Statistics

- Is obtaining data, organizing, summarizing, analyzing, making interpretation of the

data, and drawing conclusions based on our findings.

2 categories of statistics:

a. Descriptive Statistics – is the term given to the analysis of data that helps
describes, show or summarize data in a meaningful way.
b. Inferential statistics – techniques and methods that allow us to use samples to
make generalizations about the populations from which the samples were drawn.

Population – a complete collection of all elements under study

Sample – randomly selected elements from the population.

Data – are the values or information that we have obtained

Dependent - input

Independent - output

Sources of Data:

a. Primary data – first-hand information is obtained usually by means of personal

interview and direct observations.
b. Secondary data – conducted by collecting information from a diverse source of
documents or electronically stored information, census and market studies

Variables – are the characteristics of the data that we have collected

Two types or variable

a. Qualitative variables – deal with quality and cannot be measured. These variables
arrange individuals into categories according to shared qualities or characteristics
Example: gender, brand of things, etc
a.1 Dichotomous – are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels.
Example: if we were looking at gender, we would most probably categorize
somebody as either “male” or “female”.
a.2 trichotomous –
a.4 multinomous –
b. Quantitative variables – deal with numbers and quantity. These variables provide
some sort of measurement like how much or how many

Types of Quantitative Variables:

a. Discrete Variables – are quantitative variables that will assume only values in
discrete set like the set of integers, such as the number or chairs in the classroom
b. Continuous variables – are quantitative variables that will assume an infinite
number of possible values in any given interval such as room temperature.
Level of measurements:

1. Nominal scale – are qualitative that deals with names, categories, or labels. Nominal
data cannot be ordered in meaningful way and no calculations can be performed with
them.
Example: religion, gender
2. Ordinal scale – is for nominal data type can be ordered.
Example: order, rank,
3. Interval scale- is for ordinal data type that addition or subtraction arithmetic
operations are meaningful.
4. Ratio scale – is for interval scale but we can divide one value by another value and
that ratio is meaningful and has a natural starting point
Example: most of physical science is considered ratio scale

Methods of Collecting Data:

a. Direct/Interview – also called as a face-to-face survey, is a survey method that is

utilized when a specific target population is involved. The purpose of conducting a
personal interview survey is to explore the responses of the people to gather more
and deeper information
b. Indirect/ questionnaire – the research makes use of a written questionnaire. The
researcher gives or distributes the questionnaire to the respondents either by
personal delivery or by mail.
c. Registration – refers to continuous, permanent, compulsory recording of the
occurrence of vital events together with certain identifying or descriptive
characteristics concerning them, as provided through the civil code, laws or
regulations of each country
d. Observation – researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural
settings or naturally occurring situations
e. Experimentation – used when the objective is to determine the cause-and-effect of a
certain phenomenon under some controlled situations.

Methods of presenting Data:

a. Textual –refers to data presented in written, paragraph form

b. Tabular – by means of tables one of which is the frequency distribution table.
Steps in constructing Frequency distribution of grouped data
1. Range, R = Hs – Ls
2. Width of class interval, W = Range, R/Desired Number of class interval, n c
3. Determine the limits of each class interval, putting the interval containing the
lowest value at the top (or sometimes at the bottom)
4. Tally raw scores
5. Add the tally marks of each interval; this corresponds to the interval frequency
 Example:
49 52 18 65 57 56 26 24
16 43 78 58 35 35 9 91
57 52 67 44 67 48 84 71
61 82 63 38 38 65 39 73
71 42 85 29 47 50 59 54

Construct a frequency table.

a. R = 91-9 = 82
b. W = 82/7 = 11.71 or 12
c. Determine the class its

Class Tally Frequency Class Class CF( CF) RF

Interval , mark, boundaries,
F Mk CB
9-20 III 3 14.5 8.5 – 20.5 3 40 7.5
21-32 III 3 26.5 20.5 – 32.5 6 37 7.5
33-44 IIIII-III 8 38.5 32.5 – 44.5 14 34 20
45-56 IIIII-III 8 50.5 44.5 – 56.5 22 26 20
57-68 IIIII-IIIII 10 62.5 56.5 – 68.5 32 18 25
69-80 IIII 4 74.5 68.5 – 80.5 36 8 10
81-92 IIII 4 86.5 80.5 – 92.5 40 4 10
Total N=40
Mk= 9+ 20/2 Mk=57+68/2

Mk=21+32/2 Mk=69+80/2

Mk= 33+44/2 Mk=81+82/2

Mk=45+56/2

Rf=(F/N)100

# if the class interval is the other way around like it starts from highest to lowest

Start at the bottom in the CF(

Mean =

Median =

Mode =

c. 81-Graphical/chart – by means of graph

c.1 Line Graph/ Polygon Graph -
c.2 Bar Graph/ histogram – useful when the scale of measurements is either
nominal or ordinal
c.3 Pie Graph/Charts – useful in cases involving nominal-levelled data (categorized
according to attributes)
 c.4 Pictograph
c.5 Map/Cartograph
c.6 Scatter Point Diagram

112 127 134 105 109

110 117 118 114 105

107 114 118 118 106

116 110 113 119 100

120 120 110 118 104

100 120 105 110 112

118 116 118 114 110

112 115 122 122 109

108 121 117 111 111

113 117 120 112 114

Class Tally MK
interval
100-104 Iii 154
105-109 Iiiiiiiiii 107
110-114 Iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 112
115-119 Iiiiiiiiiii 119.5
120-124 Iiiiiii
125-129 I
130- 134 i
135-139