Introduction
Projecting the right
image: using projective
techniques to measure
brand image
Michael Hussey and
Nicola Duncombe
The authors
Michael Hussey is Lecturer in Marketing Research at
Aston Business School, Aston, Birmingham, UK.
Nicola Duncombe is Research Associate at Aston
Business School, Aston, Birmingham, UK.
Keywords
Brand image, Brands, Consumer behaviour, Food,
Marketing research
Abstract
Research has shown that consumers very often do not use
explicit, concrete, rational factors to evaluate products,
and thus their motivation to purchase is not always easy to
articulate. Traditionally, marketers have used projective
techniques in qualitative research groups to overcome this
problem. This method is not infallible as each moderator
brings his or her own style to discussions and subjective
judgement to the interpretation of results, and it is practi-
cally impossible to replicate identically over time. The work
presented in this paper describes the development of a set
of implicit characteristics for two animation sets to which
respondents will respond similarly and with consistency,
through which we can identify the brand image held and
consequently the motivations behind brand choice.
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 2 · Number 1 · 1999 · pp. 22–30
© MCB University Press · ISSN 1352-2752
22
Ask any audience what Bulls, Bears, Sharks,
Tigers, Eagles, Broncos and Rhinos have in
common, and the response “rugby league
teams” will be almost instantaneous. Similarly,
Canaries, Magpies, Foxes, Owls, Rams and
Wolves will be quickly identified as the images
of soccer teams.
Associating animals with brands or prod-
ucts extends far beyond the sports marketing
arena. The delightful puppy used to promote
Andrex , the chimps who drink PG Tips and
the tiger associated with petrol sales have
become part of our popular culture.
The reason for this proliferation of associa-
tions between brands and animals or other
images and symbols is simply an attempt to
use secondary features to distinguish between
almost identical brands and products.
This paper explores the use of projective
techniques for examining the transfer of
characteristics from two sets of cue cards to a
sample of food brands.
In recent years there has been an explosion
in the number of product categories and the
number of similar brands available, which has
required marketers and advertisers to look
more closely at how customers relate to their
brands. In the FMCG industry there is the
added problem of the retailer labels: many
large manufacturers of branded goods have
lost clear brand leadership in a number of
important markets to private label products,
which is particularly problematic as price and
brand name are often the only distinguishing
features. This has prompted a shift away from
focusing on consumers wants and needs in
favour of brand equity and maximising invest-
ment in existing products with line extensions
(Piirto Heath, 1996). Max Blackston, of
Ogilvy and Mather, says: “There’s little that
distinguishes between brands these days in
consumers’ eyes. It’s often very, very small,
subtle things that you have to leverage” (Piirto
Heath, 1990).
The proliferation of new data sources
entering the market, including scanner data
and single-source databases, is making it
tempting for marketers to seek their answers
through consumer response to marketing
effort and to track changes in market share,
brand loyalty and brand switching. However,
these are objective, behavioural measures that
provide little evidence of the emotional and
textural aspects of consumer response.
 Projecting the right image
Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe
Although standard quantitative techniques
can be used to extract the many explicit,
concrete, rational factors, that consumers use
to evaluate products not all “buying decisions
are exclusively or even predominantly
thoughtful, rational decisions that are easily
articulated” (Raffel, 1996). Consumer prod-
ucts have a significance that goes beyond their
utilitarian, functional and commercial value
(Erickson, 1996). This accounts for the
renaissance in the use of qualitative tech-
niques over recent years; many qualitative
methods provide insight into the “whys” of
consumer behaviour, explaining the relation-
ship between a consumer and a particular
branded product, retailer, or service provider
(Day, 1989).
Of particular interest are those methods
that resemble as closely as possible the
Freudian technique of Free Association,
which are collectively called projective tech-
niques (Atkinson et al., 1990).
Projective techniques involve presenting
subjects with ambiguous stimuli to which they
may respond as they wish. Theoretically,
because the stimuli are ambiguous and do not
require a specific response, the individual is
able to project his or her personality on to the
stimuli. In qualitative research, projective
techniques allow respondents to “project their
perceptions and feelings onto some other
person or object – or in some other way are
allowed to depersonalise their responses, and
thus they feel freer to express their thoughts
and feelings” (Day, 1989), thus breaking
several barriers to communication: lack of
awareness of repressed motivations; inability
to express themselves; unwillingness to dis-
close certain feelings; irrationality, and sub-
jects trying to say the right things to please the
interviewer. Nevertheless, projective tech-
niques are not infallible, as each moderator
brings his or her own style to discussions and
subjective judgement to the interpretation of
results. Despite some specialists employing
content analysis and special analytical tech-
niques to bring some measure of objectivity to
the analytical process, it remains subjective.
Also, standard focus group limitations apply;
they require personal interviews with highly-
trained interviewers, which is incredibly time
consuming and expensive, and is impossible
to replicate identically over time. Therefore,
some method of using projective techniques
in a more objective manner is required.
Recent research has suggested that one
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Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 2 · Number 1 · 1999 · 22–30
solution may be the identification or creation
of a set of stimuli that produce consistent
response across individuals.
The implicit model
Heylen et al. (1995) have developed an
“implicit model of consumer behaviour”
which attempts to provide a systematic, objec-
tive, scientific base for data collection, data
analysis and data interpretation, and to pro-
vide the link between qualitative and quantita-
tive research. The formulation of the implicit
model has made it possible to develop stan-
dardised research methods that permit
researchers to delve into the unconscious,
instinctive dimensions of consumer behav-
iour. The tools involve projective and transfer-
ence mechanisms for data gathering, and the
use of the implicit, dynamic model for data
interpretation.
The implicit model provides both a person-
ality and an identity for an object, be it a
brand, product or company. The personality
of an object is the implicit, internal features
that are experienced by the primal, subcon-
scious brain, while the identity is the explicit,
external features that are observed by the
rational and conscious brain and easily articu-
lated by respondents. A brand image will be a
combination of these two dimensions.
According to Heylen et al. (1995), however, as
brands become more homogeneous, con-
sumers are making brand choices more on the
basis of brand personality than identity.
Figure 1 depicts how, in our relationships with
people, products, brands, and company, we
are more affected by the personality than by
Figure 1 Consumer relationships and brand identity
BRAND IMAGE CONSUMER NEEDS
CONSUMER
RATIONALISATIONS
BRAND RATIONAL
IDENTITY NEEDS
BRAND EMOTIVE
PERSONALITY NEEDS
CONSUMER
RELATIONSHIPS
Source: Heylen et al. (1995)
 Projecting the right image
Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe
the identity, although both play an important
role in responding to our needs.
In order to develop the implicit model,
three different sets of carefully validated
photographs were compiled:
(1) Ascription sets – to identify the perceived
personality of the user/non-user of prod-
ucts, brands, etc. Using these projective
stimuli allows the underlying motives that
may be used in purchase decisions to be
identified.
(2) Gratification sets – to identify the ultimate
psychological, social, and physical gratifi-
cation provided by products, brands, etc.
(3) Animation sets – to identify the underlying
personality, image and perceptions of a
brand, company, product, etc. Using the
technique of personification, whereby
respondents project a personality into a
stimulus, a brand can be attributed a
personality.
The ascription and gratification photo sets are
used to define the vectors of the implicit
space. It is the animation sets with which this
report is concerned and how, through the
development of sets of photographs to which
respondents will respond similarly and with
consistency, and to which a set of characteris-
tics can be attributed; we can identify the
brand image held and consequently the moti-
vations behind brand choice.
Method
The first stage in the investigation was to
compile two sets of photographs. The first set
used different animals for elements and the
second set used cars for stimuli.
Animals were selected as stimuli because of
their long history of popularity with advertis-
ers. Symbols like the Energizer Bunny used by
the Eveready Battery Company now have a
firm place in popular culture (Fowles, 1996).
The use of animal symbolism in art is also
well documented (Carr-Gom, 1995).
Car cue cards were chosen because of the
well-documented fact that consumers tend to
identify strongly with cars and purchase
models that are in line with their own self-
image (Foxall and Goldsmith, 1994; Grubb
and Hupp, 1968). Only the car style was
shown in the prompt cards. No brand infor-
mation was provided.
The sets were made up as shown in Table I.
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Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 2 · Number 1 · 1999 · 22–30
Table I Elements used in photograph sets
Animals Cars
Cat Jeep
Bear Subaru
Chimp Mondeo
Lion Morgan
Squirrel Espace
Elephant Mini
Panda Porsche
Rabbit Fiat
The response photographs were selected from
books, magazines and promotional literature,
according to a number of predetermined
criteria:
(1) Neutrality, avoiding anything that may
bias or offend the respondent. This could
be anything from the sex or age of the
driver of a car to an animal in the process
of killing another animal. It would be
difficult to bias the results in the strictest
sense of the word, as every subject will be
shown the same photograph.
(2) The photographs needed to be different
from one another on at least one crucial
element.
(3) The range of pictures should cover all
extremes, for example, cars from each
end of the market, and from wild, jungle
animals to domestic pets.
To help fulfil the above criteria, and to help in
the later stage of free association, content
analysis was carried out on the text accompa-
nying the photographs to gain an idea of the
vocabulary used to define them.
Following selection of the eight photo-
graphs in each set, they were prepared to be
of similar sizes, numbered randomly from one
to eight and displayed on identical back-
grounds.
To determine the characteristics that are
attributed to each photograph, the repertory
grid technique was used (Fransella and
Bannister, 1984; Kelly, 1955). As quantitative
results were sought in the long term only the
first six respondents were asked to complete
repertory grids using free association. The
software package Flexigrid was then used to
carry out cluster analysis of the six individual
data matrices. Using the most frequently
mentioned constructs, a new standard grid
with predetermined constructs and poles was
constructed. This was then administered to a
further 30 subjects.
 Projecting the right image
Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe
For the second part of the study, a set of 12
brand photographs were compiled to which a
further 15 respondents were asked to assign
the stimulus photographs.
As brand image is important in the fast
moving consumer goods market, four product
categories were selected from this area: coffee,
sliced bread, chocolate confectionery and
cereal. Within these categories, three different
brands were chosen to which one would
expect consumers to hold different images.
For example, one would expect Mellow Birds
to have a much more convenience, little
thought involved, cheap image compared with
Gold Blend which is more likely to have pres-
tige, high-status appeal. Furthermore, in the
cereals category two Kellogg’s brands were
selected to determine whether respondents
chose elements with similar characteristics to
represent them.
The food categories were selected not only
because of their commercial importance but
also because it was felt that the brands would
be very well-known to a wide range of respon-
dents.
The full selection of brands was as follows:
(1) Coffee
• Nescafé Gold Blend;
• Kenco;
• Mellow Birds.
(2) Sliced bread
• Kingsmill White;
• Hovis Granary;
• Private Label.
(3) Chocolate confectionery
• Cadbury’s Dairy Milk;
• Nestlé Kit Kat;
• Snickers.
(4) Breakfast cereal
• Kellogg’s Cornflakes;
• Kellogg’s Bran Flakes;
• Weetabix.
The 16 stimulus photographs were laid out
clearly in front of the respondents prior to
giving them the questionnaire; they were then
shown the brand photographs and asked to
select first a car photograph and then an
animal picture that they think best represents
that brand. Brand photographs were shown in
their category sets; pilot tests indicated that
even if all of the photographs were shown in a
random order, respondents still drew compar-
isons and asked to change previous answers.
Next, they were asked to indicate their pur-
chase frequency so that it could be determined
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Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 2 · Number 1 · 1999 · 22–30
whether a “favourable” response was the
result of brand purchasing. Following the
presentation of all of the brands, the respon-
dents were asked to rate the difficulty of the
task.
All interviews were conducted using stan-
dardised instructions.
The objective of the study did not require
any form of probability sampling, particularly
as only 51 subjects were used. However, it is
one of the most consistent facts in gender
research that females are more emotional than
males (Fabes and Martin, 1991). Achieve-
ment, autonomy and striving for control are
terms regularly associated with masculinity.
Femininity, on the other hand, is usually
associated with interpersonal communication,
communality, and the awareness and active
expression of one’s own feelings. Much of the
research on the issue suggests that males and
females are actually equally emotional, but
they express emotion differently because of
different norms regarding emotional expres-
sion for men and women (Ickes and Barnes,
1978). Therefore, we would expect that male
subjects would respond differently to the
photographs from female subjects because
they have been socialised differently. Conse-
quently, in the two repertory grid experiments
there were equal quantities of females and
males interviewed. In the final brand image
experiment, seven men and eight women were
interviewed. This not only allowed for a fuller
picture to be built up but also permitted any
differences between male and female respons-
es to be investigated at a later stage.
Results
The list of words/phases used to describe the
car photographs in the six unstructured grids
is shown in Table II. Where a number follows
a word/phrase this indicates that the term was
used by more than one respondent.
The cluster analysis for the car photographs
showed high and numerous correlations
between the Espace and Jeep, and the Morgan
and Porsche. Nevertheless, this need not be a
problem as they are also highly clustered with
other cars and therefore have some character-
istics distinct from each other.
Table III gives the constructs elicited from
the six unstructured grids for the set of animal
photographs.
Cluster analysis revealed high and numer-
ous correlations between the Bear and Lion;
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Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe Volume 2 · Number 1 · 1999 · 22–30

Table II Words and phrases used in describing car photographs: unstructured grids

Boring Exciting
Cheap (2), Cheaper Expensive (3)
Would like to drive, Like to be seen in Wouldn’t drive, Wouldn’t like to be seen in
Powerful (2) Nimble, Sufficient
Looks good, Pleasing to the eye Looks awful, Badly designed
Reliable (2) Unreliable (2)
Utilitarian, Functional (4) Show-offy, Like to be seen, For status, Plaything,
Status symbol
Run of the mill (3), Ordinary, Similar to others Individual (2), Exceptional, Speciality, Ambitious
Annoying driver OK driver
Sporty (4) Standard, Family car, Big and hefty, Off-road
Old-fashioned design (2) New design, Sophisticated
Extrovert (2) Introvert, Everyday
High status attachment Low-status attachment
Stereotyped male driver, Men’s, Male Stereotyped female driver, Women’s, Female
Common Exclusive
Small (2) Large, Big
Off road On-road, Speed-monsters
Cool Un-trendy, Unsophisticated, Unappealing
Technical Non-technical
British Foreign, American
Single people (2), Compact Family car (2), People carrier
Flash, Innovative Traditional
Old people (2) Young people (2)
Old New
Additional features Standard features
Linear Curvy
Harsh Not standard
Plain A lot of thought involved
Middle class Snobby
Contained Freedom

however, as the Bear also clusters with the
Panda on two respondents results it still has
some characteristics distinct from the Lion.
On the basis of the frequency counts shown
in Tables II and III and with reference to the
cluster dendrograms, a total of 24 constructs
for the car photographs and 18 constructs for
the set of animal photographs were selected
for the 30 structured grids.
From a significance analysis of the means
of the construct scores, a group of defining
constructs were identified for each element
(see Tables IV and V).
The results from the final 15 respondents
who were asked to select one car and one
animal photograph to represent each brand,
suggests that people do use this method of
predicting brand image with discrimination
and consistency.
On the coffee brands, both Gold Blend and
Kenco were represented by the Porsche, thus
emphasising their high-status; while Mellow
26
Birds was thought to be like the Mini. The
ascribed personality of the Mini includes
standard features, cheap, non-technical and
old-fashioned. Respondents also selected the
Mondeo to represent Gold Blend, emphasis-
ing its “everydayness” and respondents mod-
erate feelings towards it. The same animal
picture was also selected for Gold Blend and
Kenco, the Lion, showing that respondents
are consistent in their ranking. The rabbit was
chosen to represent Mellow Birds; this ele-
ment has characteristics in common with the
Mini such as British and small; thus respon-
dents are consistent in the basis of their evalu-
ation.
Respondents chose different animals and
different cars to represent each of the stimulus
brands of bread. For Kingsmill, the Lion and
the Porsche/Morgan/Mondeo were chosen.
The Porsche and Morgan have a very similar
personality, however the Mondeo is very differ-
ent and represents a very moderate brand.
 Projecting the right image
Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe
Table III Words and phrases used in describing animal photographs: unstructured grids
Mischievous
Cunning (2), Sly
Aggressive (2), Fierce, Ferocious, Scary, Dangerous
Lively
Common (3), Everyday
Little, Tiny, Small
Forest
Eats vegetables, Herbivore
Powerful (3), Strong
Solitary
Wild (4)
Doesn’t do much, Passive
Playful (2)
Motherly, Protective
Britain
Loud
Bad-tempered
Leaders
Cuddly
Cute
Top of food chain
Respected by humans
Fast-moving
Laid-back
Hovis is represented by the Jeep and Squirrel;
these have contrasting profiles, for example,
small versus large, weak versus powerful. The
economy loaf is represented by the Chimp and
Fiat, which have very similar profiles and thus
the evaluation sets are the same.
The chocolate confectionery brands of
Dairy Milk and Snickers are both represented
most often by the Jeep; however, the choice of
animal pictures is different: the Panda and
Bear represent Dairy Milk, whereas the Lion
depicts Snickers. Lion and Jeep have a very
similar style of personality, and the
Bear/Panda and the Jeep have quite similar
characteristics. The Kit Kat has a rather
negative brand image in contrast to the other
two brands as it is portrayed by the Mini and
the Cat or Chimp.
There is a “British” emphasis for Corn-
flakes as respondents chose the Mondeo and
Squirrel to represent the brand. The position-
ing of Cornflakes as an everyday, family cereal
would suggest that the Mondeo is a close
approximation to its true brand image because
of its moderate image, and characteristics
such as run-of-the-mill, common and reliable.
Owing to the size of the brand itself, it is
surprising that the Squirrel was chosen; how-
ever, the defined personality does include
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Well-behaved
Stupid, Innocent, What you see is what you get
Friendly, Gentle (2), Timid (3)
Sleepy
Rare (3), Unusual
Big (3), Large
Jungle
Eat meat, Carnivore
Weak
Group
Tame, Pet-like, Domestic (2)
Active, Curious
Serious, Mean
Uncaring of young, Careless
Abroad
Quiet
Good-tempered
Subservient, Follower
Not-cuddly
Horrible
Bottom of food chain
Less-respected by humans
Slow-moving
Competitive
fast-moving, wild and active. Bran Flakes are
not depicted by either of the same stimuli as
Cornflakes, despite both being Kellogg’s
brands, and thus respondents appear to have
based their evaluation on the generic product
rather than the manufacturer brand.
Although these results do suggest a general
consistency in the thinking of respondents in
terms of the relative frequencies of cue cards
selected, we do not know on what basis the
respondents actually made their judgements.
For example, that Kingsmill was represented
by the Lion (Lion = king of the jungle), Kit
Kat by the Cat, and Hovis by the Squirrel – a
possible link between nuts and granary?
Nevertheless, when comparing the Economy
Loaf and Hovis, we saw that the former is
perceived to have only standard features,
whereas the latter has additional features,
which is quite true given that Hovis is a gra-
nary bread. However, this aside there is defi-
nitely potential for these stimuli sets to be
used as part of a technique for measuring
brand image.
A summary of the most popular picture
choices is given in Table VI.
When asked how difficult they found it to
select car and animal photographs to repre-
sent the brands, respondents said that it was
 Projecting the right image Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe Volume 2 · Number 1 · 1999 · 22–30

Table IV Defining constructs for car photographs Table V Defining constructs for animal photographs

Element: car Defining constructs Element: animal Defining constructs

1. Jeep Large 1. Cat Small
Reliable Common
Additional features Mischievous
Stereotypically male Britain
High-status attachment Solitary
Freedom Wild
Powerful Fast-moving
2. Subaru Families Cunning
Boring 2. Bear Abroad
Plain Wild
Foreign Big
Unsophisticated Aggressive
Large Leaders
Common Bad-tempered
Old-fashioned Loud
3. Mondeo Run of the mill Serious
Common 3. Chimp Playful
Pleasing to the eye Mischievous
British Group
Reliable Abroad
Active
4. Morgan Exclusive
Small
British
Loud
Individual
Follower
High-status attachment
4. Lion Powerful, Wild
Singles
Abroad
Status-symbol
Serious
Expensive
Aggressive
Stereotypically male
Leaders
5. Espace Families
Respected by humans
Large
Bad-tempered
Functional 5. Squirrel Small, Weak
Boring Britain
Reliable Quiet
6. Mini Small Fast-moving
British Gentle
Singles Active, Wild
Young person 6. Elephant Big
Old-fashioned design Abroad
Standard features Powerful, Wild
Cheap Group
Non-technical Slow-moving
7. Porsche High-status attachment Protective
Expensive Rare
Exclusive 7. Panda Abroad
Cool Rare
Singles Wild
Sophisticated Slow-moving
Individual Quiet, Innocent
Exciting Laid-back
8. Fiat Low-status attachment Big
Small 8. Rabbit Britain
Common Common
Run-of-the-mill Quiet
Standard features Fast-moving
Unsophisticated Small, Weak
Boring Group
Plain Less respected by humans

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Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe Volume 2 · Number 1 · 1999 · 22–30

Table VI Results of animal and car brand choices Another practical step must be to determine
if this model is appropriate to use for products
Most popular Most popular
other than food, particularly those that require
animal car
greater involvement from the customer when
Coffee
choosing which product to buy.
Nescafé Gold Blend Lion Porsche
Also, the current response sets, cars and
Kenco Lion Porsche
animals, need to be developed in order to
Mellow Birds Rabbit Mini
provide a greater repertoire from which
Sliced bread
respondents could select. Extra response sets
Kingsmill White Lion Mondeo
are also being developed so as to provide a
Hovis Granary Squirrel Jeep
Private label Chimp Fiat much richer picture.
Chocolate For future work at the modelling level,
Cadbury’s Dairy Milk Bear Jeep some attention needs to be given to self-
Nestlé Kit Kat Cat Mini concept and congruity theory in order to
Snickers Lion Jeep provide sound underpinning for any empirical
Breakfast cereal findings (Grubb and Grathowl, 1967).
Kellogg’s Cornflakes Squirrel Mondeo The relationship between the product
Kellogg’s Bran Flakes Rabbit Jeep image and consumer’s self-image is known to
Weetabix Chimp Fiat determine the effect of the symbolic meaning
of a product (Chisnall, 1995). It is also
generally harder to select an animal photo- thought that brands have a symbolic value
graph than a car. which, in turn, influences the consumer’s self-
Of the 336 possible opportunities for image (de Chernatony and McDonald, 1992).
recording sex differences in both sets of pho- Congruity theory suggests that the greater
tographs, only 27 element-construct combi- the brand/self-image congruence the more a
brand will be preferred, and that this con-
nations record differences that are significant
gruity can exist along a number of the dimen-
at the 5 per cent level. The small sample size
sions of the self-concept. Ross (1971) con-
and the lack of consistent significant differ-
firmed that: “Subjects preferred brands of
ences suggest that, as far as this research is
products that were more, rather than less
concerned, gender differences are unlikely to
similar to their own self-concept. The magni-
be a problem.
tude of the discrepancy between self-concept
(actual and ideal) and brand image, increased
Conclusions and future research as a function of a decrease in subject’s prefer-
ences for those brands”. Ross (1971) also
Given that the current work has demonstrated
found that “preferences in consumption were
a potential for using these sets of photographs
actually more closely related to actual self-
as part of a technique for measuring brand
concept than to the ideal self-concept for each
image which results in consistent responses
of the brands in the product categories
across individuals, the next practical step
researched”.
would be to determine whether the selected These are clearly issues that need to be
stimulus’ unique personality is congruent addressed in any future work.
with the actual image that the consumer holds As the world changes, new markets open
about the product. This could be done by up for consumer product firms. Multinational
simply presenting an independent set of corporations want to take advantage of these
respondents with the structured repertory changes, and thus some way of measuring
grids – as used when identifying the character- brand-image in different countries is becom-
istics of the stimulus sets – and asking them to ing increasingly important.
select the characteristics that they associate By conducting research in the appropriate
with a particular brand. By comparing the countries, a personality can be attributed to
response profiles of the brand in question with the photograph specific to that country. This
that of the most dominant animal or car an is a particularly suitable method to transfer
empirical measure of goodness-of-fit could be overseas as there is no written language in the
determined. ascription sets.
29
 Projecting the right image
Michael Hussey and Nicola Duncombe
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