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Assignment no. 1

Q.1 Describe 'levels of measurement' by giving real life

examples.
Ans,
The four measurement levels, in order, from the lowest level of information to
the highest level of information are as follows:

1. Nominal scales

Nominal scales contain the least amount of information. In nominal scales, the
numbers assigned to each variable or observation are only used to classify the
variable or observation. For example, a fund manager may choose to assign the
number 1 to small-cap stocks, the number 2 to corporate bonds, the number 3 to
derivatives, and so on.

2. Ordinal scales

Ordinal scales present more information than nominal scales and are, therefore, a
higher level of measurement. In ordinal scales, there is an ordered relationship
between the variable’s observations. For example, a list of 500 managers of
mutual funds may be ranked by assigning the number 1 to the best-performing
manager, the number 2 to the second best-performing manager, and so on.
With this type of measurement, one can conclude that the number 1-ranked
mutual fund manager performed better than the number 2-ranked mutual fund
manager.

3. Interval scales

Interval scales present more information than ordinal scales in that they provide
assurance that the differences between values are equal. In other words, interval
scales are ordinal scales but with equivalent scale values from low to high
intervals.
For example, temperature measurement is an example of an interval scale: 60°C
is colder than 65°C, and the temperature difference is the same as the difference
between 50°C and 55°C. In other words, the difference of 5°C in both intervals
shares the same interpretation and meaning.
Consider why the ordinal scale example is not an interval scale: A fund manager
ranked 1 probably did not outperform the fund manager ranked 2 by the exact
same amount that a fund manager ranked 6 outperformed a fund manager ranked
7. Ordinal scales provide a relative ranking, but there is no assurance that the
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differences between the scale values are the same.

A drawback in interval scales is that they do not have a true zero point. Zero does
not represent an absence of something in an interval scale. Consider that the
temperature -0°C does not represent the absence of temperature. For this reason,
interval-scale-based ratios fail to provide some insights – for example, 50°C is
not twice as hot as 25°C.

4. Ratio scales

Ratio scales are the most informative scales. Ratio scales provide rankings,
assure equal differences between scale values, and have a true zero point. In
essence, a ratio scale can be thought of as nominal, ordinal, and interval scales
combined as one.
For example, the measurement of money is an example of a ratio scale. An
individual with $0 has an absence of money. With a true zero point, it would be
correct to say that someone with $100 has twice as much money as someone with
$50.

Q.2 Explain commonly used variables in educational research.

Support your
answer by giving examples.

Ans,
The central purpose of research is to solve problems and improve the welfare of
the society. To research is to search or investigate exhaustively. It is a careful or diligent search,
studious inquiry or examination especially investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical application of such
new or revised theories or laws, it can also be the collection of information about
a particular subject, Webster (1985). Research cannot be possible without taking
into consideration measurable factors that are subject to change due to
circumstances. Anything that can vary in research due to circumstances is called
a variable. However, based on what has been learnt in the current research
course, the principle aim of this paper is to explain in parts, how the types of
variables, the relationship between dependent and independent variables and
their importance can be used in research.
A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of
category you are trying to measure. There are two major types of variables-
independent and dependent and these will be explained more later. A variable is
something that can change, such as gender, which can be either male or female,
age which can be 15 years old, 16 years old, 20, 38 or 30 years old and variables
are typically the focus of a study. Associated to variables are attributes which are
sub-values of a variable, such as ‘male’ and ‘female’ in the example variable
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given above. In other ways, under the variable gender, male and female are the
attributes of that variable. It is important to note that variables may have the
following characteristics: firstly, they have a period when they starts and stops.
Secondly, they may have a pattern such as daily, weekly, ad-hoc and monthly.
Thirdly, they are quiet detailed with an overview of in depth. They may be
latency which is the time between measuring dependent and independent variable
because some things take time to take effect.
Variables are those simplified portions of the complex phenomena that you
intend to study. The word variable is derived from the root word “vary,”
meaning, changing in amount, volume, number, form, nature, or type. These
variables should be measurable, i.e., they can be counted or subjected to a scale.
The next section provides examples of variables related to climate change,
academic performance, crime, fish kill, crop growth, and how content goes viral.
Note that the variables in these phenomena can be measured, except the last one,
where a bit more work is required.

Examples Of Variables In Research

The following are examples of phenomena from a global to a local perspective.
The corresponding list of variables is given to illustrate how complex phenomena
can be broken down into manageable pieces for better understanding and to
subject the phenomena to research.

Independent Variables

The independent variables are those variables that may influence or affect the
other variable, i.e., the dependent variable.
For example, in the second phenomenon, i.e., crime and violence in the streets,
the independent variables are the number of law enforcers. If there are more law
enforcers, it is expected that it will reduce the following:
1. number of robberies,
2. number of attempted murders,
3. number of prisoners,
4. number of crime victims, and
5. the number of carnapping incidents.

Dependent Variables

The dependent variable, as previously mentioned, is the variable affected or

influenced by the independent variable.
For example, in the first phenomenon on climate change, temperature as the
independent variable influences sea level rise, the dependent variable. Increased
temperature will cause the expansion of water in the sea. Thus, sea-level rise on a
global scale will occur.
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I will leave the classification of the other variables to you. Find out whether those
are independent or dependent variables. Note, however, that some variables can
be both independent or dependent variables, as the context of the study dictates.
Q.3 Discuss non-probability sampling techniques with special
emphasis on
educational research.

Ans,
Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the
researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher
rather than random selection. It is a less stringent method. This sampling method depends
heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is carried out by
observation, and researchers use it widely for qualitative research.
Non-probability sampling is a sampling method in which not all members of the
population have an equal chance of participating in the study, unlike probability
sampling. Each member of the population has a known chance of being selected.
Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like a pilot
survey (deploying a survey to a smaller sample compared to pre-determined
sample size). Researchers use this method in studies where it is impossible to
draw random probability sampling due to time or cost considerations.

• Convenience sampling:
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples
are selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to
the researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because they are easy to
recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that represents the
entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But,
in some research, the population is too large to examine and consider the entire
population. It is one of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience
sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling method, because
of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.
• Consecutive sampling:
This non-probability sampling method is very similar to convenience sampling,
with a slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of a
sample, conducts research over a period, analyzes the results, and then moves on
to another subject or group if needed. Consecutive sampling technique gives the
researcher a chance to work with many topics and fine-tune his/her research by
collecting results that have vital insights.

• Quota sampling:
Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and
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female employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the

organization, also known as the population. To understand better about a population, the
researcher will need only a sample, not the entire population.
Further, the researcher is interested in particular strata within the population.
Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or
groups.

• Judgmental or Purposive sampling:

In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based purely
on the researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose
only those people who they deem fit to participate in the research study.
Judgmental or purposive sampling is not a scientific method of sampling, and the
downside to this sampling technique is that the preconceived notions of a
researcher can influence the results. Thus, this research technique involves a high
amount of ambiguity.
• Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to
locate. Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not
easily available. This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the
researchers find suitable subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar
subjects to form a considerably good size sample.

Non-probability sampling examples

Here are three simple examples of non-probability sampling to understand the
subject better.
1. An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers
known to the researcher. Researchers can send the survey to students belonging
to a particular school, college, or university, and act as a sample.
2. In an organization, for studying the career goals of 500 employees,
technically, the sample selected should have proportionate numbers of males and
females. Which means there should be 250 males and 250 females. Since this is
unlikely, the researcher selects the groups or strata using quota sampling.
3. Researchers also use this type of sampling to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from subjects to refer
to other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a
subjective sample to carry out the study.

When to use non-probability sampling?

• Use this type of sampling to indicate if a particular trait or characteristic

exists in a population.
• Researchers widely use the non-probability sampling method when they
aim at conducting qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory
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research.
• Researchers use it when they have limited time to conduct research or have
budget constraints.
• When the researcher needs to observe whether a particular issue needs in-
depth analysis, he applies this method.
• Use it when you do not intend to generate results that will generalize the
entire population.

Advantages of non-probability sampling

Here are the advantages of using the non-probability technique
• Non-probability sampling techniques are a more conducive and practical
method for researchers deploying surveys in the real world. Although
statisticians prefer probability sampling because it yields data in the form of
numbers, however, if done correctly, it can produce similar if not the same
quality of results.
• Getting responses using non-probability sampling is faster and more cost-
effective than probability sampling because the sample is known to the
researcher. The respondents respond quickly as compared to people
randomly selected as they have a high motivation level to participate.
Q.4 Draw a bar chart and explain it how it works for interpreting data
in
educational research?

Ans,
Bar graphs are the pictorial representation of data (generally grouped), in the
form of vertical or horizontal rectangular bars, where the length of bars are
proportional to the measure of data. They are also known as bar charts. Bar
graphs are one of the means of data handling in statistics.
The collection, presentation, analysis, organization, and interpretation of
observations of data are known as statistics. The statistical data can be represented by various
methods such as tables, bar graphs, pie charts, histograms,
frequency polygons, etc. In this article, let us discuss what is a bar chart, different
types of bar graphs, uses, and solved examples.
The pictorial representation of grouped data, in the form of vertical or horizontal
rectangular bars, where the lengths of the bars are equivalent to the measure of
data, are known as bar graphs or bar charts.
The bars drawn are of uniform width, and the variable quantity is represented on
one of the axes. Also, the measure of the variable is depicted on the other axes.
The heights or the lengths of the bars denote the value of the variable, and these
graphs are also used to compare certain quantities. The frequency distribution
tables can be easily represented using bar charts which simplify the calculations
and understanding of data.
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The three major attributes of bar graphs are:

• The bar graph helps to compare the different sets of data among different
groups easily.
• It shows the relationship using two axes, in which the categories on one
axis and the discrete values on the other axis.
• The graph shows the major changes in data over time.

Types of Bar Graphs

The bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal. The primary feature of any bar
graph is its length or height. If the length of the bar graph is more, then the values
are greater than any given data.
Bar graphs normally show categorical and numeric variables arranged in class
intervals. They consist of an axis and a series of labelled horizontal or vertical
bars. The bars represent frequencies of distinctive values of a variable or
commonly the distinct values themselves. The number of values on the x-axis of
a bar graph or the y-axis of a column graph is called the scale.
The types of bar charts are as follows:
1. Vertical bar chart
2. Horizontal bar chart
Even though the graph can be plotted using horizontally or vertically, the most
usual type of bar graph used is the vertical bar graph. The orientation of the x-
axis and y-axis are changed depending on the type of vertical and horizontal bar
chart. Apart from the vertical and horizontal bar graph, the two different types of
bar charts are:
• Grouped Bar Graph
• Stacked Bar Graph
Now, let us discuss the four different types of bar graphs.

Vertical Bar Graphs

When the grouped data are represented vertically in a graph or chart with the help
of bars, where the bars denote the measure of data, such graphs are called vertical
bar graphs. The data is represented along the y-axis of the graph, and the height
of the bars shows the values.

Horizontal Bar Graphs

When the grouped data are represented horizontally in a chart with the help of
bars, then such graphs are called horizontal bar graphs, where the bars show the
measure of data. The data is depicted here along the x-axis of the graph, and the
length of the bars denote the values.
Grouped Bar Graph
The grouped bar graph is also called the clustered bar graph, which is used to
represent the discrete value for more than one object that shares the same
category. In this type of bar chart, the total number of instances are combined
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into a single bar. In other words, a grouped bar graph is a type of bar graph in
which different sets of data items are compared. Here, a single colour is used to
represent the specific series across the set. The grouped bar graph can be
represented using both vertical and horizontal bar charts.
Stacked Bar Graph
The stacked bar graph is also called the composite bar chart, which divides the
aggregate into different parts. In this type of bar graph, each part can be
represented using different colours, which helps to easily identify the different
categories. The stacked bar chart requires specific labelling to show the different parts of the
bar. In a stacked bar graph, each bar represents the whole and each
segment represents the different parts of the whole.
Properties of Bar Graph
Some of the important properties of a bar graph are as follows:
• All the bars should have a common base.
• Each column in the bar graph should have equal width.
• The height of the bar should correspond to the data value.
• The distance between each bar should be the same.
Applications of Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are used to match things between different groups or to trace changes
over time. Yet, when trying to estimate change over time, bar graphs are most
suitable when the changes are bigger.
Bar charts possess a discrete domain of divisions and are normally scaled so that
all the data can fit on the graph. When there is no regular order of the divisions
being matched, bars on the chart may be organized in any order. Bar charts
organized from the highest to the lowest number are called Pareto charts.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bar Chart
Advantages:
• Bar graph summarises the large set of data in simple visual form.
• It displays each category of data in the frequency distribution.
• It clarifies the trend of data better than the table.
• It helps in estimating the key values at a glance.
Disadvantages:
• Sometimes, the bar graph fails to reveal the patterns, cause, effects, etc.
• It can be easily manipulated to yield fake information.
Difference Between Bar Graph and Histogram
The bar graph and the histogram look similar. But it has an important difference.
The major difference between them is that they plot different types of data. In the
bar chart, discrete data is plotted, whereas, in the histogram, it plots the
continuous data. For instance, if we have different categories of data like types of dog breeds,
types of TV programs, the bar chart is best as it compares the things
among different groups. For example, if we have continuous data like the weight
of the people, the best choice is the histogram.
Difference Between Bar Graph and Pie Chart
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A pie chart is one of the types of graphical representation. The pie chart is a
circular chart and is divided into parts. Each part represents the fraction of a
whole. Whereas, bar graph represents the discrete data and compares one data
with the other data.
Difference Between Bar Graph and Line Graph
The major difference between bar graph and line graph are as follows:
• The bar graph represents the data using the rectangular bars and the height
of the bar represents the value shown in the data. Whereas a line graph helps to
show the information when the series of data are connected using a line.
• Understanding the line graph is a little bit confusing as the line graph plots
too many lines over the graph. Whereas bar graph helps to show the relationship
between the data quickly.
Let us consider an example, we have four different types of pets, such as cat,
dog, rabbit, and hamster and the corresponding numbers are 22, 39, 5 and 9
respectively.
In order to visually represent the data using the bar graph, we need to follow the
steps given below.
• Step 1: First, decide the title of the bar graph.
• Step 2: Draw the horizontal axis and vertical axis. (For example, Types of
Pets)
• Step 3: Now, label the horizontal axis.
• Step 4: Write the names on the horizontal axis, such as Cat, Dog, Rabbit,
Hamster.
• Step 5: Now, label the vertical axis. (For example, Number of Pets)
• Step 6: Finalize the scale range for the given data.
• Step 7: Finally, draw the bar graph that should represent each category of
the pet with their respective numbers.

Q.5 What do you understand by 'Normal Curve'? Explain its measures

by
giving an example.

Ans,
Known characteristics of the normal curve make it possible to estimate the
probability of occurrence of any value of a normally distributed variable.
Suppose that the total area under the curve is defined to be 1. You can multiply
that number by 100 and say there is a 100 percent chance that any value you can
name will be somewhere in the distribution. The distribution extends to infinity
in both directions.) Similarly, because half the area of the curve is below the
mean and half is above it, you can say that there is a 50 percent chance that a
randomly chosen value will be above the mean and the same chance that it will
be below it.
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It makes sense that the area under the normal curve is equivalent to the
probability of randomly drawing a value in that range. The area is greatest in the
middle, where the “hump” is, and thins out toward the tails. That is consistent
with the fact that there are more values close to the mean in a normal distribution
than far from it.
When the area of the standard normal curve is divided into sections by standard
deviations above and below the mean, the area in each section is a known
quantity (see Figure 1). As explained earlier, the area in each section is the same
as the probability of randomly drawing a value in that range.
For example, 0.3413 of the curve falls between the mean and one standard
deviation above the mean, which means that about 34 percent of all the values of
a normally distributed variable are between the mean and one standard deviation
above it. It also means that there is a 0.3413 chance that a value drawn at random
from the distribution will lie between these two points.
Sections of the curve above and below the mean may be added together to find
the probability of obtaining a value within (plus or minus) a given number of standard deviations
of the mean (see Figure 2). For example, the amount of curve
area between one standard deviation above the mean and one standard deviation
below is 0.3413 + 0.3413 = 0.6826, which means that approximately 68.26
percent of the values lie in that range. Similarly, about 95 percent of the values
lie within two standard deviations of the mean, and 99.7 percent of the values lie
within three standard deviations.
In order to use the area of the normal curve to determine the probability of
occurrence of a given value, the value must first be standardized, or converted to
a z‐score . To convert a value to a z‐score is to express it in terms of how many
standard deviations it is above or below the mean. After the z‐score is obtained,
you can look up its corresponding probability in a table. The formula to compute
a z‐score is where x is the value to be converted, μ is the population mean, and σ
is the population standard deviation.

Example 1
A normal distribution of retail‐store purchases has a mean of $14.31 and a
standard deviation of 6.40. What percentage of purchases were under $10? First,
compute the z‐score:
The next step is to look up the z‐score in the table of standard normal
probabilities (see Table 2 in "Statistics Tables"). The standard normal table lists
the probabilities (curve areas) associated with given z‐scores.
Table 2 in "Statistics Tables" gives the area of the curve below z—in other
words, the probability of obtaining a value of z or lower. Not all standard normal
tables use the same format, however. Some list only positive z‐scores and give
the area of the curve between the mean and z. Such a table is slightly more difficult to use, but
the fact that the normal curve is symmetric makes it possible
to use it to determine the probability associated with any z‐score, and vice versa.
in "Statistics Tables,"
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first look up the z‐score in the left column, which lists z to the first decimal
place. Then look along the top row for the second decimal place. The intersection
of the row and column is the probability. In the example, you first find –0.6 in
the left column and then 0.07 in the top row. Their intersection is 0.2514. The
answer, then, is that about 25 percent of the purchases were under $10
What if you had wanted to know the percentage of purchases above a certain
amount? Because Table
gives the area of the curve below a given z, to obtain the area of the curve above
z, simply subtract the tabled probability from 1. The area of the curve above a z
of –0.67 is 1 – 0.2514 = 0.7486. Approximately 75 percent of the purchases were
above $10.
Just as Table
Can be used to obtain probabilities from z‐scores, it can be used to do the
reverse.