What is Agriculture?

The term agriculture is derived from the Latin words “ager” or “agri” meaning “soil” and
‘cultra’ meaning ‘cultivation’
Agriculture is a very broad term which includes all aspects of crop production, livestock
farming, fisheries, forestry etc.
It is the cultivation of lands for production of crops for a regular supply of food and
other needs for progress of the nation.
Agriculture means the cultivation of the soil. But in reality agriculture is NOT confined
in soil cultivation alone; it includes all aspects of crop production, livestock farming,
fisheries forestry etc.
“Agriculture is the science and art of farming including the work of cultivating the soil,
producing crops, planting forest plants/trees, raising livestock and rearing fishes.”
Note: Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and
practices of soil, water and crop management. It deals with methods which provide
favourable environment to the crop for higher productivity.

Spheres of agriculture

The Greek “geoponic” (cultivation in earth), “hydroponic”(Cultivation in water) and

“aeroponic” (cultivation in air) refer to the three main spheres of agriculture.

Branches of Agriculture

It is composed of five specialized branches which are as follows:

a) Agronomy which deals with soil management and the growing of crops.
b) Horticulture which deals with the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental
crops.
c) Agricultural Engineering which involves knowledge of farm machines and equipment.
It also deals with developing new systems and practices to address problems facing
agriculture.
d) Agricultural Economics which deals with the business end of farming.
e) Animal Science which is basically the breeding and caring of animal for specific
purposes, such as for their meat, milk and/or fur.

Agronomy is most important branches of Agriculture.

The term Agronomy is derived from the Greek words “agros” meaning “Field” and
“nomos” meaning “to manage.”
So, Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and
practices of soil, water and crop management.
It can also be defined as a branch of agricultural science that deals with methods which
provide a favorable environment to the crop for higher productivity.
It is considered as the mother or primary branch of agriculture. Like agriculture, it is
nothing but an integrated and applied aspect of different disciplines of pure sciences. 
The nature of agronomy is based on soil-plant- environment relationship.

It has three distinct branches:

a) Crop Science (mainly field crops)
b) Soil science
c) Environmental Science ( that deals with applied aspects)

What is the scope of Agronomy?

Agronomy is a dynamic discipline. It can lead to the following things: 

Yield maximization with introduction of new cultivars/ HYVs
Reduced cost of production due to proper crop management
Better water use efficiency due to agronomic knowledge
Special tillage and intercultural operations for better crop growth and maximizing
harvesting index
Appropriate soil fertility management can increase crop yields with lesser use of
fertilizer for increased profit
Reduced post harvest loss due to agronomic knowledge and practices
Intensive cropping patterns and integrated farming systems for sustainable agricultural
growth and increased food production per unit area to feed teeming millions every
year.

Classification of Field Crops

Field crops may be classified in more than one way. It may be on the basis of:

1)Climate:
Tropical: Crops grow well in warm & hot climate. E.g. Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc
Temperate: Crops grow well in cool climate. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato etc.

2) Growing Season:
Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: The crops grown in monsoon months from June to Oct-
Nov, Require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth, also required short
day length for flowering. E.g. Cotton, Rice, Jowar, bajara.
Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops: require winter season to grow well from Oct to March
month. Crops grow well in cold and dry weather. Require longer day length for
flowering. E.g. Wheat, gram, sunflower etc.
Summer/Zaid crops: crops grown in summer month from March to June. Require warm
day weather for major growth period and longer ay length for flowering. E.g.
Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.

3)Use/Agronomic classification:
Grain crops: may be cereals as millets cereals are the cultivated grasses grown for their
edible starchy grains. The larger grain used as staple food is cereals. E.g. rice, Jowar,
wheat, maize, barley, and millets are the small-grained cereals which are of minor
importance as food. E.g. Bajara.
Pulse/legume crops: seeds of leguminous crops plant used as food. On splitting, they
produced dal which is rich in protein.  E.g. green gram, black gram, soybean, pea,
cowpea etc.
Oilseeds crops: crop seeds are rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oil to
meet various requirements. E.g. Groundnut, Mustard, Sunflower, Sesamum, linseed
etc.
Forage Crop: It refers to vegetative matter fresh as preserved utilized as food for
animals. Crop cultivated & used for fickler, hay, silage. Ex- sorghum, elephant grass,
guinea grass, berseem & other pulse bajara etc.
Fiber crops: crown for fiber yield. Fiber may be obtained from seed. E.g. Cotton, steam,
jute, Mesta, sun hemp, flax.
Roots crops: Roots are the economic produce in root crop. E.g. sweet, potato, sugar
beet, carrot, turnip etc.
Tuber crop: crop whose edible portion is not a root but a short thickened underground
stem. E.g. Potato, elephant, yam.
Sugar crops: the two important crops are sugarcane and sugar beet cultivated for
production for sugar.
Starch crops: grown for the production of starch. E.g. tapioca, potato, sweet potato.
Dreg crop: used for preparation of medicines. E.g. tobacco, mint, pyrethrum.
Spices & condiments/spices crops: crop plants as their products are used to flavor taste
and sometime color the fresh preserved food. E.g. ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion,
coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
Vegetable crops: may be leafy as fruity vegetables. E.g. Palak, mentha, Brinjal, tomato.
Green manure crop: grown and incorporated into soil to increase fertility of soil. E.g. sun
hemp.
Medicinal & aromatic crops: Medicinal plants include cinchona, isabgoli, opium poppy,
senna, belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice and aromatic plants such as lemon grass,
citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese mint, peppermint, rose geranicem, jasmine, henna
etc.       
4) Life of crops/duration of crops:
Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one season-Karin, Rabi. summer. E.g.
rice, Jowar, wheat etc.
Two seasonal crops: crops complete its life in two seasons. E.g. Cotton, turmeric, ginger.
Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete its life in a cycle. E.g. sugarcane.
Biennial crops: which grows in one year and flowers, fructifies & perishes the next year?
E.g. Banana, Papaya.
Perennial crops: crops live for several years.  E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.

5) Cultural method/water:
Rainfed: crops grow only on rainwater. E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
Irrigated crops: Crops grows with the help of irrigation water.  E.g. Chili, sugarcane,
Banana, papaya etc.

6) Root system:
Taproot system: The main root goes deep into the soil. E.g. Tur, Grape, Cotton etc.
Adventitious/Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into
the soil.  E.g. Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc.

7) Economic Importance:
Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g. Sugarcane, cotton.
Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for cattle. E.g.
Jowar, wheat, rice etc.

8) No. of Cotyledons:
Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed. 
Gramineae: includes the following crops: wheat, barley, rice, maize, oat, sugar cane,
sorghum, ryegrass, and sudangrass.
Liliaceae: includes onion and garlic.

Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons in the seed.

Leguminosae: field bean, lupine, chickpea, lentil, fenugreek, Egyptian clover, alfalfa,
soybean, peanut, grass pea, castor bean, red clover and white clover.
Malvaceae: cotton.
Linaceae: flax.
Solanceae: potato, tomato, and tobacco. 
Pedaliaceae: sesame.
Composite: sunflower and safflower
9) Photosynthesis (Reduction of CO2/Dark reaction):
C3 plants: Photorespiration is high in these plants C3 Plants have lower water use
efficiency. The initial product of C assimilation in the three ‘C’ compounds. The enzyme
involved in the primary carboxylation is ribulose-1,-Bisphosphate carboxylase.  E.g.
Rice, soybeans, wheat, barley cotton, potato.
C4 plants: The primary product of C fixation is four carbon compounds which may be
malice acid or acerbic acid. The enzymes responsible for carboxylation are
phosphoenol Pyruvic acid carboxylase which has a high affinity for CO2 and capable of
assimilation CO2 event at a lower concentration, photorespiration is negligible.
Photosynthetic rates are higher in C4 than C3 plants for the same amount of stomatal
opening. These are said to be drought resistant & they are able to grow better even
under moisture stress. C4 plants translate photosynthates rapidly.  E.g. Sorghum,
Maize, Napier grass, sesame etc.
CAM plants  (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism): the stomata open at night and a large
amount of CO2 is fixed as a malic acid which is stored in vacuoles. During day stomata
are closed. There is no possibility of CO2 entry. CO2 which is stored as malice acid is
broken down & released as CO2. In these plants, there is negligible transpiration. C4 &
CAM plants have high water use efficiency. These are highly drought resistant.  E.g.
Pineapple, sisal & agave.

10) Length of Photoperiod required for Floral Initiation:

Most plants are influenced by the relative length of the day & night, especially for floral
initiation, the effect on a plant is known as photoperiodism depending on the length of
photoperiod required for floral ignition, plants are classified as:
Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes plate when days are short less than ten hours. 
E.g. rice, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc.
Long day’s plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral ignition. E.g.
Wheat, Barley,
Day-neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for
these plants. E.g. Cotton, sunflower. The rate of the flowering initiation depends on
how short or long is photoperiod. Shorter the days, more rapid initiation of flowering in
short days plants. Longer the days more rapid are the initiation of flowering in long
days plants.

An “Agro-climatic zone” is a land unit in terms of major climates, suitable for a certain
range of crops and cultivars. The planning aims at scientific management of regional
resources to meet the food, fiber, fodder, and fuelwood without adversely affecting the
status of natural resources and environment.
Agro-climatic conditions mainly refer to soil types, rainfall, temperature and water
availability which influence the type of vegetations. An agro-ecological zone is the land
unit carved out of agro-climatic zone superimposed on landform which acts as a
modifier to climate and length of growing period.

The main objectives of agro-climatic regions are:

(i)To optimise agricultural production
(ii)To increase farm income
(iii)To generate more rural employment
(iv)To make a judicious use of the available irrigation water
(v)To reduce the regional inequalities in the development of agriculture.

The Planning Commission has categorised 15 agro-climatic zones in India, taking into
account the physical attributes and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the regions.

Zone Names & States Major Crops; Soil Measures

Rice, maize, barley, oats and
Western Himalayan wheat. Apple orchards and other
Research in better seeds and
Region: Jammu and temperate fruits such as peaches,
extension service for agricultural
1 Kashmir, apricot, pears, cherry,almond,
development are required.
Uttar Pradesh litchis, walnut, etc. Saffron is
grown in this region.
The main crops are rice, maize,
Eastern Himalayan Infrastructural facilities in the
potato, tea.There are orchards of
Region: Assam, region need to be improved and
pineapple, litchi, oranges and
Sikkim, West shifting cultivation controlled by
2 lime.
Bengal and all North- developing terrace
Jhuming(shifting cultivation)
Eastern states farming.
prevails in the hilly areas.

Rice is the main crop which at

times yields three successive
Lower Gangetic
crops (Aman, Aus and Boro) in a
Plains Region: West
year. Jute, maize, potato, and
3 Bengal
pulses are other important crops.
Region has adequate storage of
groundwater with high water
table.
Rice, maize, millets in kharif,
wheat, gram,barley, peas,
Middle Gangetic
mustard and potato in rabi are
Plains Region:
4 important crops.
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
Fertile alluvial plain drained by
the Ganga and its tributaries.
Improvement in rice farming,
horticulture(banana, mango and
citrus-fruits), pisciculture,poultry,
livestock, forage production and
seed supply.
Alternative farming systems, and
utilising chaur lands to boost
agricultural production.
Reclamation of user lands,
wastelands, and fallow lands for
agriculture and allied activities
(agro-forestry, silviculture,
floriculture etc.)
 Wheat, rice, sugarcane, millets,
maize, gram,barley, oilseeds,
Modernising traditional agriculture,
Upper Gangetic pulses and cotton are the main
dairy development, and
Plains Region: Uttar crops.
5 horticulture.Developing multiple
Pradesh Soil is sandy loam. Canal, tube-
mixed cropping patterns.
well and wells are the main
source of irrigation.
Important crops include wheat,
sugarcane, cotton,rice, gram,
Development of genotypes of rice,
maize, millets, pulses and
Trans-Gangetic maize and wheat with inbuilt
oilseeds
Plains resistance to pests and diseases.
The soil is alluvial which is
Region: Punjab, Promotion of horticulture; supply of
6 highly productive.
Haryana, quality seeds of vegetables and
Canals and tube-wells and
Delhi and Rajasthan planting material for horticulture
pumping sets have been installed
crops
by the cultivators
and the governments

Cultivation of high value crops of

Rainfed agriculture is practiced
pulses like tur, groundnut and
growing crops like rice, millets,
soyabean; improvement of
Eastern Plateau and maize, oilseeds, ragi, gram and
indigenous breeds of cattle and
Hills Region: potato.
buffaloes, extension of fruit
Maharashtra, Uttar Soils are red and yellow with
plantations, renovation including
7 Pradesh, Orissa and occasional patches of laterites
desilting of existing tanks and
West and alluviums. The region is
excavation of new tanks
Bengal deficient in water resources due
adopting integrated watershed
to plateau structure and non-
development approach to conserve
perennial streams.
soil and rain water

Crops grown are millets, wheat,

Water conservation through water
Central Plateau and gram, oilseeds,cotton and
saving devices like sprinklers and
Hills Region: sunflower
drip system; dairy development,
8 MP, Rajasthan, Uttar Soils are mixed red, yellow and
crop diversification,
Pradesh black.
groundwater development,
scarcity of water
reclamation of ravine lands

Wheat, gram, millets, cotton,

Increasing water efficiency by
pulses, groundnut, and oilseeds
Western Plateau popularizing water
are the main crops in the rain-fed
and Hills Region: saving devices like sprinklers and
areas,
9 Maharashtra, Madhya drip system; lower value crops of
while in the irrigated areas,
Pradesh and jowar, bajra and rainfed wheat
sugarcane, rice, and wheat, are
Rajasthan should give way to high-value
cultivated. Also grown are
oilseeds
oranges, grapes and bananas.
 Southern Plateau
Millets, oilseeds, pulses, coffee,
and Hills Region:
tea, cardamom and spices are Encouraging horticulture, dairy
10 Andhra Pradesh,
major plantations. development and poultry farming
Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu

Main crops include rice, jute, Increasing cropping intensity using

East Coast Plains tobacco, water-efficient crops on residual
and Hills Region: sugarcane, maize, millets, moisture, discouraging growing of
Orissa, Andhra groundnut and oilseeds rice on
11
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Soils are alluvial, loam and clay marginal lands and bringing such
and and are lands under alternate crops like
Pondicherry troubled by the problem of oilseeds
alkalinity and pulses

Rice, coconut, oilseeds,

West Coast Plains
sugarcane, millets,
and Ghat Region: Focus attention on raising of high
pulses, cotton, plantation crops
12 Tamil Nadu, Kerala, value crops infra-structural facilities
and spices are the main crops.
Goa, Karnataka, and promotion to prawn culture
Soils are laterite and coastal
Maharashtra
alluvial

Canal and groundwater

Groundnut, cotton, rice, millets,
management, rain water
Gujarat Plains and oilseeds, wheat and tobacco are
harvesting and management, dry
13 Hills Region: the main crops. Soils are regur
land farming, agro-forestry
Gujarat and alluvium
development,
wasteland development

Rainwater harvesting, increasing

Bajra, jowar, and moth are main yield level of horticultural crops,
Western Dry
14 crops of kharif and wheat and adopting high-quality germ- plasm
Region: Rajasthan
gram in rabi in cattle to improve
their breed;

Crop improvement, water

The Islands Region:
Main crops are coconut, rice, management; multi-purpose
Andaman and
15 maize, millets, pulses, arecanut, fishing vessels, suitable
Nicobar,
turmeric and cassava infrastructure for storage and
Lakshadweep
processing of fish

Cropping systems, an important component of a farming system, represents a

cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm
enterprises, and available technology, which determine their make up. It is defined, as
the order in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period or
cropping system is the way in which different crops are grown. In the cropping systems,
sometimes a number of crops are grown together or they are grown separately at
short intervals in the same field.

Broadly speaking there are 3 types of cropping systems in India:

1. Sequential – In sequential multiple cropping, farmers use short duration crops and
intensive input management practices. E.g.
In Maharashtra:- Rice-Frenchbean-Groundnut
In Rainfed Areas:- Pigeon Pea – Wheat
2. Inter-Cropping – Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field is
called intercropping. In this case, crop intensification is in both temporal and spatial
dimension. There is an inter-crop competition during all or in part of crop growth. E.g.
Maize and Groundnut in Ranchi
Cotton and Groundnut in Junagarh
3. Alley Cropping System – Growing of annual crops with multipurpose perennial
shrubs/trees is called alley cropping. It is a way of increasing production potential
under fragile environments. It is recommended to meet food, fodder and fuel needs
besides improving soil fertility e.g. In the salt-affected alluvial soil areas of Modipuram,
alley cropping of rice-wheat sequence is done with trees like babool.
Modern scientific cropping has three pillars,
1. Genotype: genetic makeup of seed.
2. Geometry of planting :
a. Shape of planting pattern on the land surface.
b. Space of the area for the individual plant. Geometry of planting may be circular,
rectangular, square type or cubical. It is indirectly related to plant population. Cubical
pattern of planting has maximum plant population. Plant population may be defined as
(i) size of area available to the individual plant, (ii) number of plants per unit area.
3. Management practices: include all the practices of crop production. For the
cropping system, management includes,
a. Type and arrangement of crops in time and space i.e. cropping pattern.
b. Choice of variety.
c. Method of stand establishment.
d. Pest management and harvest.

Depending on the resources and technology available, different types of cropping

systems are adopted on farms, which are as below.
Mono-cropping or Single Cropping: Mono-cropping refers to growing only one crop
on a particular land year after year. This is due to climatologically and socio-economic
conditions or due to specialization of a farmer in growing a particular crop.
Groundnut or cotton or sorghum is grown once in a year due to limitation of rainfall.
Rice crop is grown, as it is not possible to grow any other crops, in canal irrigated areas,
and under waterlogged conditions.

Monoculture: Practice of repetitive growing only crop irrespective of its intensity as

rice-rice-rice in Kerala, West Bengal, and Orissa.

Sole Cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density.

Multiple Cropping or Polycropping: It is a cropping system where two or three crops

are grown annually on the same piece of land using high input without affecting the
basic fertility of the soil. Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one
calendar year is known as multiple cropping.It includes inter-cropping, mixed cropping
and sequence cropping.

Relay Cropping: Growing the succeeding crop when previous crop is at its maturity
stage-or-sowing of the next crop immediately after the harvest of the standing crops.
Or it is a system of cropping where one crop stands overland to the crop in quick
succession. e.g.
1) Paddy - lathyrus
2) Paddy - Lucerne.
3) Cotton - Berseem.
4) Rice – Cauliflower – Onion - summer gourds.

Overlapping Cropping: In this system, the succeeding crop is sown in the standing
crop before harvesting. Thus, in this system, one crop is sown before the harvesting of
preceding crops. Here the lucerne and berseem are broadcasted in standing paddy
crop just before they are ready for harvesting.

Availability of quality seeds of improved cultivars is considered crucial for realizing

productivity and adoption of cultivars in different agro-climatic conditions. The good
quality seed should have the following characters:
1) Genetic purity, and uniformity and should conform to the standards of the particular
cultivar.
2) Disease-free, viable seeds.
3) Free from admixtures of other crop seeds, weeds and inert matter.
4) Acceptable uniformity with respect to size, shape and color.
Seed Production
Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate
care is given from the purchase of seeds up to harvest adopting proper seed and crop
management techniques.
The benefits of seed production are
1) Higher income
2) Higher quality seed for next sowing

There are two types (major) of seed production i.e. Varietal and hybrid based on the
type of seed used for multiplication
1) Varietal Seed Production: Single Parent multiplication, Isolation distance requirement
is comparatively  less, Production is by open pollination, Seed can be used continuously
for 3/4/5 generations, Production technique is uniform (multiplication), Production care
is comparatively  less, Yield will be lower and hence Profit is lower
2) Hybrid Seed Production: Needs two to many parents for multiplication, Isolation
distance requirement is comparatively less, Production is by managed control
pollination(Female), Seed has to be changed every time, Production technique differs
with crop, Production care is comparatively more, Yield will be higher and hence Profit
is more.

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF SEED PRODUCTION

Seed is the critical determinant of agricultural production on which depends the
performance and efficacy of other inputs. Quality seeds appropriate to different agro-
climatic conditions and in sufficient quantity at affordable prices are required to raise
productivity.
According to the National seeds Policy 2002, the thrust areas have to be-
1) Varietal Development.
2) Seed Production.
3) Seed Replacement Rate Enhancement.
4) Primary responsibility for production of breeder seed to be that of the ICAR/State
Agriculture Universities.
5) An effective seed production programme.
6) Popularization of new varieties.
7) Availability of newly developed varieties to farmers with minimum time gap.
8) Provision of incentives to domestic seed industry to enable it to produce seeds of
high yielding varieties and hybrid seeds at a faster pace to meet the challenges of
domestic requirements.

SEED PROCESSING
Seed lots received from the field are often at high moisture content and contain trash
and other inert material, weed seeds, deteriorated and damaged seeds, off-size seeds,
etc. Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level;
remove or reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable material, weed seeds,
other crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds. Other than this the seed lot
heterogeneity in its physical characters like size, colour, shape etc.
The seed lot is heterogeneous due to the following reasons:
1) The soil is heterogeneous and there is a lot of variability in the fertility status of the
soil due to the availability of nutrients, physical, chemical and biological properties.
2) Variability is introduced due to the position of seed set on the plant/ fruit, time of
pollination and fertilization over a period of time
3) Variability is created by biotic factors like pest and variability infestation.
4) Variability is also due to the management practices like water, land preparation,
levelling, staggered sowing, and uneven distribution of fertilizer and irrigation water,
uneven plant protection sprays and uneven maturity at harvest.

Agricultural Meteorology
A branch of applied meteorology which investigates the physical conditions of the
environment of growing plants or animal organisms. An applied science which deals
with the relationship between weather/climatic conditions and agricultural production.
A science concerned with the application of meteorology to the measurement and
analysis of the physical environment in agricultural systems. To study the interaction
between meteorological and hydrological factors on the one hand and agriculture in
the widest sense, including horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry on the other
(WMO).

Importance to Crop Production

(1) Helps in planning cropping patterns/systems.
(2) Selection of sowing dates for optimum crop yields.
(3) Cost effective ploughing, harrowing, weeding etc. ; Judicious irrigation to crops.
(4) Reducing or eliminating outbreak of pests and diseases.
(5) Efficient management of soils which are formed out of weather action.
(6) Managing weather abnormalities like cyclones, heavy rainfall, floods, drought etc.
This can be achieved by
(a) Protection: When rain is forecast avoid irrigation. But, when frost is forecast apply
irrigation.
(b) Avoidance: Avoid fertilizer and chemical sprays when rain is forecast
(c) Mitigation: Use shelterbelts against cold and heat waves.
(7) Avoiding or minimizing losses due to forest fires.
Weather Parameters:
Weather is a phrase of climate representing atmospheric condition at a given place and
at a given instant of time as against climate, representing atmospheric condition for a
longer period of time over a large area. Components of weather and climate or simply
weather elements include:
(1) Temperature 
(2) Solar radiation
(3) Humidity
(4) Cloud
(5) Pressure
(6) Wind
(7) Precipitation
The influence of weather and climate on crop growth and development and final yield
is complicated by complexity of interactions with crops and the environment during the
crop season. The influence of weather and climate on crop productivity can be
summarized as indicated below:

Weather parameters with favorable influence

(1) Weather and climate are important factors in determining the success or failure of
agriculture.
(2) All the agriculture operations from sowing to harvest of crops depend on the mercy
of weather.
(3) Climate determines suitability of a crop to a particular region while weather plays a
major role in the productivity of a crop in the region.
(4) The excess or shortage of elements of weather and climate exerts a negative
influence on crop growth, development and final yield.
(5) The effect of weather and climate is complex as elements of climate operate
simultaneously in nature.
(6) Due to complexity of environment in which a crop is grown, it is difficult to assign an
optimum value of climatic element for maximum crop productivity.

Weather parameters with negative influence 

(1) Excessively and untimely rains.
(2) Scanty rains with prolonged dry spells.
(3) Heat and cold waves.
(4) Dust-storms, thunderstorms and hailstorms.
(5) High winds.
(6) Floods.

Factors controlling weather and climate.

Geographical factors influencing weather and climate are referred to as climate
controls. They are:
(1) Latitude.
(2) Altitude.
(3) Land and water bodies.
(4) Mountains.
(5) Topography.

The distance from the equator, either from south or north, largely creates variations in
climate. Based on latitude, the climate has been classified as tropical, subtropical,
temperate and polar climates. The height from mean sea level adds to variation in
climate. Temperature and pressure decrease with increasing height from mean sea
level. Based on altitude, The climate is described as mountainous and valley climates.
Nearness to large bodies of water also causes variation in climate. The climates are
referred to as continental and maritime.

Crop-Weather Advisory
(1) Weather warnings issued by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA),
Government of India
(2) Crop Weather Outlook: Considering the growing acceptance of farmers for the
internet and mobile-based services, ICAR made an attempt to provide valuable
agromet information to the users through a common platform - 'Crop Weather
Outlook'. Key information available from this site are -Daily Weather Report, Monsoon
Status, Districts of deficit rainfall
(3) Advisories & Forecasts from Indian Meteorological Department: The Agricultural
Meteorology Division of IMD was established at Pune in 1932 and from its inception,
the Division supports and participates in multi-disciplinary activities in this field.
Forecasts and advisories for farmers are issued by IMD’s Forecasting Offices located at
different State capitals.
(4) Advisories from State Agricultural Universities
(5) National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA): National Initiative on
Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) is a network project of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched in February, 2011. The project aims to enhance
resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change and climate vulnerability through
strategic research and technology demonstration. The research on adaptation and
mitigation covers crops, livestock, fisheries and natural resource management.

Precision Farming
Precision agriculture is a management philosophy or approach to the farm and is not a
definable prescriptive system. It identifies the critical factors where yield is limited by
controllable factors and determines intrinsic spatial variability. It is essentially more
precise farm management made possible by modern technology. The variations
occurring in crop or soil properties within a field are noted, mapped and then
management actions are taken as a consequence of continued assessment of the
spatial variability within that field by adoption of site-specific management systems
using remote sensing (RS), GPS, and geographical information system (GIS).
Precision Farming is used to enhance productivity in agriculture, prevent soil degradation
in cultivable land, reduction of chemical use in crop production, efficient use of water
resources and dissemination of modern farm practices to improve quality, quantity &
reduced cost of production in agricultural crops.
In Precision agriculture, the field is broken into “management zones” also
called ‘Grids’based on soil pH, nutritional status, pest infestation, yield rates, and other
factors that affect crop production.

Technologies used in Precision Agriculture

Mapping
The generation of maps for crop and soil properties will measure spatial variability and
provide the basis for controlling spatial variability. The data collection technologies are
grid soil sampling, yield monitoring, RS and crop scouting. 
Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers 
Global Positioning System satellites broadcast signals that allow GPS receivers to
compute their location. This information is provided in real time, meaning that
continuous position information is provided while in motion. Having precise location
information at any time allows soil and crop measurements to be mapped.
Yield monitoring and mapping 
In highly mechanized systems, grain yield monitors continuously measure and record
the flow of grain in the clean-grain elevator of a combine. Yield information provides
important feedback in determining the effects of managed inputs such as fertilizer
amendments, seed, pesticides and cultural practices including tillage and irrigation.
Grid soil sampling and variable-rate fertilizer (VRT) application
Soil cores taken from random locations in the sampling area are combined and sent to
a laboratory to be tested. Crop advisors make fertilizer application recommendations
from the soil test information. Grid soil sampling uses the same principles of soil
sampling but increases the intensity of sampling. The goal of grid soil sampling is to
generate a map of nutrient requirement. 
Remote sensing   
Remotely-sensed data provide a tool for evaluating crop health. Plant stress related to
moisture, nutrients, compaction, crop diseases and other plant health concerns are
often easily detected in overhead images. These images allow mapping of crop, pest
and soil properties for monitoring seasonally variable crop production, stress, weed
infestation and extent within a field.
Geographic information systems (GIS) 
Geographic information systems (GIS) are Computer hardware and software that use
feature attributes and location data to produce maps. An important function of an
agricultural GIS is to store layers of information, such as yields, soil survey maps,
remotely sensed data, crop scouting reports and soil nutrient levels. 
Advantages:
Agronomical perspective:  Use agronomical practices by looking at specific requirements
of crop
Technical perspective: allows efficient time management
Environmental perspective: eco-friendly practices in crop
Economical perspective: increases crop yield, quality and reduces cost of production by
efficient use of farm inputs, labour, water etc.
The concept of "doing the right thing in the right place at the right time" has a
strong intuitive appeal which gives farmers the ability to use all operations and crop
inputs more effectively. More effective use of inputs results in greater crop yield and/or
quality, without polluting the environment. Precision agriculture can address both
economic and environmental issues that surround production agriculture today.

Drawbacks of precision farming

High cost: It has proven difficult to determine the cost benefits of precision agriculture
management. At present, many of the technologies used are in their infancy, and
pricing of equipment and services is hard to pin down.
Lack of technical expertise knowledge and technology: The success of precision agriculture
depends largely on how well and how quickly the knowledge needed to guide the new
technologies can be found
Not applicable or difficult/costly for small land holdings
Heterogeneity of cropping systems and market imperfections

System of Crop Intensification

The system of crop intensification method of growing food crops provides high yields,
on limited land, despite a much smaller amount of seed for planting. The ‘seeding
rate’ is the amount of seed needed to plant a particular area of land. The system of
grain intensification allows a much lower seeding rate, approximately one-tenth the
usual rate for a crop, with the same or higher yields.
This approach seeks not just to get more output from a given amount of inputs, a long-
standing and universal goal but aims to achieve higher output with less use of or less
expenditure on land, labour, capital, and water  – all by making modifications in crop
management practices. SCI practices enable farmers to mobilize biological processes
and potentials that are present and available within crop plants and within the soil
systems that support them
Generally speaking, the method has the same basic principles, with some variation for
individual crops:
1. Plant seeds close together in a ‘nursery’, a bed of loose composted soil.
2. Transplant the seedlings into the field after 8 to 15 days of growth.
3. Make certain that the field soil is loose, drains well and is thoroughly amended with
compost
4. Use a wide spacing of plants (typically 7.5 to 15 plants per square meter)
5. Weed the field carefully
6. Keep the soil moist, but not over watered; some methods let the field dry periodically
between watering
7. Chemical fertilizer can be used in addition to compost to increase yields further.

Organic Farming
Organic farming “is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed
additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic agriculture systems rely upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, off-farm organic wastes,
mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks, and aspects of biological pest control to
maintain soil productivity, tilt, to supply plant nutrients, and to control insects, weeds, and
other pests”.

Interest in organic agricultural methods is growing, especially in areas where the

present modern farming system has unleashed many agro-ecological and
environmental problems both on and off the farm, which threaten food security. The
following are some examples:
a) Degradation of soil quality (structured & fertility)
b) Pollution of soil, water and food with pesticides and nitrates
c) Health effects on farmers, farm workers, farm families, rural communities (apart
from concerns about the non-intended effects of pesticides on human beings in
general, sound use of pesticides requires a technical knowledge which is often lacking
in developing countries)
d) Resistance of pests to pesticides
e) Dependence on off-farm agricultural inputs which can increase poor farmers’
dependence on credit facilities (to purchase synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and seed),
which may result in decreased local food security and self-reliance.

Crop production and health in organic farming systems is attained through a combination
of structural factors and tactical management components to ensure products of
sufficient quality and quantity for human and livestock consumption.
1. Diverse crop rotations
2. Soil fertility management
3. Weed control
4. Natural pest and disease control
5. Integrated nutrient management
a) Bulky organic manures
b) Recycling of organic wastes
c) Bio-fertilizers
d) Green Manuring

Soil Types in India

Soil Type States Major Deficient in Crops

Minerals
Alluvial Mainly found in Potash and Nitrogen and Large variety of
the plains of Lime Phosphorous rabi and kharif
Gujarat,  Punjab, crops such as
Haryana, UP, wheat, rice,
Bihar, Jharkhand sugarcane,
etc. cotton, jute etc.
Black(Regur Deccan plateau- Lime, Iron, Phosphorous, Cotton,
Soil) Maharashtra, Magnesia and Nitrogen and sugarcane,
Madhya Pradesh, Alumina, organic matter jowar, tobacco,
Gujarat, Andhra Potash wheat, rice etc.
Pradesh,Tamil
Nadu, Valleys of
Krishna and
Godavari.
Red Eastern and Iron and Nitrogen, Wheat, rice,
southern part of Potash Phosphorous cotton,
the deccan and humus. sugarcane and
plateau, Orissa, pulses
Chattisgarh and
southern parts of
the middle Ganga
plain.
Laterite Karnataka, Iron oxide and Organic matter, Cashewnuts,
Kerala, potash Nitrogen, tea, coffee,
Tamilnadu, Phosphate and rubber
Madhya Pradesh, Calcium
Assam and
Orissa hills.
 Arid and Western Soluble salts, Humus, Only drought
Desert Rajastan, north phosphate Nitrogen resistant and
Gujarat and salt tolerant
southern Punjab crops such as
barley, rape,
cotton, millets
maize and
pulses
Saline and Western Gujarat, Sodium, Nitrogen and Unfit for
Alkaline deltas of eastern Potassium, Calcium agriculture
coast, Sunderban Magnesium
areas of West
Bengal, Punjab
and Haryana

Soil Fertility
“The capability of the soil to provide all the essential plant nutrients in available form is
called as soil fertility”.
Soils are composed of five main components:
a) mineral particles derived from rocks by weathering;
b) organic materials - humus from dead and decaying plant material;
c) soil water - in which nutrient elements are dissolved;
d) soil air - both carbon dioxide and oxygen;
e) Living organisms including bacteria that help plant decomposition.

Types of Soil Fertility:

(i) Inherent or Natural Fertility:
(a) The soil, as nature contains some nutrients, which is known as inherent fertility.
(b) Among plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is essential for the
normal growth and yield of crop. The inherent fertility has a limiting factor from which
the fertility is not decreased.
(ii) Acquired Fertility:
(a) The fertility developed by application of manures and fertilizers, tillage, irrigation,
etc., is known as acquired fertility.
(b) The acquired fertility has also a limiting factor. It is found by experiment that the
yield does not increase remarkably by application of additional quantity of fertilizers.

Methods of Soil Fertility Evaluation

Different Methods of Soil Fertility Evaluation are:
1. Biological Method: a. Field trials b. Pot culture c. Neubauer seedling method d.
Aspergillus niger method.
2. Use of visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency or toxicity method.
3. Plant Analysis Method: a. Total elemental analysis b. Plant tissue tests 4. Soil Analysis
Method: Soil testing has been used by soil scientist as an aid in determining soil fertility
level.

Causes of Decline in Soil Fertility

1) Nutrient mining
2) Physical degradation of soil (poor structure, compaction, crusting and waterlogging
etc.)
3) Decrease in organic matter content and soil bioactivity
4) Loss of nutrients through various routes
5) Soil acidification, salinization and alkalization
6) Inefficient soil management
7) Soil pollution
8) Loss of top soil by erosion

Managing Decline in Soil Fertility

Fertility management aims to maintain soil organic matter, soil structure, soil nutrient
status and satisfactory soil pH.
This can be achieved in cropping systems by:
1) including pasture phases and leguminous crops
2) including the addition of soil amendments or fertilizers
3) employing a reduced tillage system
4) Retaining crop residues on site.

Fertilizers
Fertilizer, natural or artificial substance containing the chemical elements that improve
growth and productiveness of plants. Fertilizers enhance the natural fertility of the soil
or replace the chemical elements taken from the soil by previous crops. 
Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two ways, the traditional
one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilisers
act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and
aeration.
Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions three main macronutrients: 
Nitrogen (N): leaf growth
Phosphorus (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit
Potassium (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of
flowering and fruiting
Three secondary Macronutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S)
Micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn),
boron (B), and of occasional significance there are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium
(V) plus rare mineral catalysts.

Types of Fertilizers 
1. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: The nitrogenous fertilizers are divided into four groups —
nitrate, ammonia and ammonium salts, chemical compounds containing nitrogen in
the amide form, and plant and animal byproducts. Major varieties are Sodium Nitrate,
Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium Nitrate, Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate, Ammonium
Chloride, Urea, Calcium Ammonium Sulphate 
2. Organic Nitrogenous Fertilizers: These fertilizers include plant and animal by-products,
such as oil cakes, fish manure etc.. Before use by the crops these materials are
converted by bacterial fermentation into utilizable ammonium-nitrogen and nitrate-
nitrogen.
3. Phosphate Fertilizers: Phosphate fertilizers are classified as natural phosphates,
treated phosphates, by-product phosphates and chemical phosphates. Major varieties
are Rock Phosphate, Super Phosphate, Basic Slag, Bone-Meal 
4. Potassic Fertilizers: In India most of the soils contain sufficient amount of potash.
Potassic fertilizers are used as muriate of potash (potassium chloride)and sulphate of
potash (potassium sulphate). 
5. Compound  Fertilizers: These fertilizers contain two or three plant nutrients
simultaneously. When both nitrogen and phosphorus are deficient in soil, a compound
fertilizer, e.g., amorphous, can be used.
6. Complete Fertilizers (NPK): mixtures containing all the three principal nutrients (N, P
and K) are called complete fertilizers as most soils usually remain deficient in these
three elements.

Soil Science
“The science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth,
including Pedology (soil genesis, classification, and mapping), physical, chemical,
biological and fertility properties of soil and these properties in relation to their
management for crop production.”
Soil Science has six well defined and developed disciplines
Soil fertility: Nutrient supplying properties of soil
Soil chemistry: Chemical constituents, chemical properties, and the chemical reactions
Soil physics: Involves the study of physical properties
Soil microbiology: Deals with microorganisms, its population, classification, its role in
transformations
Soil conservation: Dealing with protection of soil against physical loss by erosion or
against chemical deterioration i.e excessive loss of nutrients either natural or artificial
means.
Soil Pedology: Dealing with the genesis, survey and classification
Composition of Soil on volume basis
Mineral matter: 45%
Organic matter: 5%
Soil water: 25%
Soil air: 25%

Erosion
A process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals which are
brought about by physical agents and chemical processes, leading to the formation of
Regolith (unconsolidated residues of the erosion rock on the earth’s surface or above
the solid rocks).
Types of erosion
There are two major types of soil erosion 
a) Geological erosion (Natural or normal erosion): is said to be in equilibrium with soil
forming process. It takes place under natural vegetative cover completely undisturbed
by biotic factors. This is a very slow process. 
b) Accelerated erosion: is due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the activities of
man and animals through land mismanagement, destructing of forests over grazing
etc., Soil loss through erosion is more than the soil formed due to soil forming process.

Different agents of erosion

Physical/Mechanical Chemical Biological

1. Physical condition of 1. Hydration 1. Man & animals
rock
2.Change of temperature 2. Hydrolysis 2. Higher plants & their
roots
3. Action of H2O 3. Solution 3. Microorganisms
-Fragmentation & 4. Carbonation
transportation
-Action of freezing 5. Oxidation
-Alternative wetting & 6. Reduction
drying
-Action of glaciers
4. Action of wind
5. Atmospheric electric
 phenomenon

Forms of water erosion 

Water erosion occurs in stages identified as sheet erosion, rills, gullies, ravines,
landslides and stream bank erosion. 
a) Sheet erosion: uniform removal of surface soil in thin layers by rainfall and runoff
water. The breaking action of raindrop combined with surface flow is the major cause
of sheet erosion. It is the first stage of erosion and is least conspicuous, but the most
extensive. 
b) Rill erosion: When runoff starts, channelization begins and erosion is no longer
uniform. Raindrop impact does not directly detach any particles below flow line in rills
but increases the detachment and transportation capacity of the flow. Incisions are
formed on the ground due to runoff and erosion is more apparent than sheet erosion.
This is the second stage of erosion. Rills are small channels, which can be removed by
timely normal tillage operations.
c) Gully erosion: It is the advanced stage of water erosion. Size of the unchecked rills
increases due to runoff. Gullies are formed when channelized runoff from vast sloping
land is sufficient in volume and velocity to cut deep and wide channels. Gullies are the
spectacular symptoms of erosion. If unchecked in time no scope for arable crop
production.
d) Ravines: They are the manifestations of a prolonged process of gully erosion. They
are typically found in deep alluvial soils. They are deep and wide gullies indicating
advanced stage of gully erosion.
e) Landslides: Landslides occur in mountain slopes when the slope exceeds 20% and
width is 6m. Generally, landslides cause blockage of traffic in ghat roads.
f) Streambank erosion: Small streams, rivulets, torrents (hill streams) are subjected to
stream bank erosion due to obstruction of their flow. Vegetation sprouts when streams
dry up and obstruct the flow causing cutting of bank or changing of flow course.

Mechanism of Wind Erosion

Lifting and abrasive action of wind results in detachment of tiny soil particles from the
granules or clods. The impact of these rapidly moving particles dislodges other
particles from clods and aggregates. In general movement of soil particles by wind
takes place in three stages: saltation, surface creep, and suspension.
a) Saltation: It is the first stage of movement of soil particles in a short series of bounces
or jumps along the ground surface. After being rolled by the wind, soil particles
suddenly leap almost vertically to form the initial stage of movement in saltation. 
b) Surface creep: Rolling and sliding of soil particles along the ground surface due to
impact of particles descending and hitting during saltation is called surface creep.
Movement of particles by surface creep causes an abrasive action of soil surface
leading to break down of non-erodable soil aggregates.
c) Suspension: Movement of fine dust particles smaller than 0.1 mm diameter by
floating in the air is known as suspension. Soil particles carried in suspension are
deposited when the sedimentation force is greater than the force holding the particles
in suspension. This occurs with decrease in wind velocity.

Soil conservation
Soil conservation is using and managing the land based on the capabilities of the land
itself involving application of the best management practices leading to profitable crop
production without land degradation.
Measures of water erosion control 
a) Agronomic measures: Land preparation, Contour cultivation, Choice of crops, Strip
cropping, Crop rotation /cropping systems, Cover crops, Mulching, Application of
manures and fertilizers, Application of chemicals
b) Mechanical measures (Engineering measures): involve construction of mechanical
barriers across the direction of flow of rainwater to retard or retain runoff and thereby
reduce soil and water loss. The mechanical measures include: Contour bunding;
Graded bunding; Bench terracing; Gully control /plugging; Vegetative barriers
c) Forestry measures: Forest lands are usually found at higher elevations where the
slopes are steepest, soils are less stable and easily eroded and precipitation is heavy.
The leaves and branches of trees and shrubs intercept the rain and reduce the impact
of raindrops. Contour trenching and aforestation is recommended for improving the
productivity of forests.
d) Agrostological measures: Grasses prevent erosion by intercepting rainfall and by their
binding power of the soil particles. The desirable characters of grasses for soil
conservation are: Should be perennial; Drought resistant; Rhizomniferous; Develop
good canopy; Deep root system; Prostate growth habit; Less palatable to cattle; Useful
for cottage industries

Watershed Management
A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which runoff from precipitation is
collected and drained through a common point or outlet. In other words, it is a land
surface bounded by a divide, which contributes runoff to a common point. It is defined
as unit of area, which covers all the land, which contributes runoff to a common point.
It is synonymous with a drainage basin or catchment area. The basic unit of
development is a watershed, which is a manageable hydrological unit.
Watershed management is the rational utilization of land and water resources for
optimum production with minimum hazard to natural resources.
Watershed management has been taken up under different programmes launched by
Government of India. The Drought Prone Area Development Programme (DPAP) and
the Desert Development Programme (DDP) adopted watershed development approach
in 1987. The Integrated Watershed Development Project (IWDP) taken up by the
National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in 1989 also aimed at the
development of wastelands on watershed basis. The fourth major programme based
on watershed concept is the National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed
Areas (NWDPRA) under the Ministry of Agriculture.The ministry of Rural development
funds watershed development schemes under DDP, DPAP, and IWDP.

The main components of watershed programme are:

1. Soil and water conservation
2. Water harvesting
3. Crop management and
4. Alternate land use systems

Based on the size the watersheds may be classified as

Micro watersheds: The size of the watershed range from few hectares to hundreds of
hectares. These can be designed within the crop fields.
Small watersheds: The watershed has few thousands of hectares as drainage area.
Large watersheds: The river basins are considered as large watersheds.

The objectives of watershed management programme can also be described in

symbolic form by the expression: POWER. Here the letters symbolize the following:
P= Production of food-fodder-fuel-fruit-fibre-fish-milk combined on a sustained basis-
Pollution control; Prevention of floods
O= Over-exploitation of resources to be minimized by controlling excessive biotic
interferences like overgrazing- Operational practicability of all on farm operations and
follow-up programmes including easy approachability to different locations in
watershed
W= Water storage at convenient locations for different purposes- Wild animal and
indigenous plant life conservation at selected places
E= Erosion control- Ecosystem safety; Economic stability; Employment generation
R= Recharge of groundwater- Reduction of drought hazards; Reduction of siltation in
multipurpose reservoirs; Recreation

Irrigation
Irrigation is defined as “Artificially supplying & systematically dividing of water for
agriculture & horticulture in order to obtain higher or qualitatively better production”. It is
one of the most important critical inputs for enhancing the productivity that is required
at different critical stages of plant growth of various crops for optimum production.
Irrigation Management
Management of water based on the soil and crop environment to obtain better yield by
efficient use of water without any damage to the environment. Management of water,
soil, plants, irrigation structure, irrigation reservoirs, environment, social setup and it’s
inter liked relationship are studied in the irrigation management.
For this we have to study soil’s physical and chemical properties, biology of crop plants,
quantity of water available, time of application of water, method of application of
water, climatological or meteorological influence on irrigation and environment and &
changes due to irrigation.
Management of all the above-said factors constitutes Irrigation Agronomy.
Management of irrigation structures, conveyances, reservoirs constitutes Irrigation
Engineering.

Importance of Irrigation
a) Uncertainty due to  insufficient, uncertain and irregular rain causes:  The period of rain is
restricted to only four months in a year, June to September, when monsoon arrives.
The remaining eight months are dry. There is some rainfall during the months of
December and January in some parts of the country. Even during monsoon, the rainfall
is scanty and undependable in many parts of the country. Sometimes the monsoon
delayed considerably while sometimes they cease prematurely. This pushes large areas
of the country into drought conditions. With the help of irrigation, droughts and
famines can be effectively controlled.
b) Higher productivity on irrigated land: Productivity on irrigated land is considerably
more than the productivity on un-irrigated land.
c) Multiple cropping possible: Since India has a tropical and sub-tropical climate, it has
potentialities to grow crops on a year-round basis. However, since 80% of the annual
rainfall is received in less than four months, multiple cropping is generally not possible.
Provision of irrigation facilities can make possible the growing of two or three crops in
a year in most areas of the country.
d) Role in new agricultural strategy: The successful implementation of the High Yielding
Programme enhances agricultural production to a great extent.
e) Bringing more land under cultivation: Cultivable wasteland comprises another 13.83
million hectares. Cultivation On all such lands is impossible in some cases while in
others it requires substantial capital investment to make land fit for cultivation.
Provision of irrigation facilities can make some portion of this land cultivable.
f) Reduces instability in output levels: Irrigation also plays a protective role during
drought years. Irrigation has enabled many states to acquire ‘partial immunity’ from
drought.
g) Indirect benefits of irrigation: Irrigation confers indirect benefits through increased
agricultural production. Employment potential of irrigated lands, increased production,
helps in developing allied activities, means of water transport etc. are improved income
of government from agriculture. Availability of regular water supply will increase the
income of farmers imparting a sense of security and stability in agriculture.
Irrigation systems are often designed to maximize efficiencies & minimize labor &
capital requirements. There are three broad classes of irrigation system:
a) Pressurized distribution: The pressurized systems include sprinkler, trickle, in which
water is conveyed to & distributed over the fields through pressurized pipe networks.
b) Gravity flow distribution: This system conveys & distributes water at the field level by a
free surface, overland flow regime.
c) Drainage flow distribution: Irrigation by control of the drainage system sub-irrigation is
not so common but is interesting. Relatively large volumes of applied irrigation water
percolate through the root zone & become a drainage or groundwater flow. By
controlling the flow at critical points, it is possible to raise the level of the groundwater
to within reach of the crop roots.

To supply water the entire field uniformly so that each plant would get sufficient
amount of water, there are various types of irrigation techniques that differ in how the
water obtained from the source is distributed within the field. These are:
a) Surface Irrigation: In this irrigation system water moves over & across the land by
simple gravity flow in order to wet it & to infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can
be subdivided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood
irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land.
b) Ditch Irrigation: This is the simplest & oldest irrigation system & it is still common in
many parts of the world. The only technology essential is the manpower or machines
to dig ditches or furrows between the rows of plants. Water is added to the ditches by
means of gravity flow, pumps & siphons.
c) Localized Irrigation: It is a system where water is distributed under low pressure
through a piped network, in a predetermined pattern, & applied as a small discharge.
d) Drip Irrigation: This is also known as trickle irrigation. Water is delivered at or near
the root zone of plants; drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient
method of irrigation.
e) Overhead Irrigation: This is the artificial application of water to crops from above.
Central pivot systems, which are in wide use in areas of flat terrain, have sprinklers
spaced along very long aluminum or steel pipes that extend in two directions from a
central supply point. Sprinkler systems are another very common overhead irrigation
system. In these systems, water is piped to a point within the area to be irrigated.
f) Sub-Irrigation: This is also called as seepage irrigation used for many years in the
fields where water table is high. This method artificially raises the water table by
allowing the soil to be moistened from below the plant's root zone.
g) Manual Irrigation: This system has low requirements for infrastructure & technical
equipment but needs high labor inputs by using buckets or watering cans.

According to the different sources of irrigation, there are two major divisions found.
These are:
a) Flow Irrigation: The water of a reservoir or tank usually remains at a higher level &
when a channel is connected to it, water automatically flows down the channel which
fulfills the purpose of a canal for irrigation. In this case, water level remains higher than
the fields. Such irrigation is known as the flow irrigation.
b) Lift Irrigation: Where the fields lie at a higher level & the canals or tanks lie at a lower
level, it becomes essential to lift the water by pump etc. to irrigate land. Water is lifted
from tanks, wells & tube wells by pumps for irrigation through channels. This method
of irrigation is known as the lift irrigation.

Limitations of Irrigation:
Despite large-scale investment and expansion of irrigation facilities, it is a matter of
serious concern that about 60 percent of the total cropped area is still dependent on
rain. There are a number of problems related to irrigation and they have to be solved.
a) Delays in completion of projects
b) Inter-state water disputes
c) Regional disparities in irrigation development
d) Waterlogging and salinity
e) Increasing cost of irrigation
f) Losses in operating irrigation projects
g) Decline in water table

Sources of Irrigation
Depending upon the availability of surface or groundwater, topography, soil, rainfall
conditions and rivers, various types of irrigation are practiced in India.

Canal Irrigation:
A canal is an artificial watercourse constructed for water supply and irrigation. Canals
can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low relief, deep fertile soils, perennial
source of water and an extensive command area. Therefore the main concentration of
canal irrigation is in the northern plains. The canals are practically absent from the
peninsular plateau region because of rocky terrain. However, the coastal and the delta
regions in South India have some canals for irrigation.
There are two types of canals:
Inundation Canals – These are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system
like weirs etc at their head. Such canals are useful only during the rainy season
Perennial Canals – These are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by
constructing a barrage across the river. Most of the canals at present in India are
perennial.

Merits: Perennial Source; Provides safety from droughts; Brings fertile sediments to the
fields; Economical to serve a large area
Demerits: Canal water soaks into the ground and leads to waterlogging, increases
salinization, and leads to marshy conditions leading to malaria and flooding; Wastage
of water.

Wells (and Tube Wells)

This method of irrigation has been used in India from time immemorial. Various
methods are used to lift the groundwater from the well. Some of the widely used
methods are the persian wheel, reht, charas or mot, and dhinghly (lever) etc. Well,
irrigation is gradually giving way to energized tube wells. It is particularly suitable in
areas with permeable rock structure which allows accumulation of groundwater
through percolation. Therefore wells are seen more in areas with alluvial soil, regur
soil, etc. and less seen in rocky terrain or mountainous regions.

Merits: Simplest and cheapest; Well is an independent source of irrigation and can be
used as and when the necessity arises. Canal irrigation, on the other hand, is controlled
by other agencies and cannot be used at will; Some groundwater salts are useful for
crops ;Does not lead to salinization and flooding problems; There is a limit to the extent
of canal irrigation beyond the tail end of the canal while a well can be dug at any
convenient place.
Demerits: Only limited area can be irrigated; Not suitable for dry regions; Overuse may
lead to lowering of water table.

Tank irrigation
A tank is a reservoir for irrigation, a small lake or pool made by damming the valley of a
stream to retain the monsoon rain for later use. It is practiced mainly in the peninsular
region due to the following reasons: 
a) Undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and well
b) Little percolation of water due to hard rock structure and groundwater is not
available in large quantities
c) Most of the rivers are seasonal; there are many streams which become torrential
during the rainy season – so the only way to use this water is to impound it by
constructing bunds and building tanks.  Also, it is easy to collect rainwater in natural or
artificial pits because of impermeable rocks.
d) Scattered nature of agricultural fields

Merits: Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve cost for their construction;
Independent source for an individual farmer or a small group of farmers; longer
lifespan; can be used for fishing also
Demerits: Depends on rain and these tanks may dry up during the dry season; Silting of
their beds; Require large areas; Evaporation losses; Sometimes there might be a need
to lift the water to take it to the field
Crop Water Requirement
Crop water requirement is the water required by the plants for its survival, growth,
development and to produce economic parts. This requirement is applied either
naturally by precipitation or artificially by irrigation. Hence the crop water requirement
includes all losses like:
a) Transpiration loss through leaves (T)
b) Evaporation loss through soil surface in cropped area (E)
c) Amount of weather used by plants (WP) for its metabolic activities which is estimated
as less than 1% of the total water absorption. These three components cannot be
separated so easily. Hence the ET loss is taken as crop water use or crop water
consumptive use.
d) Other application losses are conveyance loss, percolation loss, runoff loss, etc., (WL).
e) The water required for special purposes (WSP) like puddling operation, ploughing
operation, land preparation, leaching, requirement, for the purpose of weeding, for
dissolving fertilizer and chemical, etc.

The following features which mainly influence the crop water requirement are:
a) Crop factors: Variety; Growth stages; Duration; Plant population; Crop growing
season
b) Soil factors: Structure; Texture; Depth; Topography; Soil chemical composition
c) Climatic factors: Temperature; Sunshine hours; Relative humidity; Wind velocity;
Rainfall
d) Agronomic management factors: Irrigation methods used; Frequency of irrigation
and its efficiency; Tillage and other cultural operations like weeding, mulching etc /
intercropping

Crops Duration(Days) Water Notes

Requirement(mm)
1. Rice 135 1250 The growth of rice
plant in relation to
water management
can be divided into
four periods viz.
Seedling, vegetative,
reproductive and
ripening. Less water
is consumed during
seedling stage.
2. Groundnut 105 550 Evapotranspiration
is low during the
 first 35 days after
sowing and last 35
days before harvest
and reaches a peak
requirement
between peg
penetration and
pod development
stages.
3. Sorghum 100 350 Irrigation prior to
heading and ten
days after heading
are essential for
successful crop
production.
4. Maize 110 500 Uniformly requires
water in all stages
5. Sugarcane 365 2000 The response for
applied water is
more during this
critical phase during
which the crop
needs higher
quantity of water
comparing, the
other two phases.
6. Ragi 100 350 a drought tolerant
crop.
7. Cotton 165 550 Little water is used
by plant with early
part of the season
and more water is
lost through
evaporation than
transpiration.
8. Pulses 65 350 Mostly are grown
under rainfed
condition.

Command Area Development 

The Centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was
launched in 1974-75 with the main objectives of improving the utilization of created
irrigation potential and optimizing agriculture production and productivity from
irrigated agriculture through a multi-disciplinary team under an Area Development
Authority.
The Command Area Development Programme is an integrated area development
approach towards the command areas of major and medium irrigation projects in the
country. The Command Area Development Wing of the Ministry of Water Resources
coordinates and monitors the implementation of CADWM at the national level.
Proposals received from the States for inclusion of new projects under the programme
are examined and, if found techno-economically feasible, are included.

The main objectives covered under the programme are:-

a) Bridge the gap between potential created and their utilization through micro-level
infrastructure development and efficient farm water management practices.
b) Optimization of agricultural productivity & production and
c) Improvement in socio-economic conditions of farmers
The Programme includes the following components:-
a) On-Farm Development (OFD) works i.e. Development of field channels and field
drains within the command of each outlet; land leveling; reclamation of waterlogged
areas (since April 1996); enforcement of a proper system of Warabandi and fair
distribution of water to the fields; realignment of field boundaries wherever necessary
(if possible, consolidation of holding); supply of all inputs and services including credit;
strengthening of extension services; and, encouraging farmers for participatory
irrigation management (PIM).
b) Selection and introduction of suitable cropping pattern.
c) Development of groundwater to supplement surface irrigation.
d) Modernization, maintenance and efficient operation of the irrigation system upto
the outlet of one-cusec capacity (irrigation sector).
e) Correction of System Deficiencies
f) Desilting of Tanks in CAD Commands for augmenting supplies
g) Bio-Drainage (selective areas). 

On-Farm Development Works (OFD)

On-Farm Development works include lining of field irrigation channels and
infrastructural facilities like bed regulators, diversion and distribution boxes, turnouts
and drop structures to regulate and convey the irrigation water from government
controlled outlets to individual land holdings.
This type of work mainly aims to reduce conveyance and application losses, to
minimize water logging condition and to conserve water
Rotational Water Supply (RWS)
RWS is one of the techniques is irrigation water distribution management. It aims at
equi-distribution of irrigation water irrespective of location of the land in the command
area by enforcing irrigation time schedules.

Water Conservation Techniques

Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities to sustainably
manage the natural resource of fresh water, to protect the hydrosphere, and to meet
the current and future human demand. Population, household size, and growth and
affluence all affect how much water is used. Factors such as climate change have
increased pressures on natural water resources especially in manufacturing and
agricultural irrigation.
a) Conservation by surface water storage: Storage of water by construction of various
water reservoirs have been one of the oldest measures of water conservation. The
scope of storage varies from region to region depending on water availability and
topographic condition. 
b) Conservation of rainwater: Contour farming is an example of rain water harvesting
technique involving water and moisture control at a very simple level. It often consists
of rows of rocks placed along the contour of steps. Runoff captured by these barriers
also allows for retention of soil, thereby serving as erosion control measure on gentle
slopes. This technique is especially suitable for areas having rainfall of considerable
intensity, spread over large part i.e. in Himalayan area, north east states and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
c) Groundwater conservation: It is done by-
(i) Artificial recharge: Water is spread over ground to increase area and length of time
for water to remain in contact with soil. So as to allow maximum possible opportunity
for water to enter into the ground.
(ii) Percolation tank method: Percolation tanks are constructed across the water course
for artificial recharge.
d) Catchment area protection (CAP): Catchment protection plans are usually called
watershed protection or management plans.These form are an important measure to
conserve and protect the quality of water in a watershed. It helps in withholding runoff
water albeit temporarily by a check bund.
e) Inter-basin transfer of water.
f) Adoption of drip sprinkler irrigation: Surface irrigation methods, which are traditionally
used in our country, are unsuitable for water scarce areas, as large amount of water is
lost through evaporation and percolation. Drip irrigation is an efficient method of
irrigation in which a limited area near the plant is irrigated by dripping water.
g) Management of growing pattern of crops: In water scarce areas, the crop selection
should be based on efficiency of the crop to utilize the water. Some of the plants
suitable for water scarce areas are plants with shorter growth period; High yielding
plants that require no increase in water supply; Plants with deep and well trenched
roots and Plants which cannot tolerate surface irrigation.
h) Reducing evapotranspiration: Evapotranspiration losses can be reduced by reducing
the evaporation from soil surface and transpiration from the plants, in arid zones,
considerable amount of water is lost in evaporation from soil surface. This can be
prevented by placing water tight moisture barriers or water tight mulches on the soil
surface. Non-porous materials like papers, asphalt, plastic foils or metal foils can also
be used for preventing evaporation losses.
i) Reducing evaporation from various water bodies: The water losses through evaporation
from storage tanks, reservoirs, irrigation tanks, rivers and canals reduce the water
available for various uses. The methods that reduce evaporation from water bodies
are- installing wind breaks, reducing energy available for evaporation, constructing
artificial aquifers, minimizing exposed surface through reservoir regulation, reducing
ratio of area/volume of water bodies, locating reservoirs at higher altitudes and
applying monomolecular firms.
j) Recycling of water: The wastewater from industrial or domestic sources can be used
after proper treatment, for irrigation, recharging ground water, and even for industrial
or municipal use. If agricultural lands are available close to cities, municipal waste
water can be easily used for irrigation.

Micro-Irrigation
It can be defined as the application of water at low volume and frequent interval under
low pressure to plant root zone. Micro-irrigation, also called localised irrigation, low
volume irrigation, low-flow irrigation, or trickle irrigation is an irrigation method with
lower pressure and flow than a traditional sprinkler system. Low volume irrigation is
used in agriculture for row crops, orchards, and vineyards. It is also used in horticulture
in wholesale nurseries, in landscaping for civic, commercial, and private landscapes and
gardens, and in the science and practice of restoration ecology and environmental
remediation.
Micro irrigation is defined as the frequent application of small quantities of water
directly above and below the soil surface; usually as discrete drops, continuous drops
or tiny streams through emitters placed along a water delivery line.

Need of Micro Irrigation:

a) To make agriculture productive,
b) Environmentally sensitive and capable of preserving the social fabric of rural
communities
c) Help produce more from the available land, water and labor resources without either
ecological or social harmony,
d) Generate higher farm income
e) On-farm and off-farm employment. 
Irrigation Pumps
The mechanical device or arrangement by which water is caused to flow at increased
pressure is known as a pump and the process of using a pump for this purpose is
known as pumping.
Pumps are classified on the basis of mechanical principles of operation as
a) Positive Displacement Pumps: In a positive displacement pump, the fluid is physically
displaced by mechanical devices such as the plunger, piston, gears, cams, screws etc. In
this type of pump, a vacuum is created in a chamber by some mechanical means and
then water is drawn in this chamber. The volume of water thus drawn in the chamber
is then shifted or displaced mechanically out of chamber. These are further classified
into :
(i) Reciprocating Pump
(ii) Rotary Pump
b) Variable Displacement Pumps: The distinguishing feature of variable displacement
pumps is the inverse relationship between the discharge rate and the pressure head.
As the pumping head increases, the rate of pumping decreases. They are also termed
as Roto Dynamic Pumps. These are urther classified into:
(i) Centrifugal Pump
(ii) Turbine Pump
(iii) Propeller Pump
(iv) Jet Pump
(v) Air Lift Pump

Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation.

Irrigation projects in Indian context is classified as follows:
a) Major project: This type of project consists of huge surface water, storage reservoirs
and flow diversion structures. The area envisaged to be covered under irrigation is of
the order over 10000 hectare.
b) Medium project: These are also surface water projects but with medium size storage
and diversion structures with the area under irrigation between 10000 hectare and
2000 hectare.
c) Minor project: The area proposed under irrigation for these schemes is below 2000Ha
and the source of water is either ground water or from wells or tube wells or surface
water lifted by pumps or by gravity flow from tanks. It could also be irrigated from
through water from tanks. 

The major and medium irrigation projects are further classified as

a) Direct irrigation method
b) Storage irrigation method.
Commanded area (CA): is defined as the area that can be irrigated by a canal system, the
CA may further be classified as under:
Gross command area (GCA): This is defined as total area that can be irrigated by a canal
system on the perception that unlimited quantity of water is available. It is the total
area that may theoretically be served by the irrigation system. But this may include
inhibited areas, roads, ponds, uncultivable areas etc which would not be irrigated.
Culturable command area (CCA): This is the actually irrigated area within the GCA.
However, the entire CCA is never put under cultivation during any crop season due to
the following reasons:
a) The required quantity of water, fertilizer, etc. may not be available to cultivate the
entire CCA at a particular point of time. Thus, this is a physical constraint.
b) The land may be kept fallow that is without cultivation for one or more crop seasons
to increase the fertility of the soil. This is a cultural decision.
c) Due to high water table in some areas of the CCA irrigated water may not be applied
as the crops get enough water from the saturation provide to the surface water table.
During any crop season, only a part of the CCA is put under cultivation and this area is
termed as culturable cultivated area. The remaining area which is not cultivated during
a crop season is conversely termed as culturable uncultivated area.
Intensity of irrigation is defined as the percentage of the irrigation proposed to be
irrigated annually. Usually, the areas irrigated during each crop season (Rabi, Kharif,
etc) is expressed as a percentage of the CCA which represents the intensity of irrigation
for the crop season. By adding the intensities of irrigation for all crop seasons the
yearly intensity of irrigation to be obtained.

Farm Power
Farm Power is an essential input in agriculture for timely field operations for increasing
production and productivity of land. Farm power is used for operating different types
of machinery like tillage, planting, plant protection, harvesting and threshing machinery
and other stationary jobs like operating irrigation equipment,
threshers/shellers/cleaners/ graders, etc.

Sources of Farm Power

There are different sources of farm power available in India which are classified as 
a) Human power
b) Animal power 
c) Mechanical power (Tractors + Power tillers + Oil engines)
d) Electrical power
e) Renewable energy (Biogas + Solar energy + Wind energy)

Human Power 
Human power is the main source for operating small implements and tools at the farm.
Stationary work like chaff cutting, lifting, water, threshing, winnowing etc are also done
by manual labour. An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for
doing farm work.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work.  
Demerits: Costliest power compared to all other forms of power; Very low efficiency;
Requires full maintenance when not in use; Affected by weather condition and
seasons.

Animal Power 
Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
Bullocks are employed for all types farm work in all seasons. Besides bullocks, other
animals like camels, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules and elephants are also used at
some places. The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body
weight.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work; Low initial investment; Supplies
manures to the field and fuels to farmers; Lives on farm products. 
Demerits: Not very efficient; Seasons and weather affect the efficiency; Cannot work at a
stretch; Requires full maintenance when not in use; Creates unhealthy and dirty
atmosphere near the residence; Very slow in doing work.

Mechanical Power 
Broadly speaking, mechanical power includes stationary oil engines, tractors, power
tillers and self-propelled combines. Internal combustion engine is a good device for
converting liquid fuel into useful work (mechanical work). These engines are two types
a) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine)
b) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines) 
The thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from 32 to 38 percent whereas that of
petrol engine varies from 25 to 32 percent. In modern days, almost all the tractors and
power tillers are operated by diesel engines. Diesel engines are used for operating
irrigation pumps, flour mills, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff cutter, sugarcane crusher,
threshers, winnowers etc.
Merits: Efficiency is high; Not affected by weather; Cannot run at a stretch; Requires less
space;  Cheaper form of power.
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Fuel is costly; Repairs and maintenance needs
technical knowledge.

Electrical Power 
Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms. Motor is a
very useful machine for farmers. It is clean, quest and smooth running. Its maintenance
and operation needs less attention and care. The operating cost remains almost
constant throughout its life. Electrical power is used for water pumping, diary industry,
cold storage, farm product processing, fruit industry and many similar things.
Merits: Very cheap form of power; High efficiency; Can work at a stretch; Maintenance
and operating cost is very low; Not affected by seasons. 
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Requires good amount of technical knowledge;
If handled carelessly, it may cause great danger.

Renewable Energy 
It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind,
biomass etc. Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and
domestic purposes with suitable devices. Renewable energy can be used for lighting,
cooking, water heating, space heating, water distillation, food processing, water
pumping, and electric generation. This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.
Usage of renewable energy sources
a) Solar energy- Solar dryers, lantern, cooker, solar still, solar refrigeration, solar
lighting etc 
b) Wind energy- Water pumping, electricity generation etc. 
c) Biomass energy- Gasifiers to produce producer gas, pyrolysis to produce liquid fuels,
Biogas etc 
d) Tidal energy – electricity generation 
e) Geothermal energy- Heat and electricity production

Advantages of Renewable Energy

a) These sources of energy are renewable and there is no danger of depletion. These
recur in nature and are inexhaustible.
b) The power plants based on renewable sources of energy don‟t have any fuel cost
and hence negligible running cost.
c) Renewable are more site specific and are used for local processing and application.
There is no need for transmission and distribution of power.
d) Renewables have low energy density and more or less there is no pollution or
ecological balance problem.
e) Most of the devices and plants used with the renewables are simple in design and
construction which are made from local materials, local skills and by local people. The
use of renewable energy can help to save foreign exchange and generate local
employment.
f) The rural areas and remote villages can be better served with locally available
renewable sources of energy. There will be huge savings from transporting fuels or
transmitting electricity from long distances.

Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

a) Low energy density of renewable sources of energy need large sizes of plant
resulting in increased cost of delivered energy.
b) Intermittency and lack of dependability are the main disadvantages of renewable
energy sources.
c) Low energy density also results in lower operating temperatures and hence low
efficiencies.
d) Although renewables are essentially free, there is definite cost-effectiveness
associated with its conversion and utilization.
e) Much of the construction materials used for renewable energy devices are
themselves very energy intensive.
f) The low efficiency of these plants can result in large heat rejections and hence
thermal pollution.
g) The renewable energy plants use larger land masses.

Biomass
Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in
biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be burned directly or converted to liquid
biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels.
Four types of biomass are:
a) Wood and agricultural products: Most biomass used today is homegrown energy.
Wood-logs, chips, bark, and sawdust-accounts for about 79 percent of biomass energy.
But any organic matter can produce biomass energy. Other biomass sources include
agricultural waste products like fruit pits and corn cobs. 
b) Solid waste:  There is nothing new about people burning trash. What's new is burning
trash to generate electricity. This turns waste into a usable form of energy. A ton (2,000
pounds) of garbage contains about as much heat energy, as pounds of coal.
c) Landfill gas: Bacteria and fungi eat dead plants and animals, causing them to rot or
decay. Even though this natural process is slowed in the artificial environment of a
landfill, methane gas is still produced as the waste decays. Landfills can collect the
methane gas, purify it, and then use it as an energy source. Methane, which is the same
thing as natural gas, is a good energy source.
d) Alcohol fuels: Wheat, corn, and other crops can be converted into a variety of liquid
fuels including ethanol and methanol.

Advantages
1) Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of heat,
steam, and electricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.
2) Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.
3) Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds value to
agricultural crop.
4) Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbon dioxide.
5) The use of waste materials reduce landfill disposal and makes more space for
everything else.
6) Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in by plants.
7) Less money spent on foreign oil.

Disadvantages
1) Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer grown.
2) Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.
3) Land used for energy crops may be in demand for other purposes, such as farming,
conservation, housing, resort or agricultural use.
4) Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are relatively small
and therefore are limited.
5) Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass-based fuels.
6) Is in some cases is a major cause of pollution.

Water Harvesting Structures

There are many ways of harvesting water. All these methods basically fall under three
main categories viz.:
a) Surface water collection
b) Groundwater collection
c) Augmentation of groundwater recharge

Eco-zone Traditional water Description Found in

harvesting systems
1.Trans- Zing Tanks for collecting Ladakh
Himalayan Region water from melted
ice
2.Western Kul Water channels in Jammu, Himachal
Himalayas mountain areas Pradesh
Naula Small ponds Uttaranchal
Kuhl Headwall across a Himachal
ravine to divert Pradesh
water from a natural
stream for irrigation
Khatri Chambers carved in Himachal
hard rock for storing Pradesh
water
3.Eastern Apatani Terraced plots Arunanchal
Himalayas connected by inlet Pradesh
 and outlet channels
4.Northeastern Zabo Impounding runoff Nagaland
Hill Ranges
Cheo-oziihi Channels from rivers Nagaland
Bamboo Drip Irrigation Water from streams Meghalaya
in the hills is brought
to the plains via
bamboo pipes for
drip irrigation
5.Brahmaputra Dongs Ponds Assam
Valley
Dungs/Jampois Small irrigation West Bengal
canals linking rice
fields and a stream
6.Indo-Gangetic Ahar-pynes Embanked South Bihar
Plain catchment basin and
channels
Bengal’s inundation Inundation canals West Bengal
channels
Dighis Small square or Delhi
circular reservoir fed
by canals from rivers
Baolis Stepwells Delhi
7.Thar Desert Kunds/Kundis Underground West Rajasthan
storage
Kuis/Beris Deep pits near tanks West Rajasthan
Baoris/Bers Community wells Rajasthan
Jhalaras Tank Rajasthan,
Gujarat
Nadi Village ponds Jodhpur,
Rajasthan
Tankas Underground tank Bikaner,
Rajasthan
Khadins Embankment across Jaisalmer, West
lower hill slopes Rajasthan
Vav/Vavdi/Baoli/Bavadi Stepwells Gujarat,
Rajasthan
Virdas Shallow wells Rann of Kutch,
Gujarat
Paar Area where water -
 has percolated,
accessed by kuis
8.Central Talab/Bandhis Reservoirs Bundelkhand,
Highlands         Madhya Pradesh
Saza Kuva Open Well Mewar, East
Rajasthan
Johads Earthen check dam Alwar, Rajasthan
Naada/Bandh Stone check dam Mewar, East
Rajasthan
Pat Diversion bund Jhabua, Madhya
across stream Pradesh
Rapat Percolation tank Rajasthan
Chandela Tank Tank Rajasthan
Bundela Tank Tank Rajasthan
9.Eastern Katas/Mundas/Bandhas Earthen Orissa, Madhya
Highlands embankments Pradesh
across drainage lines
10.Deccan Cheruvu Reservoirs to store Chitoor,
Plateau runoff Cuddapah of
Andhra Pradesh
Kohli Tanks Tanks Maharashtra
Bhandaras Check dams Maharashtra
Phad Check dams and North Western
canals Maharashtra
Kere Series of tanks Central
Karnataka
Ramtek Model Intricate network of Ramtek,
groundwater and Maharashtra
surface water
bodies, connected
through surface and
underground canals
11.Western Ghats Surangam Horizontal Wells Kasargode,
Kerala
12.Western Virdas Shallow Wells Rann of Kutch,
Coastal Plains Gujarat
13.Eastern Ghats Korambu Temporary wall of Kerala
brushwood, grass
and mud laid across
channels to raise the
 level of water
14.Eastern Yeri Tank Tamil Nadu
Coastal Plains
Ooranis Ponds Tamil Nadu
15.The Islands Jackwells Bamboo pipes are Great Nicobar
used to lead water Islands
into shallow pits

Advantages of harvesting water

When a small waterbody or source is created, there are several benefits.
a) The standing water percolates into the ground and recharges the water table
b) Wells in the surrounding areas have plenty of good water
c) Green cover increases in the surrounding areas
d) Soil erosion is reduced
e) Silting of rivers is reduced
f) Floods and runoff get controlled

Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future
usage. The collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used
for recharge purposes. With depleting groundwater levels and fluctuating climate
conditions, RWH can go a long way to help mitigate these effects. Capturing the
rainwater can help recharge local aquifers, reduce urban flooding and most
importantly ensure water availability in water-scarce zones.

Farm Ponds
Farm Pond is a dug out structure with definite shape and size having proper inlet and
outlet structures for collecting the surface runoff flowing from the farm area. It is one
of the most important rain water harvesting structures constructed at the lowest
portion of the farm area. The stored water must be used for irrigation only.
For recharging the ground water, the structures require high capacity and are generally
located in the soils having high infiltration rates and are called percolation tanks.
Percolation tank is meant for only recharge purpose and not for irrigation. Such
structures conceptually differ in their hydrology and physical location. A farm pond
must be located within a farm drawing the maximum runoff possible in a given rainfall
event. A percolation pond can be dug out in any area where the land is not utilized for
agriculture.

Farm ponds can be designed for three strategies of irrigation in rainfed regions as
given below:
a) Meeting the crop water requirement of growing season 
b) Meeting water requirement of critical irrigation(CRI) during the critical stages of crop
growth 
c) Meeting water requirement in cropping system approach( Irrigation during critical
stages of kharif crop plus the water requirement of rabi vegetable).

Depending on the source of water and their location, farm ponds are grouped into four
types:
a) Excavated or Dug out ponds
b) Surface ponds
c) Spring or creek fed ponds and
d) Off stream storage ponds.

Watershed Management
Watershed is an ideal natural unit over which hydrological processes are integrated
and for which a water balance may be constructed to show the disposal of
precipitation into a number of subsequent forms i.e. interception, soil moisture and
ground storages, evapo-transpiration and run-off. Also, watershed approach is logical
for evaluating the biophysical linkages of upland and downstream activities, this
approach is holistic and environmental impacts can readily be evaluated.
An integrated watershed management framework should generally be based on the
practices that protect a watershed or prevent it from damage, reduce the effect of
land-use to an acceptable level, and restore degraded environments for the benefit of
the people living in them.
Watershed Management is the management of all the natural resources available
within the watershed. These resources are agriculture, forests, water, land, biodiversity
etc. Watershed management implies management of all the resources in integration.
For integrated way of managing watershed, one institution should take a strong role
(lead agencies) for coordination and integration and other responsible agencies should
act as line agencies and support the integrated programme by implementing their
responsible activities in integration.

Agro Processing
Agro processing could be defined as set of technoeconomic activities carried out for
conservation and handling of agricultural produce and to make it usable as food, feed,
fibre, fuel or industrial raw material. Hence, the scope of the agro-processing industry
encompasses all operations from the stage of harvest till the material reaches the end
users in the desired form, packaging, quantity, quality and price. Ancient Indian
scriptures contain vivid account of the post harvest and processing practices for
preservation and processing of agricultural produce for food and medicinal uses.

Controlled Storage
A controlled atmosphere is an agricultural storage method in which the concentrations
of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, as well as the temperature and humidity of a
storage room are regulated. Both dry commodities and fresh fruit and vegetables can
be stored in controlled atmospheres. Controlled or modified atmosphere storage
should be used as a supplement to, and not as a substitute for, proper temperature
and relative humidity management. Some simple methods for modifying the
composition of air in the storage environment are listed below. Air coming into the
storeroom or being re-circulated within the room must pass through a monitoring and
control system.

Oxygen gas control:
a) to Decrease:
i) purging with nitrogen
ii) from liquid nitrogen through an evaporator
iii) from a membrane system nitrogen generator
iv) from a molecular sieve system nitrogen generator
Carbon dioxide control:
a) to Increase:
i) dry ice
ii) pressurized gas cylinder
b) to Decrease:
i) molecular sieve scrubber
ii) activated charcoal scrubber
iii) sodium hydroxide scrubber
iv) hydrated lime
Ethylene control:
a) to Decrease:
i) potassium permanganate
ii) activated charcoal
iii) catalytic oxidation

Modified Storage
Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal
atmosphere of a package (commonly food packages, drugs, etc.) in order to improve
the shelf life.
The modification process often lowers the amount of oxygen (O 2), typically from 20.9%
to 0%, in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation
reactions. The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen (N 2), a comparatively
inert gas, or carbon dioxide (CO2), which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of
bacteria. Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat. Re-
balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such
as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing “breathable” films
known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP). Packets containing
scavengers may be used

Farm Power
Farm Power is an essential input in agriculture for timely field operations for increasing
production and productivity of land. Farm power is used for operating different types
of machinery like tillage, planting, plant protection, harvesting and threshing machinery
and other stationary jobs like operating irrigation equipment,
threshers/shellers/cleaners/ graders, etc.

Sources of Farm Power

There are different sources of farm power available in India which are classified as 
a) Human power
b) Animal power 
c) Mechanical power (Tractors + Power tillers + Oil engines)
d) Electrical power
e) Renewable energy (Biogas + Solar energy + Wind energy)

Human Power 
Human power is the main source for operating small implements and tools at the farm.
Stationary work like chaff cutting, lifting, water, threshing, winnowing etc are also done
by manual labour. An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for
doing farm work.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work.  
Demerits: Costliest power compared to all other forms of power; Very low efficiency;
Requires full maintenance when not in use; Affected by weather condition and
seasons.

Animal Power 
Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
Bullocks are employed for all types farm work in all seasons. Besides bullocks, other
animals like camels, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules and elephants are also used at
some places. The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body
weight.
Merits: Easily available; Used for all types of work; Low initial investment; Supplies
manures to the field and fuels to farmers; Lives on farm products. 
Demerits: Not very efficient; Seasons and weather affect the efficiency; Cannot work at a
stretch; Requires full maintenance when not in use; Creates unhealthy and dirty
atmosphere near the residence; Very slow in doing work.
Mechanical Power 
Broadly speaking, mechanical power includes stationary oil engines, tractors, power
tillers and self-propelled combines. Internal combustion engine is a good device for
converting liquid fuel into useful work (mechanical work). These engines are two types
a) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine)
b) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines) 
The thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from 32 to 38 percent whereas that of
petrol engine varies from 25 to 32 percent. In modern days, almost all the tractors and
power tillers are operated by diesel engines. Diesel engines are used for operating
irrigation pumps, flour mills, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff cutter, sugarcane crusher,
threshers, winnowers etc.
Merits: Efficiency is high; Not affected by weather; Cannot run at a stretch; Requires less
space;  Cheaper form of power.
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Fuel is costly; Repairs and maintenance needs
technical knowledge.

Electrical Power 
Electrical power is used mostly in the form of electrical motors on the farms. Motor is a
very useful machine for farmers. It is clean, quest and smooth running. Its maintenance
and operation needs less attention and care. The operating cost remains almost
constant throughout its life. Electrical power is used for water pumping, diary industry,
cold storage, farm product processing, fruit industry and many similar things.
Merits: Very cheap form of power; High efficiency; Can work at a stretch; Maintenance
and operating cost is very low; Not affected by seasons. 
Demerits: Initial capital investment high; Requires good amount of technical knowledge;
If handled carelessly, it may cause great danger.

Renewable Energy 
It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind,
biomass etc. Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and
domestic purposes with suitable devices. Renewable energy can be used for lighting,
cooking, water heating, space heating, water distillation, food processing, water
pumping, and electric generation. This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.
Usage of renewable energy sources
a) Solar energy- Solar dryers, lantern, cooker, solar still, solar refrigeration, solar
lighting etc 
b) Wind energy- Water pumping, electricity generation etc. 
c) Biomass energy- Gasifiers to produce producer gas, pyrolysis to produce liquid fuels,
Biogas etc 
d) Tidal energy – electricity generation 
e) Geothermal energy- Heat and electricity production

Advantages of Renewable Energy

a) These sources of energy are renewable and there is no danger of depletion. These
recur in nature and are inexhaustible.
b) The power plants based on renewable sources of energy don‟t have any fuel cost
and hence negligible running cost.
c) Renewable are more site specific and are used for local processing and application.
There is no need for transmission and distribution of power.
d) Renewables have low energy density and more or less there is no pollution or
ecological balance problem.
e) Most of the devices and plants used with the renewables are simple in design and
construction which are made from local materials, local skills and by local people. The
use of renewable energy can help to save foreign exchange and generate local
employment.
f) The rural areas and remote villages can be better served with locally available
renewable sources of energy. There will be huge savings from transporting fuels or
transmitting electricity from long distances.

Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

a) Low energy density of renewable sources of energy need large sizes of plant
resulting in increased cost of delivered energy.
b) Intermittency and lack of dependability are the main disadvantages of renewable
energy sources.
c) Low energy density also results in lower operating temperatures and hence low
efficiencies.
d) Although renewables are essentially free, there is definite cost-effectiveness
associated with its conversion and utilization.
e) Much of the construction materials used for renewable energy devices are
themselves very energy intensive.
f) The low efficiency of these plants can result in large heat rejections and hence
thermal pollution.
g) The renewable energy plants use larger land masses.

Biomass
Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in
biomass is released as heat. Biomass can be burned directly or converted to liquid
biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels.
Four types of biomass are:
a) Wood and agricultural products: Most biomass used today is homegrown energy.
Wood-logs, chips, bark, and sawdust-accounts for about 79 percent of biomass energy.
But any organic matter can produce biomass energy. Other biomass sources include
agricultural waste products like fruit pits and corn cobs. 
b) Solid waste:  There is nothing new about people burning trash. What's new is burning
trash to generate electricity. This turns waste into a usable form of energy. A ton (2,000
pounds) of garbage contains about as much heat energy, as pounds of coal.
c) Landfill gas: Bacteria and fungi eat dead plants and animals, causing them to rot or
decay. Even though this natural process is slowed in the artificial environment of a
landfill, methane gas is still produced as the waste decays. Landfills can collect the
methane gas, purify it, and then use it as an energy source. Methane, which is the same
thing as natural gas, is a good energy source.
d) Alcohol fuels: Wheat, corn, and other crops can be converted into a variety of liquid
fuels including ethanol and methanol.

Advantages
1) Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of heat,
steam, and electricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.
2) Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.
3) Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds value to
agricultural crop.
4) Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbon dioxide.
5) The use of waste materials reduce landfill disposal and makes more space for
everything else.
6) Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in by plants.
7) Less money spent on foreign oil.

Disadvantages
1) Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer grown.
2) Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.
3) Land used for energy crops may be in demand for other purposes, such as farming,
conservation, housing, resort or agricultural use.
4) Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are relatively small
and therefore are limited.
5) Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass-based fuels.
6) Is in some cases is a major cause of pollution.

Ministry of Rural Development

The Ministry of Rural Development, a branch of the Government of India, is
entrusted with the task of accelerating the socio-economic development of rural India.
Its focus is on health, education, drinking water, housing and roads.

The vision and mission of Ministry of Rural Development

Being the nodal Ministry for most of the development and welfare activities in the rural
areas, the Ministry of Rural Development plays a pivotal role in the overall
development strategy of the country. The vision and mission of the Ministry are
sustainable and inclusive growth of rural India through a multipronged strategy for
eradication of poverty by increasing livelihoods opportunities, providing the social
safety net and developing infrastructure for growth. This is expected to improve the
quality of life in rural India and to correct the developmental imbalances, aiming in the
process, to reach out to most disadvantaged sections of the society.
The Ministry of Rural Development consists of two Departments, viz.,
1. Department of Rural Development,
2. Department of Land Resources.

Path Behind

Rural development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as

greater social transformation. Increased participation of people in the rural
development programmes, decentralisation of planning, better enforcement of land
reforms and greater access to credit are envisaged for providing the rural people
with better prospects.

Initially, the main thrust for development was laid on agriculture, industry,
communication, education, health and allied sectors. Later on, realising that
accelerated development can be provided only if governmental efforts are adequately
supplemented by the direct and indirect involvement of people at the grass root level,
the thrust shifted.

Accordingly, on 31st March 1952, an organisation known as Community Projects

Administration was set up under the Planning Commission to administer the
programmes relating to community development. The community development
programme, inaugurated on October 2, 1952, was an important landmark in the
history of the rural development. This programme underwent many changes and was
handled by different Ministries.
In October 1974, the Department of Rural Development came into existence as a part
of Ministry of Food and Agriculture. On 18th August 1979, the Department of Rural
Development was elevated to the status of a new Ministry of Rural Reconstruction. It
was renamed as Ministry of Rural Development on 23rd January 1982. In January
1985, the Ministry of Rural Development was again converted into a Department under
the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development which was later rechristened as
Ministry of Agriculture in September 1985. On July 5th, 1991 the Department was
upgraded as Ministry of Rural Development. Another Department viz. Department of
Wasteland Development was created under this Ministry on 2nd July 1992. In March
1995, the Ministry was renamed as the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment with
three departments namely Department of Rural Employment and Poverty Alleviation,
Rural Development and Wasteland Development.

Again, in 1999 Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment was renamed as Ministry of

Rural Development. This Ministry has been acting as a catalyst effecting the change in
rural areas through the implementation of wide spectrum of programmes which are
aimed at poverty alleviation, employment generation, infrastructure development and
social security. Over the years, with the experience gained, in the implementation of
the programmes and in response to the felt needs of the poor, several programmes
have been modified and new programmes have been introduced. The Ministry's main
objective is to alleviate rural poverty and ensure improved quality of life for the rural
population especially those below the poverty line. These objectives are achieved
through formulation, development and implementation of programmes relating to
various spheres of rural life and activities, from income generation to environmental
replenishment.

In order to ensure that the fruits of economic reform are shared by all sections of
societies five elements of social and economic infrastructure, critical to the quality of
life in rural areas, were identified. These are health, education, drinking water, housing
and roads. To impart greater momentum to the efforts in these sectors the
Government launched the Pradhan Mantri Gramdoya Yojana (PMGY) and the
Ministry of Rural Development was entrusted with the responsibility of implementing
drinking water, housing and rural roads component of PMGY.

During the Ninth Plan period, several anti-poverty Programmes have been restructured
to enhance the efficiency of the Programmes for providing increased benefits to the
rural poor. Self Employment Programmes were revamped by merging the Integrated
Rural Development Programme (IRDP), the Development of Women and Children in
Rural Areas (DWCRA), the Supply of Improved Tool-Kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), the
Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), the Ganga Kalyan
Yojana (GKY) and the Million Wells Scheme (MWS) into a holistic self-employment
scheme called Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY).

Keeping in view the needs and aspirations of the local people, Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs) have been involved in the programme implementation and these
institutions constitute the core of the decentralized development of planning and its
implementation. The Ministry vigorously pursue with the State Governments for
expeditious devolution of requisite administrative and financial powers to PRIs as
envisaged under 73rd Amendment Act of the Constitution of India. On 25th
December 2002, under Drinking Water Sector, a new initiative 'Swajal
Dhara' empowering the Panchayats to formulate, implement, operate and maintain
drinking water Projects was launched. In order to further involve PRIs in the
development process, a new initiative 'Hariyali' was launched by Hon'ble Prime
Minister on 27th January 2003. Hariyali was launched to strengthen and involve
Panchayati Raj Institutions in the implementation of watershed development
programmes namely IWDP, DPAP and DDP.

Realising that empowerment of rural women is crucial for the development of rural
India, a women's component is introduced in the programmes for poverty alleviation to
ensure the flow of adequate funds to this section. The Constitutional Amendment
(73rd), Act 1992 provides for reservation of selective posts for women. The
Constitution has placed enormous responsibility on the Panchayats to formulate and
execute various programmes of economic development and social justice, and a
number of Centrally Sponsored Schemes are being implemented through Panchayats.
Thus, women Members and Chairpersons of Panchayats, who are basically new
entrants in Panchayats, have to acquire the required skill and be given appropriate
orientation to assume their rightful roles as leaders and decision makers. Imparting
training to elected representatives of PRIs is primarily the responsibility of the State
Governments/Union Territory Administrations. Ministry of Rural Development also
extends some financial assistance to the States/UTs with a view to improve the quality
of training programmes and to catalyse capacity building initiatives for the elected
members and functionaries of PRIs.

The Eleventh Plan saw the injection of huge resources from the Union Budget to the
rural and farm sector. This thrust formed the substance of the Bharat Nirman
Programme. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act has
provided a major foundational support. Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation
has been separated from the Ministry of Rural Development from 13th July 2011 and
renamed as Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. 

Schemes
The following major programmes are being operated by the Ministry of Rural
Development in rural areas,
1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) for
providing wage employment,
2. National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) for self-employment and skill
development,
3. Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) for providing housing to BPL households,
4. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) for construction of quality roads
5. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) for social pension
6. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) for improving the
productivity of the land.
7. Monitoring & Evaluation
8. Council for Advancement of People's Action and Rural Technology (CAPART)
9. DIKSHA (Training Portal)
10. National Rurban Mission (NRuM)
11. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna - Gramin
12. DAY-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM)
13. National Rural Livelihood Mission
14. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)
15. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
16. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY)

In addition, the Ministry also has schemes for capacity development of rural
functionaries; Information, Education and Communication; and Monitoring and
Evaluation.

The budget for Rural India

1. Minimum Support Price (MSP) of all crops shall increase to at least 1.5 times that of
the production cost.
2. The government will set up a fund of Rs 2,000 crore for developing agricultural
markets.
3. MSP for Kharif cost will be 1.5 times the cost of production.
4. As per the FM, APMCs will be linked with ENAM. 
5. The government will develop 22,000 Gramin agricultural markets. 
6. The cluster-model approach will be adopted for agricultural production.
7. Allocation in food production sector doubled to Rs 1400 crore.
8. Operation Green will be launched for agriculture and the Minister allocates Rs500
crore for this.
9. Agricultural corpus worth Rs 2000 crore will be set up. 470 APMCs have been
connected to eNAM network, the rest to be connected by March 2018.
10. A fund for the fishery, aquaculture development, and animal husbandry will be set
up with a total corpus to be Rs 10,000 crore.
11. Union Govt will also allocate Rs 1290 crore for a bamboo mission, as it is green
gold.
12. In all, we are providing Rs 10 lakh crore to Rs 11 lakh crore as credit for
agricultural activities.
13. FM Arun Jaitley proposes to increase the target of providing free LPG connections to
8 crores to poor women.

Ministers and Secretariats-

1. Narendra Singh Tomar 

(a) Minister of Rural Development 
(b)  Panchayati Raj and Mines

2. Ram Kripal Yadav (Minister of State for Rural Development)

3. Amarjeet Sinha (Secretary of Department of Rural Development)
4. Dinesh Singh (Secretary of Department of Land Resources)

What is Poverty?
Poverty refers to socially perceived deprivation in terms of basic human needs. It has
both material and nonmaterial dimensions. The material dimension relates to
deprivation in consumption including items such as food, clothing, durables, shelter,
health, education and connectivity. Nonmaterial dimension relates to deprivation
associated with such phenomena as discrimination based on gender, religion, race or
caste.
Note: The conventional approach to measuring poverty focuses on the material
dimension.

Measuring Poverty
The first step in measuring poverty is to specify a threshold level of expenditure that
separates the poor from non-poor. 
The threshold expenditure, which is called the poverty line, is the amount necessary to
purchase a basket of goods and services deemed necessary to satisfy basic human
needs at socially acceptable levels. 
The basket itself may be referred to as the poverty line basket (PLB).
Rangarajan Committee Poverty Line
The Planning Commission appointed the committee in 2012 under the chairmanship of
economist C. Rangarajan. 
It submitted the report in June 2014. 
It recommended separate consumption baskets for rural and urban areas which
include food items that ensure recommended calorie, protein & fat intake and non-
food items like clothing, education, health, housing, and transport. 
It again de-links the rural and urban poverty lines. 
The recommended methodology of Rangarajan committee raised the Tendulkar
national rural poverty line from Rs. 816 per-capita per month at 2011-12 prices to Rs.
972 and the Tendulkar national urban poverty line from Rs. 1000 per capita per month
at 2011-12 prices to Rs. 1407. 
The recommended increase was 19% in the rural poverty line and 41% in the urban
poverty line. 
These revisions lead to the total national poverty estimate in 2011-12 to rise from 21.9
percent under the Tendulkar line to 29.5 percent.

Note: India has relied on a two-pronged strategy to eradicate poverty. In addition to

raising incomes of the poor through growth, it has used substantial portions of the
enhanced revenues from faster growth to directly help the poor. 

A Brief on the POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES TOWARDS POVERTY ALLEVIATION

The government’s approach to poverty reduction was of three dimensions. The first
one is the growth-oriented approach. It is based on the expectation that the effects of
economic growth — rapid increase in gross domestic product and per capita income —
would spread to all sections of society and will trickle down to the poor sections also. 

The policy makers started thinking that incomes and employment for the poor could be
raised through the creation of incremental assets and by means of work generation.
This could be achieved through specific poverty alleviation programmes. This was the
second approach & was initiated from the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66). 
Expanding self-employment programmes and wage employment programmes are
being considered as the major ways of addressing poverty. Examples of self-
employment programmes are Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP),
Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) and Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana
(SJSRY).
The third approach to addressing poverty is to provide minimum basic amenities to the
people. Programmes under this approach are expected to supplement the
consumption of the poor, create employment opportunities and bring about
improvements in health and education.
Three major programmes that aim at improving the food and nutritional status of the
poor are Public Distribution System, Integrated Child Development Scheme, and
Midday Meal Scheme. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya
Yojana, Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana are also attempts in the same direction. 
National Social Assistance Programme is one such programme initiated by the central
government.

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)

It aims at providing self-employment to the rural poor through acquisition of
productive assets or appropriate skills which would generate additional income on a
sustained basis to enable them to cross the poverty line. 
Assistance is provided in the form of subsidy and bank credit. 
The target group consists largely of small and marginal farmers,
agricultural labourers and rural artisans living below the poverty line.
IRDP is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme which is in operation in all the blocks of the
country since 1980. Under this scheme, Central funds are allocated to States on the
basis of proportion of rural poor in a State to the total rural poor in the country.
Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)
The Scheme of TRYSEM, a facilitating component of IRDP, aims at providing basic
technical and entrepreneurial skills to the rural poor in the age group of 18 to 35 years
to enable them to take up income generating activities. 
The Eighth Plan emphasized the importance of a proper assessment of the training
needs of the rural youth in relation to self and wage-employment opportunities, quality
of training and group training.
With a view to strengthening this programme, several initiatives were taken in the
Eighth Plan which includes: 
increase in the stipend and honorarium rates; emphasis on professionalised training
through the established and recognised institutes like ITIs, Community Polytechnics,
Krishi Vigyan Kendras etc., exploring the possibilities of setting up production groups
from amongst TRYSEM trainees for undertaking ancillary activities like manufacture
and assembly of modern items of production; utilisation of TRYSEM infrastructure
funds for the strengthening of Nirmithi Kendras (Rural Building Centres) sponsored by
HUDCO for training of youth under TRYSEM in the trades of low cost housing and the
setting up of mini-ITIs at the block level to strengthen the training infrastructure for the
rural youth.
Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA)
It was launched in July 1992, as a sub-scheme of IRDP in selected districts, this scheme
has since been extended to all the districts of the country. 
Under the scheme, a variety of craftspersons, except weavers, tailors, needleworkers
and beedi workers, are supplied with a kit of improved hand tools within a financial
ceiling of Rs.2000, of which the artisans have to pay 10 percent and the remaining 90
percent is a subsidy from the Government of India. 
The supply of power-driven tools, subject to a ceiling of Rs.4500, is also permitted
under this scheme. Beyond this, any additional finance required by the artisans can be
provided through loans under IRDP. The rural artisans are trained under TRYSEM for
which an age relaxation has been provided to them.

DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS (DWCRA)

It aimed at strengthening the gender component of IRDP. 
It was started in the year 1982-83, on a pilot basis, in 50 districts and has now been
extended to all the districts of the country.
DWCRA is directed at improving the living conditions of women and, thereby, of
children through the provision of opportunities for self-employment and access to
basic social services. 
The main strategy adopted under this programme is to facilitate access for poor
women to employment, skill upgradation, training, credit and other support services so
that the DWCRA women as a group can take up income generating activities for
supplementing their incomes. 

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)

It was launched as a  Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) on 1st April, 1989 by merging
the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and the Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). 
The objective is the generation of additional gainful employment for unemployed and
underemployed persons, both men and women, in the rural areas through the creation
of rural economic infrastructure, community and social assets with the aim of
improving the quality of life of the rural poor.
The resources under this scheme are allocated to the States/UTs on the basis
of proportion of rural poor in the States/UTs to the total rural poor in the country.
This programme is targeted at people living below the poverty line. Atleast 30 percent
of the employment is to be provided to women under the Yojana. 

Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)

The Employment Assurance Scheme was launched on 2nd October, 1993 in 1775
identified backward blocks situated in drought-prone, desert, tribal and hilly areas, in
which the revamped public distribution system was in operation.
Subsequently, the scheme was extended to additional blocks which included the newly
identified Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)/Desert Development Programme
(DDP) blocks, Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) blocks having a larger
concentration of tribals, and blocks in flood-prone areas of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam
and Jammu and Kashmir. 
In addition, 722 non-EAS blocks previously covered under Second Stream of Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana (JRY) were also brought under the EAS.
The main objective of the EAS is to provide about 100 days of assured casual manual
employment during the lean agricultural season, at statutory minimum wages, to all
persons above the age of 18 years and below 60 years who need and seek employment
on economically productive and labour intensive social and community works.
EAS is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme. 
The scheme is demand-driven and therefore no fixed allocations are made for the
districts/blocks. 

Million Wells Scheme (MWS)

Million Wells Scheme (MWS) was launched as a sub-scheme of the National Rural
Employment Programme (NREP) and the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Programme (RLEGP) during the year 1988-89. 
After the merger of the two programmes in April 1989 into the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana
(JRY), the MWS continued as a sub-scheme of JRY till December 1995. The MWS was
delinked from JRY and made into an independent scheme with effect from 1.1.1996.
The scheme was primarily intended to provide open irrigation wells, free of cost,
to individual, poor, small and marginal farmers belonging to Scheduled
Castes/Scheduled Tribes and freed bonded labourers with a 20 percent earmarking of
JRY funds. 
Tubewells and borewells are not permitted under the Scheme.

National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)

It came into effect from 15th August, 1995. 
It represents a significant step towards the fulfillment of the Directive Principles in
Articles 41 and 42 of the Constitution through the enunciation of a National Policy for
social assistance benefits to poor households in the case of old age, death of the
primary breadwinner and maternity. 
It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with 100 per cent Central assistance provided to
States/UTs.
This programme has three components which are 
(i) National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS) 
(ii) National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS) and 
(iii) National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS) 
which are targeted at people living below the poverty line. Further,
a) Under the National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), old age pension of Rs.75 per
month is provided to persons of 65 years and above who are destitute.
b) The National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS) provides a lump sum family benefit of
Rs.10,000 to the bereaved household in case of the death of the primary breadwinner
irrespective of the cause of death. This scheme is applicable to all the eligible persons
in the age group 18 to 64. 
c) Under the National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS) there is a provision for payment
of Rs.500 per pregnancy to women belonging to poor households for prenatal and
post-natal maternity care up to the first two live births. This benefit is provided to
eligible women of 19 years and above.
It is implemented in the States/UTs through Panchayats and Municipalities.

Poverty Alleviation Programmes are being implemented based on the perspective of

the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) i.e. Expanding self-employment programmes
and wage employment programmes for addressing poverty. 
Some of the examples of self-employment programmes are Rural Employment
Generation Programme (REGP), Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) and  Swarna Jayanti
Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY). 
Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP) aims at creating self-employment
opportunities in rural areas and small towns. Khadi and Village Industries Commission
is implementing it. Under this programme, one can get financial assistance in the form
of bank loans to set up small industries. 
The educated unemployed from low-income families in rural and urban areas can get
financial help to set up any kind of enterprise that generates employment under PMRY.
SJSRY mainly aims at creating employment opportunities—both self-employment and
wage employment—in urban areas.

Under self-employment programmes, financial assistance was given to families or

individuals. Since the 1990s, this approach has been changed & self-help groups are
encouraged. The government provides partial financial assistance to SHGs which then
decide whom the loan is to be given for self-employment activities. Swarnajayanti
Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is one such programme.

Govt. Programmes to generate wage employment for the poor unskilled people living
in rural areas are National Food for Work Programme (NFWP) and Sampoorna
Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY). In August 2005, the Parliament has passed a new Act
to provide guaranteed wage employment to every household whose adult volunteer is
to do unskilled manual work for a minimum of 100 days in a year. This Act is known as
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act–2005. Under this Act, all those among the
poor who are ready to work at the minimum wage can report for work in areas where
this programme is implemented.

Another approach to addressing poverty is to provide minimum basic amenities to the

people. India was among the pioneers in the world to envisage that through public
expenditure on social consumption needs — provision of food grains at subsidized
rates, education, health, water supply and sanitation— people’s living standard could
be improved. Three major programmes that aim at improving the food and nutritional
status of the poor are Public Distribution System, Integrated Child Development
Scheme and Midday Meal Scheme. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Pradhan
Mantri Gramodaya Yojana, Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana are also attempts in the
same
direction. 

Nutrition: National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013

India has had a long history of maintaining a public distribution system (PDS) whereby
the government offers subsidized food grains to the citizens. Now, the National Food
Security Act (NFSA) was passed. 
Under it, 75 percent of rural and 50 percent of urban populations are eligible for five
kilograms of food grain per person per month at highly subsidized prices. 
A small subset of extremely poor households is provided seven instead of five
kilograms of foodgrain under the program.
In the broadest terms, the way the PDS works is that the government procures grain at
pre-specified Minimum Support Prices (MSP) in selected regions of the country and
stocks it. It offers this grain to the states that in turn pass them on to beneficiaries
through a vast distribution network that ends at the PDS shops. The central
government has authorized the states to identify the beneficiaries as per their choice of
criteria.

Nutrition: Mid-day Meal Scheme (MDMS)

MDMS was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme in 1995 with the objective of
improving the nutritional status of school children, eliminating classroom hunger and
enhancing school enrolment, retention and attendance. From 2008-09, the programme
has been extended to upper primary level. The government envisages an expansion of
MDMS in a progressive manner including to children in private schools (since they now
have a 25% quota for Economically Weaker Sections), particularly in SC/ST and Minority
concentrated areas.

Employment: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

(MGNREGA)
MGNREGA guarantees 100 days of unskilled employment at a specified wage in a given
financial year to one member of every rural household. The scheme was launched in
2006-07 in 200 selected districts and gradually extended to the whole country by 2008-
09. 
The underlying objective of the scheme is to enhance the livelihood security of the poor
households in rural areas of the country. Other objectives include rejuvenating natural
resource base, creating productive rural assets, stimulating the local economy by
providing a safety net to rural poor, ensuring women empowerment and strengthening
grassroots level democratic institutions. 
Approximately two-thirds of work taken up under MGNREGA are related to water
conservation and other activities with positive impact on agricultural productivity.

Housing for All: Rural and Urban

In the 2015-16 Budget, govt. committed to the provision of housing for all by 2022. This
would require completion of 3 crore houses in rural areas and 2 crore houses in urban
areas. Key programs devoted to rural and urban housing were Indira Awas Yojana (IAY)
and Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY). These have now been made part of the program Housing
for All (Rural and Urban).
IAY has been folded into the new mission called Housing for All and is to be funded as
per the changed Centre-State funding pattern.
Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) aimed at achieving slum-free India was launched in 2011 as a
Centrally Sponsored Scheme. It mandated assignment of lease rights to slum dwellers
that could be mortgaged, renewed and inherited. 
The present government has decided to discontinue RAY and subsume liabilities
created under approved on-going projects, where work on ground has been started, in
the new mission on Housing for All. 
Govt. intends to provide pucca housing for every family by the 75th year of
Independence (2022).  It also aims to provide these houses with basic amenities: water,
sanitation, electricity and even broadband.
What are the new Approaches for Combating Poverty?

1. Jan Dhan Yojana, Aadhar and Mobile (JAM):  Towards Cash Transfers
Two key instruments- Jan Dhan bank accounts under PMJDY and biometric identity
cards under Aadhar- promise to revolutionize the anti-poverty programmes by
replacing the current cumbersome and leaky distribution of benefits under various
schemes by the Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT).
On 15th August 2014, PM Modi announced the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, the
biggest financial inclusion initiative in the world. He launched the scheme on 28th
August 2014 across the country. India is also moving towards completion of the Aadhar
project that aims to give a biometric identity to all Indians. 
Under MGNREGA, direct transfers of wages have already begun taking place. The
employer records employment of a worker in a central database using the Aadhar
identity. This triggers a transfer of the wage payment from a central government
account to the worker’s bank account. 
Jan Dhan, Aadhar and mobile cum banking correspondent initiatives together provide a
powerful platform to convert most of the existing transfers and subsidies into DBT. 

2. Lifting the Five Poorest Families in Each Village Out of Poverty

As the Prime minister has suggested, each Gram Panchayat may be asked to identify
five poorest families in the village and endeavour to lift them out of poverty. The BPL
list prepared on the basis of SECC 2011 may be used for selecting these families. Once
the families to be targeted are identified, the Gram Panchayat should ensure that they
get benefits of all government programs meant for the poor and vulnerable section of
the society like job to one family member under MGNREGA, subsidized food grain
under NFSA, housing under Housing for All, free schooling under the Right to Education
Act, access to health care services, drinking water and sanitation facilities and
guaranteed opportunity for skill development. The eventual effort should be to ensure
that the families become capable of earning and sustaining above-poverty level of
income within five to seven years.

What are the Urban Poverty Alleviation Programmes?

Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY)

In order to alleviate the conditions of urban poor, a Centrally Sponsored programme -
Nehru Rozgar Yojana - was launched at the end of the Seventh Five Year Plan (October
1989) with the objective of providing of employment to the urban unemployed and
underemployed poor.
The NRY consisted of three schemes namely 
(i) The Scheme of Urban Micro Enterprises (SUME)
(ii) The Scheme of Urban Wage Employment (SUWE) and
(iii) The Scheme of Housing and Shelter Upgradation (SHASU). 

Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP)

The UBSP Programme was implemented as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme during the
Eighth Five Year Plan with the specific objectives of effective achievement of the social
sector goals; community organisation, mobilisation and empowerment; and
conference through sustainable support system. The expenditure on the Programme
was being shared on a 60:40 basis between the Central and the State Governments
and UTs (with legislatures).

Prime Minister's Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (PM IUPEP) :

It was launched in November, 1995. 
The PM IUPEP was a Rs.800 crore scheme approved for the period up to the year 2000.
Programme was applicable to all Class II urban agglomerations with a population
ranging between 50,000 and 1 lakh subject to the condition that elections to local
bodies have been held. 
The Programme was being implemented on a whole town/ project basis extending the
coverage to all the targetted groups for recuring a visible impact. 

Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY):

During the Ninth Plan, it is proposed to launch the Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar
Yojana (SJSRY) and phase out NRY, PMIUPEP and UBSP. 
The SJSRY is to be a Centrally Sponsored Scheme applicable to all the urban areas with
expenditure to be shared in ratio 75:25 between the Centre and States/UTs.
The programme has become operational on December 1, 1997. This programme would
have two sub-schemes, namely,
(i)UrbanSelf-Employment Programme and
(ii) Urban Wage Employment Programme.

a) The Urban Self Employment Programme (USEP):

This programme will have three distinct components:-
(i) Assistance to individual urban poor beneficiaries for setting up gainful self-
employment ventures.
(ii) Assistance to groups of urban poor women for setting up gainful self-employment
ventures. This sub-scheme may be called "The Scheme for Development of Women and
Children in the Urban Areas (DWCUA)".
(iii) Training of beneficiaries, potential beneficiaries and other persons associated with
the urban employment programme for upgradation and acquisition of vocational and
entrepreneurial skills.

b) The Urban Wage Employment Programme (UWEP):

This programme seeks to provide wage employment to beneficiaries living below the
poverty line within the jurisdiction of urban local bodies by utilising their labour for
construction of socially and economically useful public assets.
This programme will apply to urban local bodies, the population of which is less than 5
lakhs as per the 1991 Census.

INDIAN ECONOMY 1950-1990

Nehru and many other leaders and thinkers combined the best features of socialism
without its drawbacks. In this view, India would be a socialist society with a strong
public sector but also with private property and democracy; the government would
plan for the economy with the private sector being encouraged to be part of the
planning effort.
The ‘Industrial Policy Resolution’ of 1948 and the Directive Principles of the Indian
Constitution reflected this outlook. 
In 1950, the Planning Commission was set up with the Prime Minister as its
Chairperson. The era of five-year plans had begun.

What are the types of Economic Systems?

Every society has to answer three questions

a) What goods and services should be produced in the country?
b) How should the goods and services be produced? Should producers use more
human labour or more capital (machines) for producing things?
c) How should the goods and services be distributed among people?

1. In a market economy, also called Capitalism, only those consumer goods will be
produced that are in demand, i.e., goods that can be sold profitably either in the
domestic or in the foreign markets. In a capitalist society, the goods produced are
distributed among people not on the basis of what people need but on the basis of
Purchasing Power—the ability to buy goods and services. That is, one has to have the
money in the pocket to buy it. Low-cost housing for the poor is much needed but will
not count as demand in the market sense because the poor do not have the
purchasing power to back the demand.

2. In a Socialist society, the government decides what goods are to be produced in

accordance with the needs of society. It is assumed that the government knows what is
good for the people of the country and so the desires of individual consumers are not
given much importance. The government decides how goods are to be produced and
how they should be distributed. In principle, distribution under socialism is supposed
to be based on what people need and not on what they can afford to purchase. Strictly,
a socialist society has no private property since everything is owned by the state. 

3. Most economies are Mixed Economies, i.e. the government and the market
together decides what to produce, how to produce and how to distribute what is
produced. In a mixed economy, the market will provide whatever goods and services it
can produce well, and the government will provide essential goods and services which
the market fails to do.

Note: Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis: the Architect of Indian Planning

The Second Plan, a landmark contribution to development planning in general, laid
down the basic ideas regarding goals of Indian planning; this plan was based on the
ideas of Mahalanobis. In that sense, he can be regarded as the architect of Indian
planning.

Agriculture Sector during 1950-1990

The policy makers of independent India address the issues in this sector through land
reforms and promoting the use of ‘High Yielding Variety’ (HYV) seeds which ushered in
a revolution in Indian agriculture.

Land Reforms
At the time of independence, the land tenure system was characterised by
intermediaries (variously called zamindars, jagirdars etc.) who merely collected rent
from the actual tillers of the soil without contributing towards improvements on the
farm. 
Equity in agriculture called for land reforms which primarily refer to change in the
ownership of landholdings. Just a year after independence, steps were taken to abolish
intermediaries and to make the tillers the owners of the land. The idea behind this
move was that ownership of land would give incentives to the tillers to invest in making
improvements provided sufficient capital was made available to them.
Land ceiling was another policy to promote equity in the agricultural sector. This means
fixing the maximum size of land which could be owned by an individual. The purpose
of land ceiling was to reduce the concentration of land ownership in a few hands. The
ownership conferred on tenants gave them the incentive to increase output and this
contributed to growth in agriculture. However, the goal of equity was not fully served
by the abolition of intermediaries.

The Green Revolution: 

At independence, about 75 percent of the country’s population was dependent on
agriculture. Productivity in the agricultural sector was very low because of the use of
old technology and the absence of required infrastructure for the vast majority of
farmers. 
The stagnation in agriculture during the colonial rule was permanently broken by the
green revolution. This refers to the large increase in production of food grains resulting
from the use of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, especially for wheat and rice. 
The green revolution enabled the government to procure sufficient amount of food
grains to build a stock which could be used in times of food shortage.

INDUSTRY AND TRADE

At the time of independence, the variety of industries was very narrow— largely
confined to cotton textiles and jute. There were two well-managed iron and steel firms
— one in Jamshedpur and the other in Kolkata.

Public and Private Sectors in Indian Industrial Development

At the time of independence, Indian industrialists did not have the capital to undertake
investment in industrial ventures required for the development of our economy; nor
was the market big enough to encourage industrialists to undertake major projects
even if they had the capital to do so.  It is principally for these reasons that the state
had to play an extensive role in promoting the industrial sector. 
In addition, the decision to develop the Indian economy on socialist lines led to the
policy of the state controlling the commanding heights of the economy, as the Second
Five Year Plan put it. This meant that the state would have complete control of those
industries that were vital for the economy. 

Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 (IPR 1956): 

In accordance with the goal of the state controlling the commanding heights of the
economy, the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 was adopted. This resolution formed
the basis of the Second Five Year Plan, the plan which tried to build the basis for
a socialist pattern of society. This resolution classified industries into three categories. 
The first category comprised industries which would be exclusively owned by the state;
the second category consisted of industries in which the private sector could
supplement the efforts of the state sector, with the state taking the sole responsibility
for starting new units; the third category consisted of the remaining industries which
were to be in the private sector.
Although there was a category of industries left to the private sector, the sector was
kept under state control through a system of licenses.
No new industry was allowed unless a license was obtained from the government. 
Even an existing industry had to obtain a license for expanding output or for
diversifying production (producing a new variety of goods).

Effect of Policies on Industrial Development

The achievements of India’s industrial sector during the first seven plans are impressive
indeed. The proportion of GDP contributed by the industrial sector increased in the
period from 11.8 percent in 1950-51 to 24.6 percent in 1990-91. 
The six percent annual growth rate of the industrial sector during the period is
commendable.

CONCLUSION
The progress of the Indian economy during the first seven plans was impressive
indeed. Our industries became far more diversified compared to the situation at
independence.
India became self- sufficient in food production thanks to the green revolution. Land
reforms resulted in the abolition of the hated zamindari system. 
Excessive government regulation prevented the growth of entrepreneurship.
Our policies were ‘inward oriented’ and so we failed to develop a strong export sector.