqn. 20 SI)
D.T. ≥ Tomax + 50°F (Eqn. 20 U.S.)
When Tomax < -17.8°C (0°F):
D.T. ≥ Tomax (Eqn. 21)
where:
Tomax = Maximum operating temperature, °C (°F)
D.T. = Maximum Design Temperature, °C (°F)

When Tomin < -17.8°C (0°F):
M.D.M.T. ≤ Tomin - 14°C (Eqn. 22 SI)
M.D.M.T. ≤ Tomin - 25°F (Eqn. 22 U.S.)
When Tomin ≥ -17.8°C (0°F):
M.D.M.T. ≤ Tomin (Eqn. 23)
where:
M.D.M.T. = Minimum design metal temperature, °C (°F)
Tomin = Minimum expected operating temperature, °C (°F)
Work Aid 1E: Procedure and Reference Material for Calculating Wind Loading
1. Using the following formula, calculate the base shear force:
Vwind = (∑Kh(hh - hl)(De)) x GCsqr (Eqn. 24)
where:
Vwind = Base shear force, N (lb.)
Kh = Height correction factor from Figure 29
hh = Highest point on the pressure vessel within the height range,

m (ft.)
hl = Lowest point on the pressure vessel within the height range,

m (ft.)
De = Effective diameter of the pressure vessel within the height

range from Figure 31, m (ft.)
G = Gust factor for the maximum height of vessel from Figure 29
Cs = Shape factor from Figure 30
qr = Wind pressure at reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for

a design wind speed of 137 km/h (85 mph)

HEIGHT ABOVE GRADE (ft) Kh G

0 to 15 0.80 1.32
20 0.87 1.29
25 0.93 1.27
30 0.98 1.26
40 1.06 1.23
50 1.13 1.21
60 1.19 1.20
70 1.24 1.19
80 1.29 1.18
90 1.34 1.17
100 1.38 1.16
120 1.45 1.15
140 1.52 1.14
160 1.58 1.13
180 1.63 1.12
200 1.68 1.11
250 1.79 1.10
Note: Kh varies with height but G is at maximum height.
Source: Based on ANSI/ASCE 7-88 Tables 7 and 8
Figure 29. Height and Gust Correction Factors

Cs for H/D values

Type of Vessel 1 7 25
Round cross section moderately smooth 0.5 0.6 0.7
Round cross section rough (D'/D 0.02) 0.7 0.8 0.9
Round cross section very rough (D'/D 0.08) 0.8 1.0 1.2
Source: Based on ANSI/ASCE 7-88 Table 12
Figure 30. Shape Factor
where:
H = Total height in m (ft.)
D = Diameter m (ft.)
D' = Depth of protruding element, m (ft.)
D = [VESSEL DIAMETER ATTACHED PIPING,

ATTACHED PIPING BUT
+ (2 • INSULATION LADDERS, AND
THICKNESS)], m (ft.) WITHOUT LADDERS PLATFORMS
Š 1 (3) D e = 1.6 D D e = 2.0 D
1 - 3 (3 - 10) D e = 1.4 D D e = 1.6 D
> 3 (10) D e = 1.2 D D e = 1.4 D
Figure 31. Effective Diameter, De

2. Using the following formula, calculate the base overturning moment :
  h h + h l 
M wind =  ΣK h (h h − h l )D e × GC s q r (Eqn. 25)
  2 
where:
Mwind = Overturning moment, N-m (ft.-lb.)
Kh = Height correction factor from Figure 29
hh = Highest point on the pressure vessel within the height range,

m (ft.)
hl = Lowest point on the pressure vessel within the height range,

m (ft.)
De = Effective diameter of the pressure vessel within the height

range from Figure 31, m (ft.)
G = Gust factor for the maximum height of the vessel from

Figure 29
Cs = Shape factor from Figure 30
qr = Wind pressure at reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for

a design wind speed of 137 km/h (85 mph)
Work Aid 1F: Procedure and Reference Material for Calculating Earthquake
Loading
1. Determine the first natural period of vibration of the vessel, T.
a) For a tall cylindrical pressure vessel with a uniform thickness and mass
distribution:
T = K1(H/D)2(wD/t)0.5 (Eqn. 26)

where:
K1 = A constant and conversion factor which depends on the

units. K1 equals 2.65 x 10-5 for U.S. units used below
and 1.11 x 10-5 for S.I. units used below
T = The first mode period of vibration in seconds
H = Height of the vessel in feet (meters)
D = Outside diameter of the vessel in feet (meters)
w = Weight per unit height of the vessel in lb./ft. (N/m)
t = Thickness of the vessel in inches (millimeters)
b) For other vessels, T can be calculated by the Raleigh-Ritz procedure, a

finite element method computer program or another suitable procedure.
2. Determine the site soil coefficient, S, from Figure 32.
Type Soil Profile S
S1 Rocklike material characterized by a shear-wave velocity greater than 2,500 ft. 1.0
per second or by other suitable means of classification
or
Stiff or dense soil where the soil depth is less than 200 ft.
S2 Dense or stiff soil where the soil depth exceeds 200 ft. 1.2
S3 Soil 40 ft. or more deep containing more than 20 ft. of soft to medium stiff clay, 1.5
but not more than 40 ft. of soft clay
S4 Soil containing more than 40 ft. of soft clay 2.0
Unknown soil conditions. When the soil profile is not known in sufficient detail
assume soil profile S3 unless S4 is specified by Consulting Services
Department.
Source: Based on Uniform Building Code 1991 Edition, Table 23J
Figure 32. Site Soil Coefficients

3. Determine the seismic response coefficient, C:
C = 1.25S
2 but no more than 2.75 (Eqn. 27)
T 3
where:
S = Site soil coefficient defined above
T = The natural period of vibration of the tower, seconds
4. Determine the ratio of C/Rw. In further calculations, this ratio shall not be less
than 0.075:
where:
C = Seismic response coefficient defined above
Rw = Numerical coefficient which depends on the lateral load
resisting system used in the structure. Rw equals 4, for skirt
supported vessels. For other structures see UBC Table 23-Q.
5. Determine the total base shear force, V, from the following equation:
ZICW
V= (Eqn. 28)
Rw
where:
Z = Seismic zone factor per 1991 UBC for the location (note the
seismic zone factor per the 1991 UBC is equal to the seismic
probability coefficient Z per ANSI/ASCE 7-88 divided by 2.5).
Z = 0.0 for seismic Zone zero, Z = 0.075 for seismic Zone 1,
and Z = 0.15 for seismic Zone 2.
I = Importance factor based on occupancy category. I is equal to
1.0 for most pressure vessels, and equal to 1.25 for
Hazardous Facilities (pressure vessels storing toxic or
explosive substances), or Essential Facilities (pressure
vessels storing fire fighting liquids).
C = Seismic response coefficient defined above.
W = Total weight of the vessel, lb.(N)
Rw = Numerical coefficient as defined above

6. Determine the top load, Ft:
Ft = 0.07TV (Eqn. 29)
but not more than .25V and may be considered as equal to zero when T is
0.7 seconds or less.
where:
T = The natural period of the structure as calculated above
V = The total shear force as calculated above, lb. (N)
7. Determine the earthquake moment, M.
a) For a tall tower with a uniform mass distribution, the earthquake moment,
M, can be calculated from the following simple equation:
H (2V + F t )
M= (Eqn. 30)
3
b) In other cases, the earthquake moment can be calculated assuming that

the earthquake force, Fi, is distributed over the height of the structure
according to the following formula:
(V − F t )w i h i
Fi = n
(Eqn. 31)
∑ (w i h i )
i =1
where:
V = The total base shear force due to earthquake defined

above, lb. (N)
Ft = The top load defined above, lb. (N)
wi = The weight of a given section of the vessel, lb. (N)
hi = The height of the given section above the base, ft. (m)
wi = The weight of the "i"th section of the vessel, lb. (N)
hi = The height of the "i"th section above the base, ft. (m)

n = The number of section that the vessel is considered to

be divided into for calculation purposes
The moment of the earthquake forces about the base can be calculated
from the following formula:
n
M = Ft H + ∑Fih i (Eqn. 32)
i= 1
where:
Ft = The earthquake force considered to act at the top of the

tower and defined above, lb. (N)
H = The total height of the tower, ft. (N)
Fi = The earthquake force on the "i"th section determined

above, lb. (N)
hi = The height of the "i"th section above the base, ft. (m)

Work Aid 1G: Procedure for Calculating Loads from Insulation and
Appurtenances
In the absence of more detailed information, the weight of vessel insulation and
attachments may be estimated from the following guidelines:
Insulation
For a cylindrical section:
Wi = πDoLtiγi (Eqn. 33)
where:
Wi = Insulation weight, N (lb.)
Do = Outside diameter of section, m (ft.)
L = Length of section, m (ft.)
ti = Insulation thickness, m (ft.)
i = Insulation density, N/m3 (lb./ft.3) (Refer to Figure 33.)
Insulation Material Insulation Density, i, N/m3 (lb./ft.3)
Calcium silicate 1.7 (11)

Mineral wool 1.25 (8)
Foamglas 1.4 (9)
Polyurethane 0.36 (2.3)
Figure 33. Typical Insulation Densities

For a conical section:
 
π
Wi = 
(D o − d o )2
+ L  (D o + d o )t i γ i
2 (Eqn. 34)
2 4
 
where:
Do = Outside diameter of the large end of the section, m (ft.)
do = Outside diameter of the small end of the section, m (ft.)
L = Length of the section, m (ft.)
For a 2:1 semi-elliptical head:
W i = 1.084D 2o t i γ i (Eqn. 35)
where:
Do = Outside diameter of the head, m (ft.)
i = Insulation density, N/m3 (lb./ft.3) .(Refer to Figure 33.)
For a hemispherical head:
πD 20
Wi = t γ (Eqn. 36)
2 i i
where:

Do = Outside diameter of the head, m (ft.)
Appurtenances
Estimate the weight of steel platforms at 1.68 kN/m2 (35 lb./ft.2)

of platform area.
Estimate the weight of steel ladders at 364 N/linear meter (25

lb./linear ft.) for caged ladders and 146 N/linear meter (10
lb./linear ft.) for plain ladders.
Estimate the weight of trays in distillation columns, including

liquid holdup, at
1.2 kN/m2 (25 lb./ft.2) of tray area.
Estimate the additional weight for nozzles, flanges, and other

attachments at 6% of the dead weight of the vessel steel shell.

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR

CALCULATING ANCHOR BOLT STRESSES AND BASEPLATE
WIDTH AND THICKNESS FOR PRESSURE VESSELS, GIVEN A
SPECIFIC LOADING
Work Aid 2A: Procedure and Additional Information for Calculating Anchor Bolt
Requirements
1. If not known, use the following steps to determine which is greater: the
overturning moment due to design wind pressure or the overturning moment due
to earthquake.
• If needed, use Work Aid 1E to calculate the overturning moment for

design wind pressure.
• If needed, use Work Aid 1F to calculate the overturning moment for

earthquake.
• Determine which of the overturning moments is greater.
2. Using the following formula, calculate the area within the anchor bolt circle:
π 2
AB = d (Eqn. 37)
4 abc
where:
AB = Area of the anchor bolt circle, m2 (ft.2)
dabc = Diameter of the anchor bolt circle, m (ft.)
3. Using the following formula, calculate the circumference of the anchor bolt circle:
CB = πdabc (Eqn. 38)
where:
CB = Circumference of the anchor bolt circle, m (ft.)
dabc = Diameter of the anchor bolt circle, m (ft.)
4. Using the following formula, calculate the maximum tension in the base of the
pressure vessel support:

T= M − W (Eqn. 39)
AB CB
where:
T = Maximum tension, kN/m (lb./linear ft.)

M = Overturning moment at the base due to wind or earthquake,
N-m (ft.-lb.)
AB = Area within the bolt circle, m2 (ft.2)
W = Dead weight of vessel and internals excluding operating fluid,
kN (lb.)
CB = Circumference of the bolt circle, m (ft.)
5. If not given, estimate the number of anchor bolts to be used. (Refer to Figure
34.) Remember that:
• There needs to be at least .5 m (18 in.) spacing between anchor bolts.
• Anchor bolts are used in multiples of four.
• No fewer than eight bolts should secure a tall tower.
dabc min
N, Number of Bolts
m (ft.)
4 .583 (1.91)
8 1.17 (3.82)
12 1.75 (5.73)
16 2.33 (7.64)
20 2.92 (9.56)
24 3.50 (11.5)
28 4.08 (13.4)
32 4.66 (15.5)
Figure 34. Number of Anchor Bolts

6. Using the following formula, calculate the required area of each anchor bolt:
TC B
BA =
S BN (Eqn. 40)
where:
BA = Required area of each bolt, m2 (in.2)
T = Maximum tension, kN/m (lb./ft.)
CB = Circumference of bolt circle, m (ft.)
SB = Maximum allowable stress value of bolt material, kPa (psi).

(Refer to Figure 35.)
N = Number of anchor bolts
Maximum Allowable Stress

Material Specification kPa psi
A 307 137,900 20,000
A 325 303,400 44,000
A 490 372,300 54,000

Source: Based on ASCE Manual of Steel Construction
Figure 35. Allowable Anchor Bolt Stress

7. Using Figure 36, determine the size of the anchor bolts. Select the nearest size
that has at least the calculated required area for each bolt.
Bolt Size (in.) Bolt Root Area (in.2)
1 0.551
1-1/8 0.693
1-1/4 0.890
1-3/8 1.054
1-1/2 1.294
1-5/8 1.515
1-3/4 1.744
1-7/8 2.049
2 2.300
2-1/4 3.020
2-1/2 3.715
2-3/4 4.618
3 5.621
(SI Note: To convert inches to mm multiply by 25.4 mm/in.)
Figure 36. Anchor Bolt Data

Work Aid 2B: Procedure and Additional Information for Calculating Baseplate
Requirements for Support Skirts
1. Using the following formula, calculate the area within the skirt, AS:
π 2
AS = D (Eqn. 41)
4 sk
where:
AS = Area within the skirt, m2 (ft.2)
Dsk = Outside diameter of the skirt, m (ft.)
2. Using the following formula, calculate the skirt circumference:
CS = πDsk (Eqn. 42)
where:
CS = Circumference of the skirt, m (ft.)
Dsk = Outside diameter of the skirt, m (ft.)
3. Using the following formula, calculate the maximum compression:
Pc = M + W (Eqn. 43)
As Cs
where:
PC = Maximum compression, kN/m (lb./linear ft.)
M = Bending moment at the base due to the larger of either the

wind or earthquake load, kN-m (ft.-lb.)
AS = Area within the skirt, m2 (ft.2)
W = Operating weight of the vessel, kN (lb.)
CS = Circumference of the skirt, m (ft.)

4. Using the following formula, calculate the approximate width of the base ring.
Pc
L min = C.F. (Eqn. 44)
fb
where:
Lmin = Minimum width of the base, mm (in.)
PC = Maximum compression, kN/m (lb./ft.)
fb = Allowable bearing stress on the foundation, kPa (psi) (Refer to

Figure 37.)
C.F. = Conversion factor 1 ft./12 in. in U.S. units, 1000 mm in SI

m
units
28-Day Ultimate Strength of Concrete (psi) Allowable Bearing Stress, fb (psi)
3,000 1050
4,000 1400
5,000 1750
Source: AISC Manual of Steel Construction fb = .35 fc)
(SI Note: To convert psi to kPa multiply by 6.895 kPa/psi)
Figure 37. Allowable Bearing Stress for Concrete
5. Using the following formula, calculate the distance between the skirt outside
diameter and the bolt circle diameter and determine if it is large enough. (Refer
to Figure 38.)
L1 =
(d abc − D sk )
(Eqn. 45)
2
where:
L1 = Distance between the skirt outside diameter and the bolt

circle, mm (in.)
dabc = Diameter of the bolt hole circle, mm (in.)
Dsk = Outside diameter of the skirt, mm (in.)

6. Determine L1min, L2min and L3min from Figure 38.
Bolt Size (in.) Dimension (in.)

L2 L3
1 1-3/8 1-1/16
1-1/8 1-1/2 1-1/8
1-1/4 1-3/4 1-1/4
1-3/8 1-7/8 1-3/8
1-1/2 2 1-1/2
1-5/8 2-1/8 1-5/8
1-3/4 2-1/4 1-3/4
1-7/8 2-3/8 1-7/8
2 2-1/2 2
2-1/4 2-3/4 2-1/4
2-1/2 3-1/16 2-3/8
2-3/4 3-3/8 2-5/8
3 3-5/8 2-7/8
L1
Vessel
L3 L2 centerline
tw Skirt
thickness
ts
Base Fillet welds inside
plate and outside. If size
L4 is unknown, assume
L tw = 0.7 ts
Figure 38. Baseplate Dimensions

• Figure 38 provides the minimum required values for the minimum wrench
clearance L2 for a given bolt size.
• If the skirt outside fillet weld size is known, use the minimum required
values of L2 and the fillet weld size, Lw, to determine L1min.
L1min = L2 + Lw (Eqn. 46a)
If the outside fillet weld size is not known, assume:
L1min = L2 + 0.7 ts (Eqn. 46b)
• Confirm that the resulting value of L1 is at least equal to the minimum

required value, L1min. If it is, use L1 plus the minimum value of L3 to
calculate L. If it is not, use the minimum value, L1min, and increase the
bolt circle diameter as required.
7. Calculate the actual total bearing width of the plate, LACT:
LACT = L1 + L3 + ts + L4 (Eqn. 47)
where:
LACT = Actual bearing width of the baseplate, mm (in.)
L1 = Distance between the skirt outside diameter and the bolt

circle, mm (in.)
L3 = Distance between the center of the bolt hole circle and the
outside diameter of the baseplate, mm (in.)
L4 = Width of baseplate ring inside of skirt fillet weld toe. If not

specified, assume L4 = ts
ts = Skirt thickness, mm (in.)
8. Check that:
LACT ≥ Lmin. (Eqn. 48)

GLOSSARY
anchor bolt Bolt that attaches a vessel, tank, or support structure to a

foundation.
ANSI American National Standards Institute.
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers.
API American Petroleum Institute.
appurtenance Accessory that attaches an object to a tank or vessel.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
baseplate A metal plate that provides support. Typically, a metal plate is

attached to the bottom of a tank, vessel, or support structure to
connect to a foundation.
elliptical head A dished head of semi-ellipsoidal form, in which half the minor
axis (inside depth of the head minus the skirt) equals one-
fourth of the inside diameter of the head skirt.
hemispherical head A dished head which is formed to a hemispherical shape.
hydrotest Test performed by filling the vessel with water.
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas.
NGL Natural gas liquids.
pressure vessel A cylindrical or spherical tank constructed to hold a gas or a

liquid under pressure.
torispherical head A dished head in which the central portion is formed to a

spherical crown, and a transition region called a knuckle is
located between the crown and cylindrical skirt. The ASME
Code specifies requirements for the crown and knuckle radii.
UBC Uniform Building Code

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

ASME PRESSURE VESSELS

ASME Pressure Vessels

MODULE COMPONENT PAGE

IDENTIFYING TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF PRESSURE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

ASME Pressure Vessels

API Standard 660, Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers for General

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

ASME Pressure Vessels

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

ASME Pressure Vessels

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

ASME Pressure Vessels

Figure 1. Tower ............................................................................................................ 10

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

ASME Pressure Vessels

Figure 32. Site Soil Coefficients ................................................................................... 93

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards vi

ASME Pressure Vessels

CSE 110.02, ASME Pressure Vessels, provides civil and

CSE 110.02 identifies various pressure vessels, their

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

ASME Pressure Vessels

IDENTIFYING TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF PRESSURE VESSELS

This section discusses the following primary types and

Pressure vessels are pressurized containers that are used in all

Pressure vessels accomplish fluid separations, chemical

Vertical Pressure Vessels

This section discusses the following types of vertical pressure

A vertical pressure vessel consists of the following parts:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

ASME Pressure Vessels

A tower or column is a slender vessel (its height is greater than

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

ASME Pressure Vessels

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

ASME Pressure Vessels

Vertical drums are small pressure vessels of a single diameter.

Figure 2. Vertical Drum

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

ASME Pressure Vessels

Vertical reactors are cylindrical in shape and contain one or

Figure 3. Vertical Reactor

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

ASME Pressure Vessels

Horizontal Pressure Vessels

This section describes the following types of horizontal pressure

Horizontal drums have a wide range of diameters and lengths.

Figure 4. Horizontal Drum

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

ASME Pressure Vessels

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

A shell-and-tube heat exchanger is a special purpose pressure

Source: © 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.

Figure 5. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

ASME Pressure Vessels

Spherical Pressure Vessels

Spherical pressure vessels are used for pressurized storage or

Typically, spherical reactors have only one catalyst bed

Figure 6. Spherical Reactor