Week 2 Readings ABA January 20, 2020

Chance, Chapter 2: The Study of Learning and Behaviour

Defining Operations
 Most arguments used to describe behavior are circular.
o Why did the man slam the door? Because he was angry. How do we know he was angry? Because he
slammed the door.
o We must explain behavior through physical events.
 Operational definition: KEY TO SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR.
o Behavior is defined in terms of its measurement (the operation used to measure behavior defines it).
 Ex. Salivation is defined as the amount of mg of saliva absorbed by cotton balls of a certain
size placed at specific places in the mouth for a certain amount of time.
o Doesn’t necessarily require for each performance to be the same as the last.
 Ex. a pigeon pecking a disc – not necessarily in the same spot every time.
 When measuring thinking – can measure vocal chord usage (when people think, even mute
people, they use the same vocal muscles even if they remain silent). Or we can ask people to
“think out loud”.

The Natural Science Approach

 Learning is a subject of scientific analysis
 What does scientific analysis mean when it comes to learning
o The natural science approach is taken
o The approach implies that learning is a natural phenomenon and based on these four assumptions
 All natural phenomena are caused: things that happen are results of other events
 Causes precede their effects: things had to occur before the effect or the future changes the
present behavior
 Events cannot go into the past to change behavior
 The causes of natural events include only natural phenomena: to explain behavior we have to
identify the natural events that produce it (biological or environmental events)
 The simplest explanation that fits the data is best: law of parsimony; simplest explanation
with fewest assumptions

Measures of Learning
 Measuring learning is measuring changes in behavior
 We cannot study learning unless we can measure it in a precise way
 The changes in behavior being measured are not the result of learning, but actual learning
 Means of Measuring Learning across 7 Dimensions:
Errors
o Errors: looking for a reduction in errors; measuring the amount of errors made to see if it is actually
learned
 Ex. training a rat to run a maze.
 Ex. measuring the progress of someone learning to read.
Topography
o Topography: measured as a change in topography of behavior (refers to the form a behavior takes);
change in topography is a measure of learning
 Ex. measuring of learning in mirror tracing.
Week 2 Readings ABA January 20, 2020
Intensity
o Intensity: noting changes in the intensity of a behavior
 Ex. once having taught a child a song, you can teach them to sing more softly/loudly.
Speed
o Speed: change in speed with which a behavior occurs; learning can mean doing something more
quickly than when you first learned it
 Ex. child reciting the alphabet will eventually become faster.
 Ex. rat running through a maze. Ex. surgeons get faster at operating.
Latency
o Latency: change in latency (the time that passes before a behavior occurs); learning can also involve
an increase in latency
o Ex. student first learning the multiplication table will pause before saying the answer, but eventually
will say it instantly.
Rate
o Rate: change in rate at which a behavior occurs; this term refers to the number of occurrences per
unit of time; learning can also involve a decrease in rate; rate is a useful measure of learning because
it allows us to see subtle changes in behavior
 Ex. receiving Morse code more quickly.
 Ex. play music notes more slowly.
o An electromechanical cumulative recorder can tally behavioral rate, where every occurrence of the
behavior under study was recorded by the movement of an inked pen on a sheet of paper that moved
at a steady pace.
 If behavior didn’t occur, the pen made a straight line.
 When it did, the pen moved a bit at a right angle, making the slope steeper.
 Higher rate = bigger slope; lower rate = flatter line
 Provided a cumulative record.
o Now days, produced by a computer.
Fluency
o Fluency: measure of learning that combines errors and rate (number of correct responses per minute)
 Ex. Minute Math.

Sources of Data
 Common sources of data include:
Anecdotes
o Anecdotes are the simplest, most common, and least reliable sources of evidence
 first or secondhand reports of personal experiences
 include specific information about measures of learning (the number of errors made), but are
less specific than other methods
 are identified by phrases
 "in my experience…" or "I've round that…"
 Sometimes it takes on the character of common wisdom
 "they say that…" or "it's common knowledge that…"
o Anecdotal evidence is used by many people to support their principles and practices even if not true
 They provide useful leads and keep us in contact with popular wisdom, but are not reliable
when used scientifically
Case Studies
Week 2 Readings ABA January 20, 2020
o Case studies examine a particular individual in considerable detail
o Various problems with case study evidence
 Heavy in the resources of time and money
 Due to the time it takes, generalizations are based on very few cases
 Cannot answer certain questions about behaviour
 Doesn't determine a causal relationship relating to behavior
o if a certain event caused this behavior
 Much of the data obtained comes not by direct observation of the participant's behavior (most
are unreliable)
 It is a step above the anecdote because the data is obtained in a fairly systematic way
Descriptive Studies
o The researcher attempts to describe a group by obtaining data from the members
 Conducting interviews or administering questionnaires
o Represent a vast improvement over case studies but also have limitations
o They can suggest hypotheses to explain phenomenon but they cannot test the hypotheses
Experiments
o An experiment is a study where a researcher manipulates one or more variables and measures the
effects of the manipulation on one or more other variables
 Independent is what is manipulated (environmental event)
 Dependant is what is being measured (change in behaviour)
o There are two types of experiments:
 Between Subject Designs
 The researcher identifies two or more groups of participants
 Between-group or group designs
 The IV is made to differ across these groups
 There is an experimental group and a control group
 The essential element is that the IV differs across participants
 Any differences in the DV are assumed to be the result of differences in exposure to
the IV
 Participants should be as alike as they can be (same age, height, gender, etc)
 Usually assigned using:
o Random Sampling
o Matching Sampling
 Within Subject Designs
 Single-subject designs A participant's behavior is observed before the experimental
treatment and then during or after it
 It provides a basis for comparison
o The initial period where behavior is observed is the baseline period
 A and B labels (ABAB…) 
 Each participant is in the experimental and control group at different times
o The essential element is that the IV varies within the participants
 Differences in the DV are assumed to be the result of differences in experiences at
different times
 ABA reversal design is when the experimenter returns to the baseline
Limitations of Experiments
Week 2 Readings ABA January 20, 2020
 The power of the experiment comes from the control it provides over variables
 Some believe that experiments create an artificial world from which the researcher derives an
artificial view of behavior
 Two kinds of experiments go around this issue: laboratory experiments and field experiments
 Lab experiments offer the control that allows the researcher to derive clear-cut
principles
 Field experiments are done in natural settings

Animal Research and Human Learning

 Support:
o Researchers believe that animal research is essential to improving our understanding of human
behavior
o Animals make it possible to get control over the influence of heredity (their genes are well known)
o With animals it is possible to control a participant's learning history
o It is possible to do research with animals (for ethical reasons) cannot be done with people
 Objections:
o differences in animals and humans
o need to be cautious in generalizations
o no practical value of animal research
o it is unethical

Summary
 The fundamental lesson to be learned from this chapter is that behavior can be studied with the same rigor
as topics in other sciences by taking the natural science approach.
o Basically this means looking for relations between environmental and behavioral events.
o This does not mean denying that people think and feel; it means that thinking and feeling are
inferred from overt behavior and physiological measures of central (brain) and peripheral nervous
system activity.
 Learning can be measured as changes in number of errors, topography, intensity, speed, latency, rate, and
accuracy (what your author calls fluency).
 Various scientific methods contribute to our understanding of learning: field observation studies; case
studies; between-subjects and within-subject experiments.
 Each has its strengths and weaknesses.
 The ethics of using animals in learning research is controversial, but there are good reasons for it.

Important Terms
ABA reversal design: A type of within-subject experiment in which behavior is observed before (A) and after
(B) an experimental manipulation. The original (A) condition is restored, sometimes followed again by the
experimental (B) condition.
Anecdotal evidence: First- or secondhand reports of personal experience.
Aversive stimulus: Any stimulus an animal or person will try to escape from or avoid, given the opportunity to
do so. Aversive stimuli cause physical or psychological discomfort. Electric shock, loud noise, or disgusting
odors and flavors are examples.
Baseline period: In a within-subject experiment, a period of observation (often designated “A”) during which
no attempt is made to modify the behavior under study. The baseline period (A) measures a target behavior
in an untreated (control) condition so it can be compared with a treatment (experimental) condition (B).
Week 2 Readings ABA January 20, 2020
Between-subjects experiment: An experimental design in which the independent variable is made to vary
across two or more groups of subjects. Also called between-treatment or between-groups design.
Case study: Detailed study and description of a single case. Usually used in clinical settings.
Control group: In a between-subjects experiment, control subjects are not exposed to the independent variable
but a target behavior is measured so it can be compared with subjects in the experimental (treatment) group.
Cumulative record: A graphic record of behavior, each point of which reflects the total number of times the
behavior has been performed as of that time.
Dependent variable: The variable by which the outcome of an experiment is measured. It is expected to vary
with (to depend on) the independent variable.
Descriptive study: A study in which the researcher attempts to describe a group by obtaining data from its
members. A simple descriptive study might ask whether 18 year old women are more likely to suffer from
symptoms of depression than 18 year old men. In this study the genders are simply compared to see which
has a bigger problem. No attempt is made in a descriptive study like this to understand the cause of an
observed difference in the genders. It is done to identify similarities or differences of a characteristic in pre-
existing groups. Comparing the speed of learning a T maze in albino lab rats vs wild rats is another example
of a descriptive study.
Experiment: A research design in which the researcher measures the effects of one or more independent
variables on one or more dependent variables.
Experimental group: In a between-subjects experiment, those subjects exposed to the independent variable.
Fluency: A measure of learning consisting of the number of correct responses per minute. It’s roughly the
same thing as measuring accuracy (instead of an error).
Independent variable: In an experiment, the variable that the researcher controls. The independent variable is
usually expected to affect the dependent variable.
Matched sampling: A procedure for reducing extraneous differences among subjects in between-subjects
experiments, by matching those in the experimental and control groups on specified characteristics, such as
age, sex, and weight.
Within-subject experiment: A research design in which the independent variable is made to vary at different
times for the same subject. In a within-subject experiment, each subject acts as both experimental and
control subject in different phases of the experiment. Some people prefer the terms single-subject or single
case experiment.
Topography. The form a behavior takes. Pressing a lever involves a different topography than running, or
lifting. The action sequences are discernably different and the muscle groups underlying the actions are
different.

Important Concepts
 This book takes the natural science approach to behavior.
 One reason that many learning studies use animals is that with animals it is possible to get greater control
over variables,, such the animal’s genetic and learning history.
 T. H. Huxley wrote, “Sit down before fact as a little child.”
 The law of parsimony says that the simplest explanation that fits the data is best.
 The kind of experiment that can be likened to turning a light switch on and off is an ABA reversal design.
 Between-subjects/group design experiments assume that there are no important differences among
participants.
 A change in topography means a change in the form a behavior takes.
 Fluency is a measure of learning that combines accuracy and rate.
 If the time that passes before a target behavior occurs, we measuring response latency.
 The cumulative record measures learning as a change in rate of behavior.
Week 2 Readings ABA January 20, 2020

Chapter 2 Quiz
 Fluency is the number of correct performances (responses/answers) per unit of time, such as responses per
minute.
 The natural science approach to behavior assumes that behavior is the result of natural phenomena.
 A change in topography involves a change in the form a behavior takes.
 In a cumulative record, learning is indicated by a change in the rate at which a behavior occurs.
 The essential element of a between-subjects design is that the independent variable varies across
participants/subjects.
 In a within-subject experiment, each subject’s performance during a treatment period is compared to that
subject’s performance during a baseline period.
 Copernicus’s heliocentric theory won out because it provided a far simpler explanation of astronomical
events than the geocentric theory.
 Response latency refers to the time that passes before a behavior occurs.