BRM

Unit 1
short
1 ans

Variable in Statistics
In statistics, the variables are used in terms of real-life scenarios. It is
also said to be an attribute here. They are used to representing people,
places, things, etc. For example, the colour of the hair of a person is a
variable. Since the hair-colour could vary from person to person like for
some it is blond, for some, it is black, etc.

Types of variables in Math

The variables can be classified into two categories, namely
 Dependent Variable
 Independent Variable

Let’s discuss the two types of variables in detail.

Dependent Variables
The dependent variable is characterized as the variable whose quality
depends on the estimation of another variable in its condition. That is,
the estimation of the word variable is dependably said to be reliant on
the free variable of math condition.
For instance, consider the condition y = 4x + 3. In this condition, the
estimation of the variable ‘y’ changes as per the adjustments in the
estimation of ‘x’. In this manner, the variable ‘y’ is said to be a reliant
variable. A portion of the cases that include subordinate variables is
talked about in point of interest as beneath with their answers.
Independent Variables
In an algebraic equation, an independent variable describes a variable
whose values are independent of changes. If x and y are two variables in
an algebraic equation and every value of x is linked with any other
value of y, then ‘y’ value is said to be a function of x value known as an
independent variable, and ‘y’ value is known as a dependent variable.
Example: In the expression y = x2, x is an independent variable and y is
a dependent variable.
Thus, we can summarise the variables mathematically as given below:
In mathematics, we can define variables with the help of a function; In
simple words, a function is a rule for taking a number or set of numbers
as input and producing an output which may also be a number or set of
numbers. The most common character used to denote the input is x, and
the result is y. Thus, the function is written in the form of y = f(x). Here,
the character that stands for a random input is called an independent
variable, i.e. x, whereas a symbol that stands for an arbitrary output is
called a dependent variable; in this case, it is y.

2ans
In Statistics, a hypothesis is defined as a formal statement, which gives
the explanation about the relationship between the two or more
variables of the specified population. It helps the researcher to translate
the given problem to a clear explanation for the outcome of the study. It
clearly explains and predicts the expected outcome. It indicates the
types of experimental design and directs the study of the research
process.
Types of Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
Complex Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Alternative Hypothesis
Empirical Hypothesis
Statistical Hypothesis
Long
1 ans
Causal research, also called causal study, an explanatory or analytical
study, attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems.
Our concern in causal studies is to examine how one variable ‘affects’
or is ‘responsible for changes in another variable. The first variable is
the independent variable, and the latter is the dependent variable.
Examples of Causal Research or Causal Studies
While no one can ever be certain that variable A (say) causes
variable B (say), one can gather some evidence that increases the belief
that A leads to B.
Examine the following queries and try to guess if there is any
association between A and B:
 Is there a predicted co-variation between A and B? Do we find
that A and B occur in the way we hypothesized? When A does not
occur, is there also an absence of B? Or when there is less
of A, does one find more or less of B? When such conditions of
covariance exist, it indicates a possible causal connection
between A and B.
 Is the time order of events moving in the hypothesized direction?
Does A occur before B? If we find that B occurs before A, we can
have little confidence that causes.
 Is it possible to eliminate other possible causes of B? Can we
determine that C, D, and E do not co-vary with B in a way that
suggests possible causal connections?
Types of Causal Research
3 types of causal research are;
 1. Comparative Study
2. Case-Control Study
3. Cohort Study
Comparative Study
This is a study that has its main focus on comparing as well as
describing groups.
In a study of malnutrition, for example, the researcher will not only
describe the prevalence of malnutrition, but by comparing malnourished
or well-nourished children, he will try to determine which socio-
economic behavior and other independent variables have contributed to
malnutrition.
In analyzing the results of a comparative study, the researcher must
watch out for confounding or intervening variables that may distort the
true relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
Case-Control Study
A case-control study is a retrospective study that looks back in time to
find the relative risk between a specific exposure (e.g., second-hand
tobacco smoke) and an outcome (e.g., cancer).
The investigator compares one group of people with the problem, the
cases, with another group without a problem or who did not experience
the event, called a control group or comparison group.
The goal is to determine the relationship between risk factors and
disease or outcome and estimate the odds of an individual getting a
disease or experiencing an event.
Types of Research Question
Cohort Study
In a cohort study, also called a prospective study, we take a group of
people, the cohort, and observe whether they have the suspected causal
factor.
We then follow them over time and observe whether they develop the
disease. This is a prospective study, as we start with the possible cause
and see whether this leads to the disease in the future.
It is also longitudinal, meaning that subjects are studied more than once.
A cohort study usually takes a long time, as we must wait for future
event to occur. It involves keeping track of large numbers of people,
sometimes for many years.
Often it becomes necessary to include a large number of people in the
sample to ensure that sufficient numbers will develop the disease to
enable comparisons between those with and without the factor.
In contrast, we wait to see whether the problem develops in a cohort
study. The following diagrams represent the two types of study.

Unit 2
Short
1 ans

2 ans
Primary Data: Data that has been generated by the researcher
himself/herself, surveys, interviews, experiments, specially designed for
understanding and solving the research problem at hand.
Secondary Data: Using existing data generated by large government
Institutions, healthcare facilities etc. as part of organizational record
keeping. The data is then extracted from more varied datafiles.
 BASIS FOR SECONDARY
PRIMARY DATA
COMPARISON DATA

Meaning Primary data refers Secondary data means

to the first hand data data collected by
gathered by the someone else earlier.
researcher himself.

Data Real time data Past data

Process Very involved Quick and easy

Source Surveys, Government

observations, publications,
experiments, websites, books,
questionnaire, journal articles,
personal interview, internal records etc.
etc.

Cost Expensive Economical

effectiveness

Collection time Long Short

Specific Always specific to May or may not be

the researcher's specific to the
needs. researcher's need.

Available in Crude form Refined form

Accuracy and More Relatively less

Reliability

Long
1 ans

What is sampling?
In survey research, sampling is the process of using a subset of a
population to represent the whole population.
Let’s say you wanted to do some research on everyone in North
America. To ask every person would be almost impossible. Even if
everyone said “yes”, carrying out a survey across different states, in
different languages and timezones, and then collecting and processing
all the results, would take a long time and be very costly.
Sampling allows large-scale research to be carried out with a more
realistic cost and time-frame because it uses a smaller number of
individuals in the population to stand in for the whole.
However, when you decide to sample, you take on a new task. You have
to decide who is part of your sample and how to choose the people who
will best represent the whole population. How you go about that is what
the practice of sampling is all about.

Probability sampling methods

There’s a wide range of probability sampling methods to explore and
consider. Here are some of the best-known options.

1. Simple random sampling

With simple random sampling, every element in the population has an

equal chance of being selected as part of the sample. It’s something like
picking a name out of a hat. Simple random sampling can be done by
anonymising the population – e.g by assigning each item or person in
the population a number and then picking numbers at random.
Simple random sampling is easy to do and cheap, and it removes all risk
of bias from the sampling process. However, it also offers no control for
the researcher and may lead to unrepresentative groupings being picked
by chance.

2. Systematic sampling

With systematic sampling, also known as systematic clustering, the

random selection only applies to the first item chosen. A rule then
applies so that every nth item or person after that is picked.
Although there’s randomness involved, the researcher can choose the
interval at which items are picked, which allows them to make sure the
selections won’t be accidentally clustered together.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves random selection within predefined groups.

It’s useful when researchers know something about the target
population and can decide how to subdivide it (stratify it) in a way that
makes sense for the research.
For example, if you were researching travel behaviours in a group of
people, it might be helpful to separate those who own or have use of a
car from those who are dependent on public transport.
Stratified sampling has benefits but it also introduces the question of
how to stratify a population, which adds in more risk of bias.

4. Cluster sampling

With cluster sampling, groups rather than individual units of the target
population are selected at random. These might be pre-existing groups,
such as people in certain zip codes or students belonging to an academic
year.
Cluster sampling can be done by selecting the entire cluster, or in the
case of two-stage cluster sampling, by randomly selecting the cluster
itself, then selecting at random again within the cluster.
Non-probability sampling methods
Non-probability sampling methods don’t offer the same bias-removal
benefits as probability sampling, but there are times when these types of
sampling are chosen for expediency or simplicity. Here are some forms
of non-probability sampling and how they work.

1. Convenience sampling

People or elements in a sample are selected on the basis of their

availability. If you are doing a research survey and you work at a
university, for example, a convenience sample might consist of students
or co-workers who happen to be on campus with free time who are
willing to take your questionnaire.
This kind of sample can have value, especially if it’s done as an early or
preliminary step, but significant bias will be introduced.

2. Quota sampling

Like the probability-based stratified sampling method, this approach

aims to achieve a spread across the target population by specifying who
should be recruited for a survey according to certain groups or criteria.
For example, your quota might include a certain number of males and a
certain number of females, or people in certain age brackets or ethnic
groups.
Bias may be introduced during the selection itself – for example,
volunteer bias might skew the sample towards people with free time
who are interested in taking part. Or bias may be part and parcel of the
way categories for the quotas are selected by researchers.

3. Purposive sampling

Participants for the sample are chosen consciously by researchers based

on their knowledge and understanding of the research question at hand
or their goals. Also known as judgment sampling, this technique is
unlikely to result in a representative sample, but it is a quick and fairly
easy way to get a range of results or responses.

4. Snowball or referral sampling

With this approach, people recruited to be part of a sample are asked to

invite those they know to take part, who are then asked to invite their
friends and family and so on. The participation radiates through a
community of connected individuals like a snowball rolling downhill.
This method can be helpful when the researcher doesn’t know very
much about the target population and has no easy way to contact or
access them. However it will introduce bias, for example by missing out
isolated members of a community or skewing towards certain age or
interest groups who recruit amongst themselves.