Design and Flow Analyses of Flameless Combustion Chamber

Republic of Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education and

Scientific Research
University of Technology
Mechanical Engineering Department
Design and Flow Analysis of a Flameless

Combustion Chamber
A thesis
Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering of

the University of Technology in a partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in
Mechanical Engineering
BY
Fuad Abdul ameer Khalaf
(B.Sc. 1999, M.Sc. 2006)
SUPERVISED BY
Prof. Dr. Arkan AL-Taie Assist Prof. Dr. Mahmoud. A. Mashkour
2018 A.D. 1439 A.H.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2
Supervisors' Certification
I certify that this thesis entitled “Design and Flow Analysis of a

Flameless Combustion Chamber” was prepared by Fuad Abdul
Ameer Khalaf under my supervision in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Technology in a partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical
Engineering.
Signature: Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Arkan Khilkhal AL-Taie Name: Assist Prof. Dr. Mahmoud. A. Mashkour
Date: / / 2018 Date: / / 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
Linguistic Certification
I certify that this thesis entitled, “Design and Flow Analysis of a

Flameless Combustion Chamber” was prepared by Fuad Abdul
Ameer Khalaf under my linguistic supervision. Its language was
amended to meet the English Style.
Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Dayah N. Raouf
Linguistic Reviewer
Department of Applied Science.
University of Technology Date: / / 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
Examining Committee Certificate

We certify that we have read this thesis entitled and as a “design and flow
analysis of a flameless combustion chamber” was prepared by fuad abdul
ameer khalaf and as an examining committee examined the student in its content
and that in our opinion it meets the standards of a thesis for the Degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in Mechanical engineering.
Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Abdulhasan Karmalla
Date: / / 2018
Title: (Chairman)
Name: Assist. Prof. Haroon A. S Name: Prof. Fuad A. S.
Title: (Member) Title: (Member)
Date: / / 2018 Date: / / 2018
Name: Assist. Prof. Dr. Aamer M. H. Name: Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdul Kadem M. H
Title: (Member) Title: (Member)
Date: / / 2018 Date: / / 2018
Name: Prof.Dr. Arkan Khilkhal AL-Taie Name: Assist. Prof.Dr. Mahmoud. A. Mashkour
Title: (Supervisor) Title: (Supervisor)
Date: / / 2018 Date: / / 2018
Approved by The Mechanical Engineering Department:
Signature:
Name: Assist. Prof. Dr. Moayed R. Hasan

Title: Head of Department (Dean) Date: / / 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, my great thanks to Allah for the mercy and blessings.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude and grateful admiration to my revered
supervisor Prof. Dr. Arkan AL-Taie and Assist. Prof. Dr. Mahmoud. A.
Mashkour for their over-seeing, continuous guidance, interest and suggestions
which were very helpful for the preparation and completion of this research.
My thanks are also extended to the faculty and staff members in the
Mechanical Engineering Department, especially Prof. Dr. Jafar Mehdi, Prof. Dr.
Abdulhasan Karmalla, Prof. Dr.Adel M. Saleh, Prof. Dr. Wahid Sh. Mohammad,
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ikhlase M. Fayed and Assist. Prof. Dr. Moayed R. Hasan. Special
thanks go to my colleagues in the power design group.
I would like to express my deep respects and sincere appreciation to my family,
in particular my father, and special thanks to my father, mother for the morale
encouragement that gave me so much hope and support.
Fuad Abdul Ameer

/ / 2018
Abstract II
Abstract
This work presents a technique for design and optimization of a tubular
combustor of micro size gas turbine for the colorless combustion considerations.
This technique is based on the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
optimizations by ANSYS-CFX solver and experimental optimization for
volumetric reaction by using multi-line of fuel injection technique to obtain
colorless combustion mode and reduce emission gases, pattern factor, brake
specific fuel consumption (B. S. F. C.) and rising combustion efficiency and
outlet power as possible relating the mass fraction of the multi-line of fuel
injection as well as equivalence ratio of the tubular combustion chamber designed
for liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) fuel for experimental optimization.
It is concerned with the comprehensive assessment of the flow feature by using

k-ε as turbulent model and probability density function (PDF) flamelet as
combustion model, the combustor is designed for fossil fuel and adapted for the
use of methane fuel use as benchmarking for pollutant concentration of the gas
exhausted from the combustor for (CFD) optimization. The operational envelope
data of micro size gas turbine is used the validation of flow mixing and
combustion analyses were carried out with a focus on species concentration in
the combustor outlet section. It was found that, with the new fuel injection mode
design that NO emission reduced about 56 % for the fuel lines mass flow fraction
F2/F1 about 3 for low equivalence ratio and about 30% for the mass fraction F2/F1
about 1 for high equivalence ratio.
The test engine used was turbocharger (BBC) micro compressor gas turbine
with multi-line of fuel injection system. The selected performance parameters are
B. S. F. C. combustion efficiency, pattern factor and outlet power and for gases
emissions (CO, CO2, O2 and UHC), by using six liner model of fuel injection
mode, for 3.2 g/s and 2 bar of fuel flow results shows that ultimate optimization
for case of main fuel injection (MFI) with six holes and 1 mm injectors holes
Abstract III
diameter is more efficient for flameless consideration, high power generation

about 3.43 kW, low B. S. F. C. about 3.49 kg/kWh, easy to start high responsive
to acceleration without secondary line of fuel injection (S.F.I) assisting and low
emission gases about 22 ppmv for UHC compared with 0.83 kW, high B. S. F. C.
about 21.2 kg/kWh difficult to start low responsive to acceleration without S. F.
I. assisting and high emission gases about 85 ppmv for UHC and high rang of
soot generation for other injection holes diameter for the main injector.
For S. F. I. cases the mode 1RSFI with 2.5 cm injection depth with preheated
air by EGR line, shows more efficient mode for flameless consideration with
distributed fuel injection mode, high power generation about 4.43 kW, low
B.S.F.C about 2.49 kg/kWh, easy to start high responsive to acceleration, promote
a good assisting role for the main injector with large holes diameter and low
emission gases after over pass of the thermal sill limits for air preheating
temperature which about 340 k, about 5ppmv for UHC, 0.0018% CO compared
with 1.6 kW, high B.S.F.C about 7 kg/kWh, difficult to start low responsive to
acceleration high emission gases about 185 to 250 ppmv for UHC, 0.045-0.062
of CO for other S. F. I. mode.
Table of Contents IV
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. I
Abstract ................................................................................................................ II
Table of Contents ................................................................................................IV
List of Table ..................................................................................................... VIII
List of Figures .................................................................................................. VIII
NOMENCLATURE....................................................................................... XXII
Greek Symbols ............................................................................................ XXII
Subscripts and Superscripts ........................................................................ XXII
Chapter one Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
Chapter One Introduction ..................................................................................... 2
1.1 Research background ................................................................................... 2
1.2 Conventional Combustors ........................................................................... 3
1.3 Types of Combustors ................................................................................... 4
1.4 Parts of Combustors ..................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Diffuser .................................................................................................. 4
1.4.2 Fuel Injector ........................................................................................... 6
1.4.3 Air Casing .............................................................................................. 6
1.4.4 Liner ....................................................................................................... 7
1.4.5 Combustion Zones ................................................................................. 7
1.4.6 Swirler:................................................................................................... 8
1.5 Flameless consideration ............................................................................... 9
1.6 Low Emission Combustors: ....................................................................... 11
1.7 Pollutant Formation ................................................................................... 11
1.7.1 Thermal (Zeldovich mechanism): ....................................................... 12
1.7.2 Prompt (Fenimore Mechanism): .......................................................... 13
1.7.3 Nitrous oxide (N2O intermediate Mechanism) .................................... 13
1.7.4 Fuel NO ............................................................................................... 14
1.8 CO, UHC and soot formation: ................................................................... 14
1.9 NOx Abatement Strategies ......................................................................... 16
1.9.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR): ...................................................... 16
Table of Contents V
1.9.2 Lean direct injection: ........................................................................... 16

1.10 problem statement .................................................................................... 17
1.11 Research objective: .................................................................................. 17
1.12 Thesis structure: ....................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................... 19
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 20
2.2 Colorless distributed oxidation reaction .................................................... 20
2.3 furnaces application: .................................................................................. 21
2.4 Gas Turbine Application ............................................................................ 28
2.5 Numerical Methods CFD technology: ....................................................... 33
2.6 Design consideration: ................................................................................ 35
2.7 Combustion efficiency: .............................................................................. 37
2.8 summary ..................................................................................................... 38
Chapter Three Combustor Preliminary Design and Numerical simulation ........ 40
3.1Combustor Preliminary Design Approach: ................................................ 41
3.1.1 Combustor pressure drop: .................................................................... 41
3.1.2 Liner Air Mass Flow Rate Distribution ............................................... 41
3.1.3 Equivalence Ratio Estimation ............................................................. 43
3.1.4 Casing and Liner Area ......................................................................... 43
3.1.5 Annulus Area: ...................................................................................... 45
3.1.6 Combustor Primary, Secondary and Dilution Zone Lengths .............. 45
3.1.7 Swirler Design ..................................................................................... 47
3.1.8 Dome Sizing ........................................................................................ 50
3.1.9 Diffuser and snout sizing: .................................................................... 51
3.1.10 Air injection Hole Sizing ................................................................... 53
3.2 Numerical simulation:................................................................................ 55
3.2.1 Introduction: ........................................................................................ 55
3.2.2 Geometry: ............................................................................................ 56
3.2.3 Assumptions: ....................................................................................... 56
3.3.1. Governing Equations: ......................................................................... 57
3.3.2 Continuity equation: ............................................................................ 57
Table of Contents VI
3.3.3 Momentum equation: ........................................................................... 57

3.3.4. Energy equation: ................................................................................. 58
3.4 Turbulence model, Bossiness Assumption ................................................ 58
3.5 Geometry of the System: ........................................................................... 59
3.6 Mesh Generation: ....................................................................................... 61
3.7 Three Dimensions Mesh Generation: ........................................................ 62
3.7.1 Volume mesh generation: .................................................................... 62
3.8 Count of the total cells: .............................................................................. 63
3.9 Boundary conditions: ................................................................................. 63
3.9.1 Inlet boundary conditions: ................................................................... 63
3.10 Computing Time and Total Cell Number: ............................................... 64
3.11 Number of Iterations and Convergence:............................................... 64
CHAPTER FOUR EXPERIMENTAL WORK .................................................. 65
Chapter Four Experimental work........................................................................ 66
4.1. Introduction:.............................................................................................. 66
4.2 Experimental Setup: ................................................................................... 66
4.2.1 Test rig: ................................................................................................ 66
4.2.2 Experimental method considerations: ................................................. 70
4.3 Experimental measurement .................................................................... 71
4.3.1 Fuel flow measurement: ...................................................................... 71
4.3.2 Fuel pressure measurement: ................................................................ 71
4.3.4 Temperature measurement .................................................................. 71
4.3.5 Exhaust gases measurement ................................................................ 74
4.4 Combustion observation ............................................................................ 74
4.5 Air and EGR flow measurement................................................................ 74
4.6 Pitot-static tube: ......................................................................................... 74
4.7 Turbine rotating speed measurements ....................................................... 75
4.8 Cases investigated ...................................................................................... 75
4.9 Experimental Procedures: .......................................................................... 76
CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................ 78
Chapter Five Results and Discussions ................................................................ 79
Table of Contents VII
5.1 Introduction:............................................................................................... 79
5.2 Experimental Method Verification: ........................................................... 79
5.2.1 Conventional main injector optimization with different fuel injector
holes size and dome holes effects (MFI): ........................................................ 79
5.2.2 Main injector optimization conclusions: ............................................. 84
5.3 Main fuel injection with secondary radial inward 90º fuel injection
optimization: .................................................................................................... 84
5.3.1 Characteristics of Secondary radial inward 90º fuel injection in
primary zone (1RPDFI): ............................................................................... 84
5.3.2 Characteristic of Secondary radial inward flow 90º fuel injection in
secondary zone with fuel injection points bounded by air holes (2RSFI): ..... 87
5.3.3 Optimization of Secondary radial fuel injection in secondary and
dilution zone with fuel injection points bounded by air holes (2RSDFI): ...... 88
5.3.4 Optimization of Secondary radial fuel injection in secondary zone 1 cm
injection depth (1RSFI): .................................................................................. 90
5.3.5 Optimization of Secondary radial fuel injection in secondary zone 2.5
cm injection depth (1RSFI): ............................................................................ 95
5.4 CFD results: ............................................................................................... 98
CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE STUDY ............................................................................................. 169
6.1 Conclusions .............................................................................................. 170
6.2 suggestion for future study .................................................................... 171
References ......................................................................................................... 173
APPENDEX .......................................................................................................... 1
Appendix A ........................................................................................................... 1
A1. Design parts of the air inlet plenum ............................................................ 1
A2. Design parts of Exhaust plenum and EGR pipe line .................................. 1
A.3 Design part of the EGR line ........................................................................ 2
Appendix B ........................................................................................................... 1
Appendix C ........................................................................................................... 1
Air mass flow rate, EGR mass flow rate and theoretical work calculation....... 1
C1. Air mass flow rate ....................................................................................... 1
C2. Total mass flow rate calculation at the compressor outlet pipe line ........... 2
List of Table VIII
C2. Total EGR mass flow rate: .......................................................................... 3

Appendix D ........................................................................................................... 1
Combustion efficiency calculation ....................................................................... 1
Appendix E ........................................................................................................... 1
Operation Manual of the Micro gas turbine test rig .......................................... 1
E1. Startup Procedure ........................................................................................ 1
E2. Shutdown Procedure.................................................................................... 2
Appendix F ............................................................................................................ 1
Composition and properties of the (LPG) gas fuel. ........................................... 1
Appendix G ........................................................................................................... 1
List of Publications ............................................................................................... 1
List of Table
Table (1.1) Total NO formation with different mechanism ............................... 14
Table: 1.2, Gas turbine emission gases ............................................................... 15
Table 3.1 pressure losses terms for aircraft and industrial engine combustor
[saywers] ............................................................................................................. 45
Table 3.3 preliminary design results. .................................................................. 55
Table 3.3 the k-ε turbulence model constants ..................................................... 59
Table 4.1 cases investigated ................................................................................ 76
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Schematic of a simple gas-turbine engine. [Int.]................................. 2
Figure 1.2, Conventional Gas Turbine tubular Combustion chamber details. ..... 4
Figure 1.3 Types of Straight Combustors (a) Tubular, (b) Tubu-annular, (c)
Annular. [Rolls-Royce, 2005]. .............................................................................. 4
Figure 1.4 Effect of divergence angle on diffuser Performance [3]. .................... 5
Figure (1.5) Types of diffuser (a) Faired and (b) Dump diffuser. [1] .................. 6
Figure 1.6 gas turbine liquid fuel injector............................................................. 6
Figure: 1.7, schematic of axial straingth vanes swirler ........................................ 8
List of Figures IX
Figure 1.8, a- Radial recirculation, b-Reverse flow produced by swirling flow and
baffling jet flow [Lilley and Gupta, 2004] ............................................................ 9
Figure (1.9), swirler types, a-Axil swirler [3], b- Radial swirler[13]. ................. 9
Figure 1.10 Emissions production with varying equivalence ratio [Singh,
2010] ................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 1.11 Mechanism of emission formation .................................................. 12
Figure 1.12 Variation of CO and NOx with primary zone temperature [Lefebvre,
2010] ................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 1.13 Gas turbine emission generation. .................................................... 15
Figure 1.14 NOx abatement strategies [4]. .......................................................... 16
Figure: 2.1, a- flame combustion, b- flameless combustion, [26]. ..................... 21
Figure: 2.2, Temperature distribution profile of flame and flameless combustion
in single fuel jet burner, [28]............................................................................... 22
Figure: 2.3, CGRI burner front view: alternate arrangement of fuel and air nozzles
(Fleck et al. [26]) ................................................................................................. 23
Figure: 2.4, a- High heat intensity cylindrical combustor test rig, b- flame images
for normal exit section. ....................................................................................... 24
Figure: 2.5, Methane fraction distribution at the Air/Fuel injection plane for the
different case. ...................................................................................................... 25
Figure: 2.6 Schematic diagram of the combustor ............................................... 25
Figure: 2.7 different fuel flow direction and arrangement mode ....................... 27
Figure: 2.8, a- MILD combustion furnace with parallel jet burner system, b-
images of LPG combustion with increasing N2 and CO2 .................................. 28
Figure: 2.9, hexagonal combustion chamber with 12 single nozzles ................. 29
Figure 2.10, a- combustor test rig b- swirle flow field c- swirle fuel injector with
air cavity .............................................................................................................. 30
Figure: 2.11, OH Chemiluminescence images at different equivalence ratios (Ф).
............................................................................................................................. 31
List of Figures X
Figure 2.12 a- Initial prototype of cross jet burner (with duplex type fuel nozzle),
Principle of cross jet swirler. .............................................................................. 32
Figure 2.13 Combustor for high pressure test rig HBK-S. Enhanced FLOX
burner, version 2A, and hexagonal combustion chamber with quartz glass walls
for optical access. ................................................................................................ 33
Figure 3.1 Typical conventional combustor air flow distribution. ..................... 42
Figure 3.2: Combustor nomenclature ................................................................. 44
Figure: 3.3, swirler nomenclature ....................................................................... 48
Figure 3.4 Dome nomenclature........................................................................... 50
Figure 3.5 location of magic circles .................................................................... 51
Figure3.6: Diffuser and snout nomenclature ...................................................... 52
Table (3.2) inlet boundary condition .................................................................. 55
Figure: 3.7. Combustor details. ........................................................................... 56
Figure: 3.8 the S.F.I. system geometry ............................................................... 61
Figure: 3.9.Tetrahedral mesh distribution for the combustor, a- all domain, b-
main fule injector domain, c- secondary fuel injector domain. ......................... 62
Figure (3.10), Wall boundary conditions for fluid domain. ............................... 64
Figure (3.11), Convergence history for continuity and momentum equations... 64
Figure (4.1): Photographic pictures of the test rig. ............................................. 67
Figure (4.2): schematic and detail of experimental test rig. ............................... 68
Figure (4.3) a- Side view of experimental test rig set, b-starting motor............. 69
............................................................................................................................. 70
Figure: 4.4, Control panel ................................................................................... 70
Figure: 4.5, a- Gas fuel Rota meter, b- Fuel pressure regulator ......................... 71
Figure: 4.6 combustor thermocouple distribution a- center line, b- outlet
section ................................................................................................................. 72
Figure: 4.7 Sckematic diagram for measurement device distribution ................ 73
Figure 4.8. Primary and secondary zone flame capturing glass ......................... 74
Figure 4.9, Turbine rotation measurements detail .............................................. 75
List of Figures XI
Figure: 5.1 Swirler with the variable Main injector holes size (MFI). ............ 100
Figure (5.2, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main
injector of six holes and 0.5 mm holes diameter (MFI). .................................. 100
Figure (5.33 a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main
injector of six holes and 0.8 mm holes diameter (MFI). .................................. 100
Figure (5.4 a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for
formain injector of six holes and 1 mm holes diameter (MFI). ....................... 101
Figure (5.5) Dome holes and control system. ................................................... 101
Figure (5.6 a and b) Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for
formain injector of six holes and 1 mm holes diameter (MFI). ........................ 102
Figure (5.7), Temperature distribution profile along the center line of the
combustor for FOEV running turbine (MFI). ................................................... 102
Figure (5.8), Turbine rotational speed and equivalence ratio for different total fuel
mass flow rate and FOEV turbine (MFI). ......................................................... 103
Figure (5.9), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature with equivalence ratio
for FOEV running turbine (MFI). ..................................................................... 103
Figure (5.10), Combustion efficiency with equivalence ratio for FOEV running
turbine (MFI)..................................................................................................... 104
Figure (5.11) Emission gases with equivalence ratio for FOEV running turbine
(MFI). ................................................................................................................ 104
Figure (5.12 a and b), Flame in primary zone and secondary zone respectively for
1.5 mm main injector holes diameter (MFI). .................................................... 105
combustion chamber for mai injector of six holes and 1.5 mm of diameter (MFI).
........................................................................................................................... 105
Figure (5.14 a and b) Flame in primary zone and secondary zone respectively for
2 mm main injector holes diameter with FOEV running turbine (MFI). ......... 106
Figure (5.15, a and b), Generated soot inside the combustion chamber for 2 mm
main injector holes diameter for F1= 3.2 g/s (MFI). ........................................ 106
List of Figures XII
Figure (5.16), Temperature distribution profile along the center ine of the
combustion chamber for main injector of six holes and 2mm of diameter
(MFI). ................................................................................................................ 107
Figure (5.17), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature with the main
injector holes size for FOEV running case (MFI). ........................................... 107
Figure (5.18), S.F.C. and outlet power with the main injector holes size for FOEV
running case (MFI)............................................................................................ 108
Figure (5.19), Detail of the secondary line radial inward 90º of fuel
injection. ............................................................................................................ 108
Figure (5.20), S. F. I. in primary zone near dome (RPDFI). ............................ 109
Figure (5.21, a and b), Flame in primary zone and secondary zone respectively
for six holes 1 mm main injector and 8 with 0.8 mm S. F. I. near dome for F 2/F1
= 4.5 (RPDFI). .................................................................................................. 109
Figure (5.22), O2 concentration contour for S.F.I. near dome (RPDFI). ......... 109
Figure (5.23, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for six
holes 0.5 mm main injector and 8 with 0.8 mm, S. F. I. near dome for F 2/F1 =
5,(RPDFI). ....................................................................................................... 110
Figure (5.24), velocity vector in primary region a- F2/F1=1, b- F2/F1=0 for Ft =
4g/s of fuel and c- photograf for soot generation, (RPDFI). ............................ 110
Figure (5.25, a and b,) Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for six
holes 0.5 mm main injector and 8 with 0.8 mm S. F. I. near dome for F 2=3.2 g/s
and F1=0, (RPDFI). ........................................................................................... 111
combustion chamber for S.F.I near dome for compressor outlet pressure 138 cm
H2O, (RPDFI).................................................................................................... 111
Fig: 5.27, variation of pattern factor and average outlet temperature with fuel
mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio for S.F.I near dome.(RPDFI). ....... 112
Figure (5.28), Combustion efficiency with fuel mass flow rate ratio and
equivalence ratio for S.F.I near dome, (RPDFI). .............................................. 112
List of Figures XIII
Figure (5.29), Emission gases with fuel mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio
for S.F.I near dome, (RPDFI). .......................................................................... 113
Figure (5.30), Power and S.F.C. with fuel lines mass flow rate ratio and
equivalence ratio for S.F.I. near dome, (RPDFI). ............................................. 113
Figure (5.31), S. F. I. in primary zone near primary holes, (1RPHFI). ............ 114
Figure (5.32, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone for main injector of
24 holes 0.5 mm diameter and S. F. I. of eight with 0.8 mm of diameter with
F2=2.8 g/s and F1=0 /s, (1RPHFI). .................................................................... 114
Figure (5.33, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone, loaded turbine (high
equivalence ratio), (1RPHFI). ........................................................................... 115
combustion chamber for S. F. I. near primary holes, (1RPHFI). ..................... 115
Figure (5.35), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S.F.I. near
primary holes, (1RPHFI). ................................................................................. 116
Figure (5.36), Combustion efficiency for S.F.I near primary holes,
(1RPHFI). .......................................................................................................... 116
Figure (5.37), Emission gases for S.F.I near primary holes, (1RPHFI). .......... 117
Figure (5.38), Power and B. S. F. C. for S.F.I near primary holes, (1RPHFI). 117
Figure (5.39), Double row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (2RSFI). .................. 118
Figure (5.40, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main
injector of six holes and 1 mm of diameter , (2RSFI). .................................... 118
combustion chamber, (2RSFI). ......................................................................... 119
Figure (5.42), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature, (2RSFI). ........... 119
Figure (5.43), Combustion efficiency, (2RSFI). ............................................... 120
Figure (5.44), Emission gases, (2RSFI). ........................................................... 120
Figure (5.45), Power and B. S. F. C. for (2RSFI). ............................................ 121
Figure (5.46, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for S.
F. I. in seconday zone with EGR and preheated air effects, (2RSFI). .............. 121
List of Figures XIV
Figure (5.47), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber

with EGR and preheated air effects, (2RSFI). .................................................. 122
Figure (5.48), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature with EGR and
preheated air effects for, (2RSFI). .................................................................... 122
Figure (5.49), Combustion efficiency with EGR and preheated air effects for,
(2RSFI).............................................................................................................. 123
Figure (5.50), Emission gases with EGR and preheated air effects for,
(2RSFI).............................................................................................................. 123
Figure (5.51), Power and S. F. C. with fuel lines mass flow rate ratio and
equivalence ratio, with EGR and preheated air effects (2RSFI). ..................... 124
Figure (5.52), Double row of S. F. I. in secondary and dilution zone,
(2RSDFI). .......................................................................................................... 124
Figure (5.53, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for
(2RSDFI). .......................................................................................................... 125
Figure (5.54), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber
for, (2RSDFI). ................................................................................................... 125
Figure (5.55), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature, (2RSDFI). ........ 126
Figure (5.56), Combustion efficiency for, (2RSDFI). ...................................... 126
Figure (5.57), Emission gases for S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone,
(2RSDFI). .......................................................................................................... 127
Figure (5.58), Power and B. S. F. C. for S. F. I. in, (2RSDFI). ........................ 127
Figure (5.59, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for S.
F. I. in secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI). ................. 128
Figure (5.60), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber for
S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI). ............ 128
Figure (5.61), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S. F. I. in
secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI). ............................ 129
Figure (5.62), Combustion efficiency for S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone
with EGR effects, (2RSDFI). ............................................................................ 129
List of Figures XV
Figure (5.63), Emission gases with fuel mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio
for S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI). ....... 130
Figure (5.64), Power and S.F.C. for S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone with
EGR effects, (2RSDFI). .................................................................................... 130
Figure (5.65), One row of S. F. I. in secondary zone below primary holes about
1cm, (1RSFI). .................................................................................................... 131
Figure (5.66) Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main injector
of six holes and 2 mm diameter and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone,
(1RSFI).............................................................................................................. 131
one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI). ............................................... 132
Figre (5.68), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for main injector of
six holes and 2mm diameter and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone,
(1RSFI).............................................................................................................. 132
Figure (5.69), Combustion efficiency for main injector of six holes and 2mm
diameter and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI). ......................... 133
Figure (5.70), Emission gases for main injector of six holes and 2mm diameter
and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI). ........................................ 133
Figure (5.71), Power and S.F.C for main injector of six holes and 2mm diameter
and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI). ........................................ 134
Figure (5.72), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main injector
of six holes and 1.5mm diameter and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone,
(1RSFI).............................................................................................................. 134
main injector of six holes and 1.5mm diameter and (1RSFI). .......................... 135
Figure (5.74), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for main injector of
six holes and 1.5mm diameter and (1RSFI). .................................................... 135
Figure (5.75), Combustion efficiency for main injector of six holes and 1.5mm
diameter and (1RSFI). ....................................................................................... 136
List of Figures XVI
Figure (5.76), Emission gases for main injector of six holes and 1.5mm diameter
and (1RSFI). ...................................................................................................... 136
Figure (5.77), Power and S.F.C for main injector of six holes and 1.5mm diameter
and (1RSFI). ...................................................................................................... 137
Figure (5.78, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone for main injector of
six holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI). ....................................................... 137
Figure (5.79) Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for main
injector of six holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI), loaded turbine 100 cm H2O
compressor outlet pressure. ............................................................................... 138
Figure (5.80), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for main
injector of six holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI), loaded turbine 80 cm H 2O
Figure (5.81), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for main
injector of six holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI),loaded turbine 60 cm H 2O
six holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI),loaded turbine 80 cm H2O compressor
outlet pressure. .................................................................................................. 139
six holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI),turbine 80 cm H2O compressor outlet
pressure. ............................................................................................................ 140
six holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI), loaded turbine 60 cm H2O compressor
outlet pressure. .................................................................................................. 140
Figure (5.85), Combustion efficiency for main injector of six holes and 1mm
diameter and (1RSFI), loaded turbine 100 cm H2O compressor outlet
pressure. ............................................................................................................ 141
Figure (5.86), Combustion efficiency for loaded turbine 80 cm H2Ocompressor
outlet pressure, (1RSFI). ................................................................................... 141
List of Figures XVII
Figure (5.87), Combustion efficiency for loaded turbine 60 cm H2O compressor

Figure (5.88), Emission gases for loaded turbine 100 cm H2O compressor outlet
pressure, (1RSFI). ............................................................................................. 142
pressure, (1RSFI). ............................................................................................. 143
pressure, (1RSFI). ............................................................................................. 143
Figure (5.91), Power and S.F.C for loaded turbine 100 cm H2O compressor outlet
pressure, (1RSFI). ............................................................................................. 144
pressure, (1RSFI). ............................................................................................. 144
pressure, (1RSFI). ............................................................................................. 145
Figure (5.94, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone with Preheated air
effects, (1RSFI). ................................................................................................ 145
Figure (5.95), Temperature distribution profile loaded turbine 95 cm H 2O
compressor outlet pressure with EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI)............................... 146
Figure (5.96), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor loaded
turbine 80 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure with EGR ratio 25%,
(1RSFI).............................................................................................................. 146
Figure (5.97), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature loaded turbine 95 cm
compressor outlet pressure with EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI).............................. 147
Figure (5.98), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for loaded turbine 80
cm H2O compressor outlet pressure with EGR ratio 25%, (1RSFI). ............... 147
outlet pressure EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI). ......................................................... 148
outlet pressure EGR ratio 25%, (1RSFI). ......................................................... 148
List of Figures XVIII
pressure EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI). ................................................................... 149
pressure EGR ratio 25 %, (1RSFI). .................................................................. 149
pressure EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI). ................................................................... 150
pressure EGR rati 25 %, (1RSFI). .................................................................... 150
Figure (5.105), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor loaded
combustion and EGR effects, (1RSFI). ........................................................... 151
Figure (5.106), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for loaded turbine
and with EGR effects, (1RSFI). ........................................................................ 151
Figure (5.107), Combustion efficiency loaded turbine with EGR effects, (1RSFI).
........................................................................................................................... 152
Figure (5.108), Emission gases with equivalence ratio for loaded turbine and with
EGR effects, (1RSFI). ....................................................................................... 152
Figure (5.109), Power and S.F.C for loaded turbine with difference compressor
Figure (5.110), one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone below primary holes about
1cm and 2.5 cm injector depth, (1RSFI). .......................................................... 153
Figure (5.111, a and b), Volumetric rendering of CO generation in primary zone
for S.F.I. with EGR effects, (1RSFI). ............................................................... 154
Figure (5.112, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone for S.F.I. of 2.5 cm
of depth, (1RSFI). ............................................................................................. 154
Figur (5.113), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for S. F. I.
depth of 2.5 cm and compressor pressure of 100 cm H2O, (1RSFI). .............. 155
Figure (5.114), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for S. F. I.
depth of 2.5 cm and compressor pressure of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI). ................ 155
List of Figures XIX
Figure (5.115), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S. F. I. depth of
2.5 cm and compressor pressure of 100 cm H2O (1RSFI). .............................. 156
Figure (5.116), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S. F. I. depth of
2.5 cm and compressor pressure of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI). ............................... 156
Figure (5.117), Combustion efficiency for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and compressor
pressure of 100 cm H2O, (1RSFI). .................................................................... 157
pressure of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI). ...................................................................... 157
Figure (5.119), Emission gases with equivalence ratio for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm
and compressor pressure of 100 cm H2O, (1RSFI). ......................................... 158
and compressor pressure of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI). ........................................... 158
Figure (5.121), Power and S.F.C for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and compressor
pressure of 100 cm H2O, (1RSFI). .................................................................... 159
pressure of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI). ...................................................................... 159
Figure (5.123), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for S. F. I.
depth of 2.5 cm and compressor pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects,
(1RSFI).............................................................................................................. 160
Figure (5.124), Pattern factor and average outlet for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and
compressor pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI). ..................... 160
pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI). ......................................... 161
and compressor pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI)................ 161
pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI). ......................................... 162
Figure (5.128), CDF modeling of extructed fluid domain for can combustor with
2 line of fuel injection, (2RSFI). ....................................................................... 162
List of Figures XX
Figure (5.129), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for fuel
injection depth 1 cm, (2RSFI). .......................................................................... 163
Figure (5.130) contour plot of temperature at the outlet section of the combustor
for Ф= 0.303 and air temperature 400 K, (2RSFI). .......................................... 163
Figure (5.131), contour plot of temperature distribution profile in axisymmetric
plane A and plane B of the combustor for total fuel 0.006 kg/s, Фtotal = 0.303 and
Air temperature 400k, for case (2RSFI). .......................................................... 164
Figure (5.132), NO concentration with fuel fraction and inlet air temperature for
Ft=0.004 kg, for case (2RSFI). ......................................................................... 165
Figure (5.133), Effectiveness percentage of the NO reduction with respect to the
conventional fuel injection when using multi-line of fuel injection for Ft=0.004
kg/s, φt= 0.1, for case (2RSFI). ......................................................................... 165
Figure (5.134), NO with the total equivalence ratio for the fuel fraction F 2/F1=0
and F2/F1=1 and air temperature TAir =400 K, for case (2RSFI). ..................... 166
Figure (5.135), Volume rendering plot for the NO emission for Ft 0.004 kg/s,
φtotal= 0.202 and air temperature TAir =400 K, for ase (2RSFI). ..................... 166
Figure (5.136), Contour plot of O2 concentration in axisymmetric plane A of the
combustor for total fuel 0.004 kg/s, Фtotal = 0.202 and Air temperature 400k, for
case (2RSFI). ..................................................................................................... 167
Figure (5.137), Contour plot of CO2 concentration in axisymmetric plane A of the
combustor for total fuel F1=0.004 kg/s, F2=0, for case (2RSFI)....................... 167
Figure (5.138), Predicted axial velocity profile counters at different fuel mass
flow rate ratio for Ф = 0.246, and total injected fuel 0.006 kg/s, for case (2RSFI).
........................................................................................................................... 168
Figure (A1), Air inlet plenum. .............................................................................. 1
Figure (A2), Exhaust gases plenum. ..................................................................... 2
Figure (A.3), EGR pipe line. ................................................................................. 2
Figure (B.1), T- type thermocuple calibration list. ............................................... 1
Figure (B.2), T- type thermocouple calibration dtails. ......................................... 2
List of Figures XXI
Figure (B.3), K-type thermocouple calibration list. ............................................. 3

Figure (B4), K- type thermocouple calibration dtails. .......................................... 4
Figure (C.1), Pitot-static tube location at the inlet plenum................................... 1
Figure (C.2) Pitot-static tube location at compressor outlet pipe line. ................. 2
NOMENCLATURE XXII
NOMENCLATURE
The following symbols are used generally throughout the text. Others are defined
when used.
Symbols……………………………………………………………………Unites
Aref Area m2
D Diameter m
F1 fuel mass flow rate in main injection line g/s
F2 fuel mass flow rate in secondary injection line g/s
Ft total fuel injected in to combustor g/s
k Constant [Rair/2=143.5] kj/kg.k
L Length m
Lin liner -
LHV Low Heat Value kJ/kg
m• mass flow Rate kg/s
NO Nitric Oxide
Nh Number of Holes -
O2 Molecular Oxigen
P Total Pressure Pa
Pr Pressure Ratio (P3/P1) -
PDF Probability Density Function -
q Combustor Dynamic Pressure Pa
SN Swirl Number -
T Total Temperature k
V Velocity m/s
Greek Symbols
θ Angle (Diffuser or Snout or Dome) [°]
Ф Equivalence Ratio -
βsw Swirler Blade Stagger Angle (Flat Blade) [°]
Subscripts and Superscripts
1 At Compressor Inlet -
3 At Chamber outlet -
4 At Chamber Outlet -
NOMENCLATURE XXIII
RZ Recirculation Zone -
PZ Primary Zone -
SZ Secondary Zone -
DZ Dilution Zone -
diff Diffuser -
sw Swirler -
diff Diffuser
h Hole -
inj Injection
Chapter one Introduction 1
Chapter one Introduction

Chapter One Introduction 2
Chapter One Introduction

1.1 Research background
Gas turbine engines are used ּfor a multiplicity of benefits including electric
power generation as well as jet propulsion. A ּsimple ּgas turbine engine in an
aircraft, shown in figure (1.1), involves of a compressor, a combustion chambers,
a turbine, and an exit nozzle. Atmospheric air is drawn ּinto the compressor where
it is compressed up to 10 to 15 times higher than the ּinlet for industrial gas turbine
and 25 to 30 times higher than the inlet for aircraft engines. The air is then focused
into a combustors in which fuel is injected and burned at constant pressure thus
ּsignificantly ּincreasing the air temperature then the hot air ּstream directed to the
turbine′s blades to produced energy. ּ
Figure 1.1 Schematic of a simple gas-turbine engine. [Int.]

Combustion ּsystem is the essential component of the engine ּin which heat is
released by combustion of fuel in the smallest combustor, gas turbine combustion
chamber designing is a challenging process including both analytical and
experimental testing methods [1]. ּDesigning a gas turbine combustion chamber
involves a large funds of knowledge of ּempirical equations, experimental data
and other considerations for theorizing the final combustor drawing. Combustion
chamber of gas turbine ּinvolve compound three dimensional fluid flow, mass and
heat transfer, radiation and chemical ּkinetics. Combustion chamber temperature
and pressures are growing regularly nevertheless combustors still have
combustion efficiency close to 100 % [1]. The great price of rig testing and
ּincreased difficulty of CFD simulations minimizes their use for theorizing of

feasibility design.
Designing and improvement of gas turbine combustion chamber is a decisive
and convinced part of an engine improvement progression. At the present, the
design method relies upon a riches of experimental data and correlations. The
right use of this data requires experienced combustion engineers and even for
them theּ design method is very time consuming. Some major engine
manufacturers have speak to the above problematic by developing computer
programs based on test and empirical data to assistance the combustor designers.
There is a requirement of developing design methodologies for the gas turbine
combustors. The conventional design methods are a substantial influence to
knowledge in field of the combustion chamber design.
1.2 Conventional Combustors
Gas turbine conventional tubular combustion chamber with different
components ּshown in figure (1.2). Combustion chamber should gratify wide
range requests which be different according to the requirements of specific
combustor.
Basic requirement of almost all combustors is as follows:[2] and [3]
1- High combustion efficiency;

2- Reliable and smooth ignition at ground and at altitude for relights;
3-Wide stability limits;
4- Low pressure loss;
5-No effect of pressure pulsations and other instabilities;
6- Low emission;
7-Size and shape compatibility with a wide range of engines;
8- Low cost;
9- Durability;
10-Multi fuel capability;
Figure 1.2, Conventional Gas Turbine tubular Combustion chamber details.

1.3 Types of Combustors
Gas turbine combustors are classified into three basic types tubular, tubu-
annular and annular. Another type of combustors which are most commonly used
is tubu-annular. [4], Arrangements of these types of combustors have been shown
in figure (1.3).
a b c
Figure 1.3 Types of Straight Combustors (a) Tubular, (b) Tubu-annular, (c) Annular. [Rolls-
Royce, 2005].
1.4 Parts of Combustors

1.4.1 Diffuser
Compressor outlet air velocity reaches about 150 m/s or higher, at such high
velocities it is unreasonable to burn fuel in it, as flame velocity of almost all the
fuels is about 5 m/s [5] and if we bound the fuel with air at velocity of around 150
m/s, most part of ּfuel would ּnot be burned which lead to in-complete reaction,
also lead to increasing in running cost and pollutions. ּDiffuser consists of a

diverging passage in which air flow is slowed which caused increasing in ּstatic
pressure. Figure (1.4) ּshows the effect of divergence angle on the diffuser [2 and
3]. As the divergence angle increases both length and ּfriction losses of diffuser
ּincreases, which leads to ּincreased ּseparation and ּstall loss. ּFor every area ratio
there is an optimal divergence angle at which pressure losses are minimum, this
angle is usually between 7° to 12°.[3]
Total losses
Pressure losses
Stall losses
Friction losses
Divergence angle
Figure 1.4 Effect of divergence angle on diffuser Performance [3].

Figure (1.5) ּshows the ּschematic of basic ּfaired and dump diffusers, ּin case of
annular faired diffusers ּincluded angle could be 15º to 22º [1,2 and3]. In
conventional diffuser ensures that there is no ּseparation, but it ּhas to pay a penalty
in terms of friction, length and weight. To overpass these problems dump diffuser
ּis used, in the combustion chamber, ignoring recirculation and sudden expansion
[2], two different types proposed are, faired diffusers and dump diffusers as
shown in figure (1.5).
a b
Figure (1.5) Types of diffuser (a) Faired and (b) Dump diffuser. [1]
1.4.2 Fuel Injector

Fast and suitable oxidation reaction required that the liquid fuel must be
atomized before being injected in the combustion chamber which is the basic need
of liquid fuel injector. Pressure atomizing and air blast atomizing are
conventional methods for liquid fuel injector which works on the principle aim
of which is to produce liquid droplet with high surface to mass ratio in the liquid
phase. Pressure atomizing injectors achieve this by injecting liquid at a very high
velocity as compared to gas velocity, [6]. The fuel injectors can be generally
classified as twin-fluid atomizer, pressure atomizer and vaporizer, figure (1.6)
showed conventional liquid fuel injector.
Figure 1.6 gas turbine liquid fuel injector
1.4.3 Air Casing

Largest casing around the combustor which contains the liner (flame tube),
ּswirler, fuel injectors and the igniters also refers to the definition of the reference
area (or diameter) to provide sufficient stability without incurring excessive
pressure losses[7]. The flow cavity between the air casing and the liner is stream
the air flow distribution to the different zones of combustor with proper air flow
rates for each zone.
1.4.4 Liner
Liner (flame tube) in which all the oxidation reaction process occurs, the flame
tube is divided in to three main zones and the air is downed in to the flame tube
in stages through the zone′s holes cut in the flame tube. Flame tube is the essential
part in the combustion chamber required for the cooling processes employment,
many ways of cooling such as film cooling, impingement cooling can be used[8].
1.4.5 Combustion Zones

Overall air to fuel ratio in a conventional gas turbine combustor is very high
about 80:1, it is observable that no fossil fuel can be burned and sustain
combustion at ּsuch air to ּfuel ratios, this requires the separation of combustor in
to regions due to which, ּstable combustion is achieved. Usually, a combustor is
divided in to three main zones[9].
Primary zone: It is known as reaction zone in which only 15 to 25% of total

combustor air flow is drown in [4]. It is also defined as flame holding zone by the
generated reverse flow in this region. The air stream is drown through the swirler
and mixed with the atomized fuel reach the overall air to fuel ratio which must be
approximately near the stoichiometric to rich range to keep stable combustion in
the combustion chamber for wide range of operating condition[10].
Secondary zone: It is known as reaction completing zone, where the oxidation

reaction occurring in the primary zone may be rich or incomplete reaction and the
burned gases temperature in the primary zone reach the adiabatic flame
temperature of the fuel, this required to employment a region in the flame tube in
which to stream enough air to complete the oxidation reaction and to bring down
the hot spot temperature in the flame tube, about only 20% of the total compressed
air is drown in the secondary zone through the secondary zone holes[3 and 4].
Dilution zone: Flame tube highest temperature bring down in the dilution zone
down to acceptable range for the nozzle guide vanes and other turbine
components by stream approximately 55% of the total compressed air through
the dilution holes to minimized the outlet temperature profile (pattern factor)[11].
1.4.6 Swirler:
Wide range of operating conditions for gas turbine requires strong flame
holding (stabilizing) in the reaction zone, the employment of air flow in the
primary zone to generate radial recirculation occurs by the swirler air flow
passage. Also this type of the radial recirculated flow provides better fuel and air
mixing in the reaction zone as compared to other methods like bluff bodies.
Swirlers could be radial and axial swirlers are used [2]. Vanes of swirlers are
usually flat, but curved vanes are desired for improved aerodynamics, figure (1.7)
shows axial straight vanes swirler type with main fuel injector[12].
Air flow passage Fuel flow hole
Figure: 1.7, schematic of axial straingth vanes swirler

Swirler number (Sn) is the swirler performance criterion parameter, [2] and [3].
Several approaches are used for that process to generation of swirling
combustion, by the combined effect of the radial recirculation which generated
by swirler effect and the baffling effects which generated by the penetration of
primary holes injected air creates primary zone a reversal flow which stabilizes
the flame and contributes to the mixing of combustion products with the fresh air
and unburnt fuel, hence benefiting rapid and complete combustion in short length
[4] as shown in figure (1.8).
(a) (b)
Figure 1.8, a- Radial recirculation, b-Reverse flow produced by swirling flow and baffling jet
flow [Lilley and Gupta, 2004]
Curved vanes gives better performance than flat vanes because they can inhibit
effectively the flow ּseparation in the vane passages. However, the observable
advantages of flat vanes are less cost and easy manufacture, the other advantages
include better flame stabilization and ּlower combustion noise, radial ּswirler and
axial flow channel swirler as are shown in figure (1.9) [9].
a b
Figure (1.9), swirler types, a-Axil swirler [3], b- Radial swirler[13].
1.5 Flameless consideration

Heat and power which are integral part of our daily lives are generally produced
via combustion process, excessive heat production and elevated global warming
is a topic of great importance. According to the intergovernmental panel on
climate change (IPCC 2013) averaged over all land and ocean surfaces,
temperature warmed roughly 0.85 degree Celsius from 1880 to 2012 (IPCC
2013). Due to the gradual increase in the average temperature of the earth,
permanent change of the earth’s climate is expected. This change poses
significant threat to human civilization[14].
The fossil fuel is the main source of energy production in the world. It is related
to the emission of the potential pollutants and green-house gases. Hence, reducing
combustion emission and improving the thermal efficiency of combustion system
are critical challenges in designing thermal and power system. Several
combustion techniques were developed to reduce emissions of pollutant gases.
Flameless combustion is one of these techniques, the main feature of the

flameless combustion is the absence of high temperature of the flame front. The
reaction takes place uniformly throughout the combustion chamber well below
the dissociation temperature of N2, hence minimizing NOx and CO formation.
This form of combustion features a low concentration of oxygen around 5%, [15].
Combustion process of colorless oxidation reaction is characterized by ּslow

chemical reaction rate, high uniformity of temperature profile, volumetric
distributed reaction zones, and unseen flame. High oxidizer temperature reach the
fuel auto ignition temperature, diluted oxidizer in reaction zone by recirculated
of required quantity of burned gases and eliminated hotspot in the reaction zone
are the main operation principle for the flameless combustion technique. As result
of this technique, less NOx is formed [16].
Flameless combustion (colorless oxidation reaction) flame defined as

invisible flame combustion as compared to the conventional flame which
characterized by stable high velocity flame, pale blue flame, and a local bright
luminosity.
Benefits of flameless combustion technology are high combustion efficiency,

ultra-low pollutant emission, high homogeneity of temperature inside the
combustion chamber, stable combustion with low noise[17].
The recirculated flue gases mixed with the fresh fuel and air streams, it is key
parameter in flameless combustion. Recirculation is divided into two categories,
internal and external, the form of the categories depend on burner design, while
the latter is based upon the returned flue gas to the combustor by external pipe.
In the internal the flue gases are circulated to the combustion due to the burner
aerodynamics. Recirculation and superior mixing of air and fuel are highly
significant in the combustion processes[18].
1.6 Low Emission Combustors:

Low emissions combustors designed by different methods have been suggested
by different companies and researchers to reduce the produced emissions by gas
turbine combustors. Figure (1.10) reveals the tendency of NOx, CO and UHC with
different air to fuel ratio, also it is discovered that the NOx ּlevels are maximum
at air to fuel ratio just less the stoichiometric ratio in the lean region. The process
of NOx ּis mainly governed by the thermal Zeldovich mechanism,[3] and [19].
Other ּimportant ּfactors in thermal NOx ּformation are the residence time, which
describes how ּlong the combustion gas has to ּspend at high temperature, [20].
Figure 1.10 Emissions production with varying equivalence ratio [Singh, 2010]
1.7 Pollutant Formation

Different mechanisms of pollutant (NOx, CO, UHC and soot) formation is shown
in Figure (1.11).
Figure 1.11 Mechanism of emission formation
1.7.1 Thermal (Zeldovich mechanism):

Thermal NO is formed due to oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen N2, oxygen O2
and O are considered to be in equilibrium and N atoms are assumed to be at steady
state [21]. The NO formation rate rises exponentially at temperatures above
1850K hence avoidance of gas pockets (hot spots) above temperature of 1850K
can significantly reduce NO emissions as shown in figure (1.12). NO increases
linearly with residence time, however the NO levels are much below the
equilibrium value for a typical gas turbine combustor due to slower rate of NO
formation and insufficient time to achieve equilibrium Thermal NO is generally
considered to be formed in post flame zone and it is the major contributor of total
NO formed in a combustion system. Thermal NO formation is given below in
equations (1.1 to 1.4).
𝑂2 = 2𝑂 1.1
𝑁2 + 𝑂 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑁 1.2
𝑁 + 𝑂2 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂 1.3
𝑁 + 𝑂𝐻 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝐻 1.4
Figure (1.12) shows the range of temperature between which the emissions are
acceptable, is between 1700ּK and 1900ּK, which is very narrow. To achieve this
emission level, the combustor ּshould be designed to have temperatures not above
1900ּK anywhere ּinside the ּflame tube and ּshould ּstill be able to produce the
required heat output and temperature profile[4].
Figure 1.12 Variation of CO and NOx with primary zone temperature [Lefebvre, 2010]
There are three different ways by which majority of NOx is formed in gas turbine
combustors.
1.7.2 Prompt (Fenimore Mechanism):

Prompt NO is intimately linked to combustion chemistry of hydrocarbons and
NO is rapidly produced in the flame zone. Prompt NO is formed very early in the
flame Region especially in fuel rich condition[22]. Nitrogen is converted to HCN
by reacting with CH radical and follows the prompt route.
HCN→CN→NCO→NO to form prompt NO

1.7.3 Nitrous oxide (N2O intermediate Mechanism)
N2O intermediate mechanism is important in fuel lean (Ф < 0.8) combustion and
at low temperature conditions. Initially N2O is formed with reaction of O radical
with nitrogen[3, 8], is given below in equations (1.5 to 1.7).
𝐻 + 𝑁2 𝑂 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑁𝐻 1.5
𝑂 + 𝑁2 𝑂 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑁𝑂 1.6
𝐶𝑂 + 𝑁2 𝑂 = 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑁𝐶𝑂 1.7
1.7.4 Fuel NO
In this mechanism NO is formed mostly due to oxidation of fuel bound nitrogen
and this mechanism is dominant in coal and coal derived fuels and well as liquid
distillate fuel. However contribution of fuel NO is negligible for natural gas
combustion for gas turbine application. The contribution to total NO from
different formation mechanisms for lean premixed combustion of methane is
given in Table (1.1) below. The contributions are obtained analytically [Lefebvre,
A. H., 1999]. From the table it may be noted the at higher temperatures thermal
mechanism is major contributor to total NO formed however at lower
temperatures prompt and nitrous oxide mechanisms are dominant. Table (1.1)
Contribution to total NO from different mechanisms.
Temperature Equivalence Thermal Prompt Nitrous Fuel

ratio Oxide
1900K 0.8 60% 30% 10% 0%
1500K 0.6 5% 65% 30% 0%
Table (1.1) Total NO formation with different mechanism
1.8 CO, UHC and soot formation:

Carbon monoxide is formed in fuel-rich pockets in the combustion zone where
there is lack of availability of oxygen for complete conversion to CO 2. Carbon
monoxide will also be formed where the equivalence ratio is closer to
stoichiometric due to dissociation of CO2 at higher temperatures. Good fuel/air
mixing, avoidance of fuel rich pockets and hot stoichiometric regions will result
in reduction of carbon monoxide levels.
Carbon monoxide levels are also higher at lean condition where temperatures
are low resulting in lower burning rate and hence lower conversion of CO to CO2
[3]. At lean condition, residence time plays an important role in complete
conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. Gas turbine combustors
operate at lean condition hence the role of residence time on CO conversion is

important to consider while designing the combustor. It is found that the UHC
emissions and CO emissions are related and the factors influencing CO also
influence UHC [3].
Soot is formed in fuel-rich zones due to insufficient mixing between fuel and
air, mostly to prevent soot formation avoidance of formation of fuel-rich pockets
is considered to be an effective way [3], figure (1.13) show the location of soot
generation with respect to other emissions generation with equivalence ratio.
Figure 1.13 Gas turbine emission generation.

table (1.2) summarize the mechanism of the emission gases in gas turbine and
their effect [24].
Pollutant Effect Mechanism

CO Toxic Incomplete combustion, dissociation of
CO2, (weak or rich FAR in Pz, low RT, poor
mixing, quenching by liner cooling air
UHC Toxic Incomplete combustion, (poor atomization,
insufficient flame speed, quenching by liner
cooling air.
NOx (NO and Toxic, smog Thermal NO (Tpz > 1850k).
Precursor, ozone
NO2)
depletion
Table: 1.2, Gas turbine emission gases
1.9 NOx Abatement Strategies

Most of the NOx abatement strategies include suppression of NOx formation via
thermal mechanism by avoiding hot spot regions in the combustor. Other
strategies used are elimination of NOx after it is formed as well as prevention of
NOx formation, the NOx abatement strategies are described in figure (1.14).
Figure 1.14 NOx abatement strategies [4].

1.9.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR):
EGR also works on the same underlying principle of water/steam injection to
reduce the flame temperature by recirculating cooled combustion products, for
diluting the oxidizer concentration in the reaction zone to eliminating the thermal
NO formation in the combustion chamber. Major limitation for this technology
comes from need for a heat exchanger between exhaust and inlet [4]. Little
combustor development is required however this technology can only be used
with very clean fuel to avoid fouling.
1.9.2 Lean direct injection:
Lean direct injection combustor operates in non-premixed combustion mode at

overall lean equivalence ratio and ensuring fast mixing between fuels and air such
that they essentially burn in lean premixed mode and produce NO x emissions
similar to lean premixed combustion mode [25], Multipoint fuel injection systems
have been investigated to achieve low NOx emissions and each fuel injection
system has a swirler to ensure fast turbulent mixing and gas recirculation for
flame stabilization. The challenge is to achieve sufficiently fast turbulent mixing
at large length scales and elevated pressure conditions.
1.10 problem statement

The ּstrict emission regulationּs environmental issueּs of power generation play
an ּimportant role ּin the economic sustainability of modern power plants. To
reduce risky emissions, the current tendency is to design industrial combustion
devices that operate with high efficiency and low emission. One of these harmful
emissions is NOx from combustion processes. One of the most effective methods
of reducing NOx is the design and implementation of flameless combustion
chamber. To achieve flameless combustion, there are two fundamental
requirements to be achieved
1- The oxidizer temperature within the chamber should be greater than the auto
ignition temperature of the mixture, [26].
2- The flue gases recirculation ratio (Kv) between fuel, oxidizer and diluted gas
flue gas N2 or CO2 should be greater than three, [wunning].
3- Efficient design of a ּflameless combustor is to insure volumetric fuel

distribution inside the combustion chamber, good mixing between the incoming
fresh fuel and air mixture and ּrecirculated hot burnt gases, [3].
1.11 Research objective:

The main goal of this research was to study an experimental and numerical
facility that could simulate the flow and combustion fields exiting real micro gas
turbine tubular combustors. The objective of this facility is to get optimal design
for micro gas turbine tubular combustor operate on LPG fuel for flameless
combustion considerations.
The major investigations reported in this thesis are listed below.

1. Numerical investigation of multi-line of fuel injection in can combustor of

micro gas turbine and fuel/air mixing characteristics for different fuel lines mass
flow rate ratio F2/F1 configurations and use the information to improve design of
colorless distribution combustion and NO abatement by the reduction of hot spot
generation.
2. Design and fabrication of micro gas turbine test rig to examine and commission
the optimizing tests for can combustor with multi-line of fuel injection mode.
3. Investigation of various air and fuel injection configurations for enhanced

colorless distributed combustion combustor performance.
4. Investigation of effect of activation of secondary line of fuel injection on the

combustor performance.
5. Investigation of effect of the preheated air by exhaust gases recirculation line

on the emissions generation and combustor performance.
1.12 Thesis structure:

Chapter 1 Present general introduction for gas turbine combustor, detail of the
combustor parts, flameless combustion technique and emissions gasses.
Chapter 2 provides literature survey of the previous researchers works in the

field of flameless combustion, gas turbine combustor design and performance
analysis. This includes correlations and recommended data proposed by different
researchers [1, 3 and 9].
Chapter 3 Includes combustor preliminary design calculation and numerical

analysis by CFD method using ANSYS CFX 17.2 package solver.
Chapter 4 presents the experimental study and the test rig set up.
Chapter 5 presents the experimental and numerical results and commotion.
Chapter 6 presents conclusions and recommendations for future study.
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
Combustion technology plays an important in energy resource about 90% of
universal energy demand is achieved by combustion. Combustion efficiency and
pollution reduction are topics of argument among combustion research in
academic and industrial societies.
The combustion process is chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen to release
the heat which can be used in generation electricity. In combustion process
various emission such as unburned hydrocarbon (ּUHC), carbon dioxide (CO2),
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), ּsoot and particulate matter are
released. These emissions that increase steadily due to the industrialization
pollute the atmosphere and endanger human lives. In this regard, new combustion
method have been introduced as subject of research overcome the environmental
issues related the combustion, reviews the work on investigation of low emission
combustor which employs discrete and direct injection of fuel and air in a
confined chamber at high velocity. This work is known by different names in the
literature such as:
1. ּHigh Temperature Air Combustion (HiTAC), [26].

2. ּFlameless Oxidation (FLOX), [21].
3. Moderate and ּIntense Low Oxygen ּDilution (MILּD) combustion [7]
4. ּHigh ּIntensity ּLow ּEmission (ּHILE) burner [ּKumar]
5. Stagnation ּPoint ּReverse ּFlow (SּPRF) combustor [28]
2.2 Colorless distributed oxidation reaction

Colorless oxidation reaction, is based on the concept of prevention of hot ּspot
regions to suppress thermal NOx formation in the reaction zone. This technology
is mostly focused on application for furnaces which operate at relatively lower
thermal intensity less than 1MW/m3-atm as compared to gas turbine combustors
5 to 50MW/m3-atm [29]. The concept of HiTAC has been ּsuccessfully
demonstrated to achieve ּlow NOx and CO emissionּs using range of gaseous,

ּliquid as well as ּsolid fuels [30].
Colorless distributed combustion is promising technology that decreases of

pollutants and improve combustion efficiency, air preheat, and reaction dilution
of the gas to reduce the oxygen concentration are the main feature of this
technology. The review in this chapter presents previous ּstudies on flameless
combustion, gas turbine combustor design for flameless combustion
consideration and NOx Abatement Research shows that efforts have been made
to reduce the NOx emission generated inside the combustion chamber during the
process of combustion to insure compliance with the emission regulation,[31].
2.3 furnaces application:

Wünning, J. A., and Wünning, J. G., 1997 [32], examined experimentally the
effects of distributed fuel and air injection as shown in figure (2.1) to reduce
thermal NO-formation using the flame cooling method to reduce peak
temperature by the withdrawal of energy or by mixing of combustion products
with cooler recirculated exhaust gas, water, or steam, for 200 kW burner with
preheated air up to 950 Cº and recirculation number kv > 3 , they concluded that
there is reduction of NOx emission by control of NOx formation via thermal
mechanisms which avoid hot spot zones within the chamber.
Figure: 2.1, a- flame combustion, b- flameless combustion, [26].

Wünning, J. A., and Wünning, J. G., [33], studied experimentally the effects of
the recirculation of product gases on flame stability. ּIn flameless combustion
mode, high recirculation of inert gases into the reacting mixture before the
reaction process, it generally mixes with the oxidizer ּstream. The recirculated hot
gases rise the temperature of the mixture up to 700 C and dilute the oxygen
concentration, reduction in furnace temperature and critically lengthening the
reaction region, concluded that it is possible to achieve a ּstable form of flameless
combustion at high recirculation rates of inert gases.
Wüenning J.G. [34], studied experimentally the effects of the combustion on

the temperature distribution profiles inside the combustor for ּstable flames and
flameless combustion for a ּsingle fuel jet burner, to a comparison of the
temperature profile in a flame and flameless combustion. OH
Chemiluminescence images showed that there is slow gradient and high
uniformity in temperature distribution profile in the combustion chamber for
ּflameless combustion as shown in figure (2.2). The high temperature areas in the
flame ּfront are usually the ּspots where large amounts of thermal NO are formed,
for flameless combustion, besides the elimination of very high local temperatures
help to reduce ּformation of thermal NO.
a- Flame combustion b- Flameless combustion
Figure: 2.2, Temperature distribution profile of flame and flameless combustion in single fuel
jet burner, [28].
Murer, et al. [35], studied experimentally the effects of the preheated air
temperature and the excess air on the flameless combustion by using 30 kW
ּlaboratory ּscale combustor, furnished with an electrical air preheater. Concluded
there is an important effects of the excess air and the preheated air temperature
on the reaction zone profile and emissions gases concentration at the combustor
outlet section. A greater excess air led to a littler distance between the maximum
emissions point and ּfurnace bottom, and greater UV emission concentration. Also
for the effects of higher air preheat temperature is the same. For the CO emission,
for 20% of excess air results showed that the CO concentration is about 30 ppm
and there is no effects of preheated air temperature on the concentration while for
10% excess air the Co concentration increase as increasing in air temperature.
Fleck et al. , [26]studied experimentally the flameless combustion in a non-

premixed, multi air and fuel jet burner, defined as Canadian Gas Research
institute (CGRI) burner with seven fuel and air ports are located alternatively and
arranged around a central premixed pilot nozzle as shown in ּfigure (2.3). The air
ports ּinclined about 10 degrees and fuel ports are ּinclined at 15 degrees off the
burner axis with diameters of 6.35 mm and 19.1 mm ּrespectively.
Figure: 2.3, CGRI burner front view: alternate arrangement of fuel and air nozzles (Fleck et
al. [26])
Concluded that the emissions of NOx in the exhaust section is reduced from 40
to 2 ppm at 3% O2 and combustion took place without any visible ּflames.
A. E. E. Khalil1 , V. K. Arghode and A. K. Gupta2011[37], studied

experimentally low emission combustion using colorless swirler flow distributed
combustion concept for gas turbine application by using ּswirled combustion
chamber test rig have been implemented using a cylindrical combustor with
tangential flow preheated to 600 k air injection and multi-port of axial gas exit
stream as show in figure (2.4), results showed for high heat release about
36MW/m3-atm and equivalence ratio 0.7 low level of concentration of emissions
of NO about 2 ppm and CO about 49 ppm and for heat release about of
27MW/m3-atm and equivalence ratio of 0.6 the emission of NO is 4ppm and CO
is 11ppm.
a b
Figure: 2.4, a- High heat intensity cylindrical combustor test rig, b- flame images for normal
exit section.
Ahmed ּE. E. ּKhalil, Ashwani ּK. Gupta and ּKenneth M. ּBrydeb 2012[38],
studied experimentally, the effects of mixture preparing by varying the location
of Methane fuel injection point with respect to air injection point as shown in
figure (2.5), for high thermal intensity swirl distribution combustion designed
for ultra-low emission of NOx and CO Results showed for high heat release about
27MW/m3-atm and equivalence ratio 0.6 with 600 k preheated air, NOx decrease
from 21 ppm for coaxial fuel injection case (b) to 10ppm for non-premixed
case(d) and CO emission very low due to preheated air effects for all case of fuel
injection.
Figure: 2.5, Methane fraction distribution at the Air/Fuel injection plane for the different
case.
Ahmed E. E. Khalil and Ashwani K. Gupta ,2014 [39],studied experimentally,
the effects of the duel fuel injection on the flameless oxidation reaction by using
double tangential inward fuel/air premixed injection point of Methane as shown
in figure (2.6), for local heat load 3.9 to 6.25 kW and equivalence ratio 0.6 with
preheated air to 600k.
Figure: 2.6 Schematic diagram of the combustor

Results showed ultra-low emission with ּsingle ּinjection of air and ּfuel as 5
PPM NO with 10 PPM of CO, while for the same equivalence ratio and dual
injection ּshowed greater emissions concentrations than with ּsingle ּinjection for
NO emission ּincreased about 20%, with negligible change ּin CO emissions. The
ּIncrease in NO emissions outlined that there is an ּinteraction between both
ּinjections jets ּleading to an unequal distribution ּin the ּflame region.
Verissimo, A. S., et al. 2011,[40] studied experimentally high thermal intensity

3.8 MW/m3-atm small scale 13.4 inch combustor for furnaces application with
equivalence ratio 0.9 and preheated air to 930 K related the air injection to the
turbulent time scale to be 0.104 ms, result showed moving the reaction zone
toward the air injection as increasing the air flow rate with constant fuel flow ate
and the lower NOx about 10ppm and CO about 12ppm.
Kumar S., et al. 2002,[41], studied experimentally high intensity combustor for
low emission consideration with frustum inside the combustor to improve
recirculation of gases and air and fuel usage at ambient temperature concluded
the temperature variation inside the combustion chamber about less than 15% and
weak barely visible flame for MILD combustion mode with low emission of NOx
about 4ppm and CO 2300ppm due to use staged air 10% excess.
B.B. Dally,a, E. Riesmeier,b and N. Peters b, 2004 [16]studied experimentally

and numerically the effects of fuel mixture on the flameless combustion behavior
for the fuel mixture variety using methane, ethylene, and propane for 7kW reverse
flow furnaces with premixed of methane air mixture, results showed that the
dilution of fuel with CO2 or N2 to fuel mass fraction of 0.15 caused reduction in
NOx emissions less than 1ppm and invisible flame this reduction due to the
dilution effects on the ignition delay which allows the fuel to mixed with more
flue gases which mitigate the NOx formation, while with 100% propane the NOx
emission is 25 ppm and with 100% ethylene about 42 ppm.
X Xing, BWang, and Q Lin, 2007, [42], studied experimentally the effects of
normal air temperature on the reaction zone structure for flameless combustion
mode with the heat load about 1000 kW and coaxial natural gas fuel injection
mode, the outcome reveal that the flameless combustion was achieved by
increasing the air temperature up to auto ignition temperature of the fuel and high
NOx emission about 26 ppm and CO < 3 ppm.
Arghode, V.K., 2011 [43], investigated experimentally and numerically the

effects of fuel flow direction mode on the colorless distributed combustion as
shown in figure (2.7), by using methane fuel with heat load 6.25 Kw, coaxial fuel
injection with different arrangement of forward and reverse air flow with constant
equivalence ratio about 0.7, results reveal invisible flame and NOx emission about
6ppm but high levels for CO emission about 203 ppm.
Figure: 2.7 different fuel flow direction and arrangement mode

A. K. Gupta. 2004[44], Studied experimentally the preheated air up to 950
to 1100 Cº by inert gases effects using honeycomb-type heat exchanger to
reach the excess enthalpy combustion (EEC) using Nippon Furnace Kogyo
Kaisha (NFK) burner and the oxygen concentration range in air was reduced
from 21% to less than 5%. Concluded “the green flame color with propane
fuel increases with increase in air preheats temperature and decrease in
oxygen concentration. The observed yellow flame color was found to
increase with increase in temperature and oxygen concentration in air. This
is contrary to that observed for normal combustion conditions. Blue flame
color predominates at air preheat temperature of up to 1000°C and O2
concentration from 5 to 15%”.
Szego, G. G., et al., 2009, [45], studied experimentally the effects of

reverse flow configuration on the flame stability and the characteristics of a
MILD combustion by using 23 inch length scale burner and LPG parallel
fuel and air injection port as shown in figure (2.8), preheated air to 723 K
with low heat generation range about 0.3 MW/m3-atm, results showed a
great role of the preheated air temperature caused decreasing in NOx
emissions from 14ppm at air preheat temperature of 723K to about 12ppm
for air preheat temperature of 300K. Amount of heat extracted had
significant effect of NOx emissions as the emission level decreased to 7ppm
from 14ppm by increasing heat extracted through the heat exchanger from
25% to 42%. Peculiar trend was observed with ּincrease ּin equivalence ratio
where ּincrease in equivalence ratio ּfrom 0.8 to 0.9 resulted in decrease in
NOx emission to 8ppm ּfrom 14ppm.
Figure: 2.8, a- MILD combustion furnace with parallel jet burner system, b- images of LPG
combustion with increasing N2 and CO2
2.4 Gas Turbine Application

Operating pressure for furnace application is 1atm. However gas turbine
combustion chamber work at higher pressures. The state of the art combustor
operates at about 16atm pressure. High pressure investigation at 20atm for low
emission flameless oxidation combustor was performed by Luckerath, R., et al.,
2008,[46] and this was the first investigation of flameless combustion at high
pressure.
ּLuckerath, R., et al., 2008. [46], studied experimentally flameless combustion

in forward flow configuration for application to gas turbine tubular combustors.
At the time of ּinvestigation, it was the first study at elevated pressure for
flameless combustion and the combustor was operated at pressure of 20atm. As
Figure: 2.9, hexagonal combustion chamber with 12 single nozzles

For coaxial flow for injected fuel with respect to high injected air velocity, the
ּfuel nozzle was designed ּso as to achieve ּsome degree of partial premixing. This
ּfeature might also be responsible to achieve little NOx emissions of about 1ppm
and CO emissions of ּless than 10 ppm at equivalence ratio of 0.4 from the
combustor even at elevated pressure. The thermal intensity of the combustor was
14MW/m3-atm and length scale was about 8inch. Very large fuel velocity of
about 160m/s was employed so that the turbulent mixing time for the air jet was
very low with value of about 0.028ms. It was observed that fuel velocity had
significant effect on the mixing process and low emission window was
significantly extended by increasing the fuel velocity and more distributed
reaction zone was observed. Effect of hydrogen addition on flameless combustion
condition was investigated and it was found that addition of hydrogen increases
the NOx emission but extends the lean operational limit so that the combustor can
be operated leaner to give lower NOx emissions. It was observed that decreasing
the equivalence ratio makes the reaction zone more homogeneous.
Guoqiang Li and Ephraim J. Gutmark, 2006, [47],studied experimentally the

effects of multiple swirle fuel jet on the emission gases of flameless combustion
in gas turbine can combustor, at the atmospheric condition for low emission
combustor design consideration taken in to the account the effects of preheated
temperature, fuel jet strength, combustor geometry and combustor outlet section
geometry, as shown in figure (2.10).
a
c
Figure 2.10, a- combustor test rig b- swirle flow field c- swirle fuel injector with air cavity
OH chemiluminescence results showed visualized reaction zone at operation
condition m•air equal to 20g/s, Tair is about 530C and Ф from 0.5 to 0.6 while when
Ф was farther reduce the reaction zone flame distributed and shown as a single
flame as shown in figure (2.11) and get lower emission of NOx and CO.
-a- -b-
Figure: 2.11, OH Chemiluminescence images at different equivalence ratios (Ф).
Gopalakrishnan, P., 2008 [48]and ּBobba, M. ּK., 2007, [28], studied
experimentally the effects of reverse flow to reach the low emissions for NOx
about 1ppm and CO less than 10 ppm in individually for premixed and non-
premixed combustion, with thermal intensity of 20MW/m3-atm and global
equivalence ratio about 0.5 and combustor length scale was about12 inch. Coaxial
fuel injection bounded by recirculated hot gases mixed with injected air. It was
observed that the combustion is stabilized near the stagnation region opposite to
the air injection location having low velocities and high turbulence levels. It was
observed that the flame was in thin reaction zone regime. It was noted that the
product gas entrainment does not have significant effect on the combustor
performance and the lower emission levels are due to the ability of combustor to
operate stably at lean condition.
Straub, D. L., et al., 2005, investigated rich burn, quick mix and ּlean burn (RQL)
in trapped vortex combustor (TVC) at operating pressure of 10atm. The length
scale of this combustor was 8inch. RQL concept has been used in conventional
gas turbine combustor designs by axially staging air and having two different
combustion zones in rich and lean regime to minimize NOx emission by avoiding
near stoichiometric combustion however in TVC concept the air is radially
staged. In TVC concept a cavity having high temperature circulating gases is used
to stabilize combustion and the cavity region is the fuel rich region. Results
showed increasing the residence time in the cavity resulted in lower NOx
emissions and very low CO emissions less than 10ppm were obtained NOx
emissions about 40ppm.
HOSOI Jun, HIROMITSU Nagayoshi 2008 [49],studied experimentally the

effects of multi- port air injection with radial swirler atomizer, for low NOx
emission consideration by using cross jet swirler principle as shown in figure
(2.12), for different type of vaporized liquid fuel the outcome reveal that the
reduction of NOx emissions about 56.3% , CO reduced by 19%, and total
hydrocarbons about 59%.
a
b
Figure 2.12 a- Initial prototype of cross jet burner (with duplex type fuel nozzle), Principle of
cross jet swirler.
Lammel, O., et al., 2010, [49], studied experimentally flameless combustion at
high thermal intensity of 68MW/m3-atm, with equivalence ratio of 0.63.
Distributed air and fuel were injected in forward flow premixed mode at elevated
pressure of 7atm. In this combustor the air injection diameter was about 4.5mm
to allow more air flow as well as to reduce the pressure drop across the combustor,
the length scale was 6.7inch, with propane and hydrogen-natural gas mixture
fuel.as shown in figure (2.13).
Figure 2.13 Combustor for high pressure test rig HBK-S. Enhanced FLOX burner, version
2A, and hexagonal combustion chamber with quartz glass walls for optical access.
It was observed that with addition of hydrogen the NOx levels increased at a
given equivalence ratio, however it decreased with operation of combustor at
leaner mixtures and less than 10ppm NOx was achieved for 50% hydrogen content
fuel.
2.5 Numerical Methods CFD technology:

Computational ּfluid dynamics (CFD) technology has been applied to predict
the performance of combustion processes, it combines engineering and physical
models with numerical techniques. The modeling of the combustion process in a
combustion chamber ּis based on the conservation equations ּfor mass,
momentum, ּenergy and chemical ּspecies, coupled with turbulence models ּsuch
as k-ε, A. Alain, [50]. ּFor gas-phase combustion modeling, quick ּsolutions can
be obtained using the fast-chemistry assumptions in the eddy-dissipation model,
used by ּF. Pathan, N. Patel and M. Tadvi [51], M. Khodabandeh [52] and Moresh
J. Wankhede [53]. These models are the focal computational mainstays of the
most current combustion ּsimulationּs and are generally used to predict
combustion performance. The eddy dissipation model assumes that reactions are
ּfast chemically and the reaction rate is ּlimited by the turbulent mixing process.
The equilibrium mixture-ּfraction/ Probability Density Function (PDF) model is
based on the solution of transport equations for one or two conserved scalars (the
mixture fractions) instead of individual species transport equations and makes use
of PDF, WANG, Ai hua CAI, Jiu ju XIE, Guo wei [54], for the turbulence
chemistry interaction FLUENT it allows prediction of intermediate species and

radicals. The turbulent premixed combustion model, based on work by Zimont et
al. [55]solves a reaction progress variable equation to predict the turbulent ּflame
ּspeed and energy release rate on a ּspatially resolved basis, YCHUKWUELOKA
O. U. UMEHork, [56]. ּFinite rate chemistry model with detailed chemistry based
on the ּlaminar ּflamelet concept, De Joannon et. al. [57]. Lupant et. al. [58],
ּsuggested that ּflameless combustion could be considered as a type of ּstaged
combustion in order to apply the well ּstirred assumption uniform temperature and
concentration.
O. S. Motsamai, J. A. Visser, and R. M. Morris 2008,[59] studied numerically

and analytically with mathematical optimization of gas turbine annular combustor
optimization to minimize combustor outlet section profile, for liquid fuel, using
turbulent flow field model k-ε and PDF flamelet as combustion model with fuel
spry injection model with variable fuel droplet size for air mass flow rate 0.1 kg/s,
obtained more uniformity for exit temperature profile.
ּ F. ּLuis Goular ּDias, M. Antonio Rosa do Nascimento, and ּL. de Oliveira

Rodrigues, 2014,[60] studied numerically the effects of reference area of 600 kW
gas turbine tubular combustor on the burning, using shear stress transfer model
for turbulence flow field simulation by ANSYS CFX and PDF flamelet as
combustion model with mixture of combination gaseous fuel and 4.288 kg/s air
mass flow rate concluded as increasing in reference area caused reduction in
burning rate with enhanced combustion process also the reduction of air velocity
at the swirle region has develop the dispersal of flame along the combustor.
Selvakuma Kumaresh, Man Young Kim 2014 [61], studied numerically

Combustion and Emission Characteristics in a Can-type Combustion Chamber.
Burning methane fuel by tubular combustion chamber efficiently for reduction in
emission gases and wall temperature levels. Equivalence ratio, swirler vanes
angle are the major variabl parameters are changed to study the effect of these
parameters on the combustor performance and emissions. Using SST as

turbulence model and PDF flamelet model and eddy dissipation as combustion
model for non-premixed ּgas combustion. For 10% of excess air, concluded for
Tubular-type of combustor shows that 60° swirler vanes angle geometry is giving
ּless NO emission concentration so that the temperature at the exit section of the
combustion chamber so that is ּless as compared to 30° and 45° ּswirler angle.
ּLijun Wang, ּDongdong Qi, Xiaowei Sui, Xin Xie 2013. [62], studied
numerically the Influence of Reynolds number on flameless combustion mode
for tubular combustion chamber of Gas Turbine, Concluded that the Reynolds
number has significant influence on the ּExhuast gases recirculation number (Kv)
and Moderate or Intense Low-oxygen Dilution (MILD) combustion where MILD
combustion mode is ּformed when ּKv larger than 3.3 to 3.8. Concluded when ּRe
is ּlarger than 1.13× 105, MILD combustion mode has ּformed with volumetric
uniform ּflame and ּlocal temperature difference is ּless than 50 K.
2.6 Design consideration:

N. K. Rizk and H. C. Moniga, 1986,[63], studied experimentally and
analytically the multidimensional flow field modeling for gas turbine tubular
combustor preliminary design methodology utilize the output of the analytical
computation by evaluating the value of relevant parameter within subdivisions of
the liner sector while the emissions gases heat transfer consideration taken on to
the account.
A. Carlos and P. Filho, 2004, [64],studied analytically the development of gas

turbine can combustor design methodology programing to reduce the time
consuming by the preliminary design programing processing of the combustion
chamber where the computational tool for the combustion chamber design which
developed and implemented in special package depending on One-dimensional
combustor flow field analysis developed by Lefebvre [4], Melconian and Modak
[2].
Nima pegemanyfar and Michael Pfitzner 2006,[65] developed the combustor

design processes by using automation method to reduce the time consuming by
utilizing the AutoCAD stricture model as foundation of an automatic grid
generation and CFD analysis.
C. Duwig and D. Stankovic 2007.[66], studied experimentally the effects of

multiple swirle fuel jet on the emission gases of flameless combustion in gas
turbine can combustor at the atmospheric condition for low emission combustor
design consideration taken into the account the effects of preheated temperature,
fuel jet strength, combustor geometry and combustor outlet section geometry, OH
chemiluminescence results showed visualized reaction zone at operation
condition of mass flow rate of air about 20g/s, combustor inlet temperature 530
Cº and equivalence ration from 0.5 to 0.6 while when equivalence ratio was
farther reduce the reaction zone flame distributed and shown as a single flame
and get lower emission of NOx and CO.
Anita Hornyák, György Bicsák and Árpád Veress 2012[67] studied numerically
the difference between the combustion models in CFD mode as Numerical
Modelling and Validation of the Combustion in a Gas Turbine and identified the
characteristic of each models concluded, The Eddy Dissipation Model (EDM)
is especially suitable for the chemical reactions, which go through in a short time,
and the fluid flow is turbulent and non-premixed. In EDM the regress of
elementary reaction k, is determined by the smallest of the reactants limiter and
products limiter The PDF Flamelet Model (PFM) can be used, if the flame is
turbulent, the Damköhler number is much greater than 1 and non-premixed.
Chemical reactions not influence the mixture fraction, because it deals with
elements rather than molecules, and elements are not affected by chemistry.
Ansys Fluent Non-Premixed model can be used for fast, turbulent reactions, in
the case of chemical equilibrium, or laminar flamelet structure.
E. Oּliveira, J.R. ּBarbosa, and W.P. Martignoni 2014, [68], are ּstudied
numerically the effects of the Primary and Secondary Zones Air injection holes
Position on the outlet temperature profile of the tubular combustor of Gas Turbine
for Ethanol fuel , using the CFD software with FLUENT solver, with SST as
turbulence model and PDF flamelet as modeling, with different hole positions of
the primary and secondary zone, ּkeeping ּfixed the position of the dilution zone.
By dividing each zone to four part of holes locations as 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
of their respective length. Concluded that there is a great effects of the primary
holes position on the pattern factor than the effects of the secondary holes, there
is a ּstrong recirculation zone ּin the ּfirst three quarters of the ּPZ ּlength. The
optimum positioning the ּPZ row in downstream at 0.75 of the total zone length.
E. Oּliveira, J.ּR. ּBarbosa, and W.P. Martignoni 2014,[69], are ּstudied

numerically the effects of the inclination of the Swirler vanes angle and the
Position of Air injection holes for primary zone on the temperature traverse
quality and emission gases for can combustion chamber of gas turbines by using
of ethanol fuel, SST as turbulent model and PDF Flamelet as combustion model,
concluded for optimum design that the combustor to have 8 holes in each zone
and for the minimum pattern factor and CO emissions, with position of the
primary holes’ row at 0.75 of the PZ length and swirler blade angle in a narrow
range about 50º.
2.7 Combustion efficiency:

Schlein, Barry and Pratt 1985, [70]studied experimentally methodology of
correlating the emission gases index of CO and UHC gases as a function of
combustion efficiency for annular combustor of gas turbine engine, with variable
load, inlet temperature, inlet pressure and primary zone equivalence ratio.
W. S. Y. Hung 1993,[71]studied experimentally the effects of ambiant air

temperature and turbine load on the carbon monoxde emission at 15 percent O2
at full-load operating conditions, of the CO and UHC emissions as a function of

natural gas correlate the concentration fuel combustion chamber.
Y. Şöhret, Olcay Kincay, and T. H. Karakoç, 2014 [72]studied experimentally

the combustion efficiency by emission sample formula for turboprop engine at
variable load by taken a data from the T56-A-15 turboprop engine to measure the
emission gases concentration at the exhaust section and combustion efficiency.
Calculated quantities which are related by equations to relate the emissions index
of UHC, CO and combustion efficiency.
2.8 summary
Summary of flameless combustion configuration and the operation
characteristic and details of design of gas turbine tubular combustion chamber,
performance and emissions operating in various condition for flameless
considerations are reported in literature, the survey of the combustors is arranged
as usage utility and an increasing order of thermal intensity and operation
pressure, includes details such as flow configuration, heat load, type of fuel used,
operating pressure, air and fuel velocity, fuel injection methods, emissions for
these combustors and development of combustor design methodology.
The experimental and computational ּinvestigations in the current literature
shows the effects of the individual combustor parts on complex flow field in the
combustion chamber, including the most significant combustor components
effects that contribute to the exiting high-uniformity of temperature profile and
lowest emissions gases.
Wünning et. al. [22], Wünning et. al. [23] and Fleck et. al. [28], concluded that
the distributed fuel injection combustion is more efficient than the point fuel
injection for flameless considerations.
A. E. E. Khalil et. al. [27] and A. E. E. Khalil et. al. [28], concluded for swirler
flow combustion to achieve efficient combustion must avoidance the alternative
effects of the distributed fuel injectors which generated by the swirling flow.
E. Oliveira et. al. [55], determined the optimum recirculation revers flow
occurs in primary zone position at 0.75 of the respective primary zone length.
E. Oliveira et. al. [56], concluded that the optimum number of air injection
holes in each zone of the combustor is 8 and the 60º inclination angle of swirler
vanes are the best choice for flameless and efficient combustion considerations.
Design methodologies development would be useful for preliminary design
calculations of a gas turbine tubular combustor. In this thesis, ּstep by ּstep design
methodologies of tubular combustion chamber have been used. The effect of
different geometrical parameters on the performance of malty port fuel injection
has also been studied. It has been predicted numerically and experimentally that
malty port fuel injection has important role in the performance of combustor.
The overall contribution of the above listed literature survey results tacking into
the account in the preliminary design calculation to obtain final combustor model
implemented for numerical and experimental optimization for efficient
performance and lowest emissions combustor.
Chapter Three Combustor Preliminary Design and Numerical simulation 40
Chapter Three Combustor Preliminary Design and Numerical

simulation
3.1Combustor Preliminary Design Approach:

The initial dimensions of a combustor can be determined using either an
aerodynamic approach or a reaction rate (chemical kinetics) approach. The design
methodology presented in this work sizes the combustor implementing the
former. This means that the combustor will be sized to meet a specified pressure
loss and complete chemical reaction across it.
3.1.1 Combustor pressure drop:
The overall combustor pressure drop is comprised of two components:
1. Hot loss also known as fundamental loss.
2. Cold loss as shown in the following equation (Lefebvre, 1999):
The hot loss is defined as:
𝛥𝑃𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝛥𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡 + 𝛥𝑃3−4 3.1
𝜌3 𝑣3 𝑇4
∆𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡 ≈ + −1 3.2
2 𝑇3
The cold loss is defined as:

𝜌3 𝑣3
∆𝑃3−4 = ∆𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝐿 =△ 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 3.3
2
Where ΔPdiff is the pressure drop in the diffuser, ΔPL is the pressure drop across
the liner. The hot loss ΔPhot represents the loss of the combustor stagnation
pressure associated with the momentum change produced by the rapid release of
energy during the combustion process and the cold loss △P3-4 consists of the
diffuser pressure drop △Pdiff and the liner pressure drop △PL. [4]
3.1.2 Liner Air Mass Flow Rate Distribution
The drive to reach higher gas turbine performance levels and the adherence to
stringent emissions regulations have caused the design of the combustor to evolve
over the past few decades.
Combustor design calculation was further investigated by the author by
reviewing combustor design guidelines published in the last 20 years. Revision
of design guidelines published by Sawyer (1985) [2], Kretschmer (2000),
Saravanamuttoo (2001), Lefebvre (1999), Mellor (1990) [27]and Michele
Capurro (2004)[73], not only illustrated how the gas turbine combustor has
developed, but also provides useful information, like the combustor air flow
distribution, that has been the foundation upon which the design methodology has
been developed.
The air flow distribution of past and more recent combustors, based on the
above references, is presented next. As a general guideline, for a conventional
combustor, Saravanamuttoo (2001)[6], suggests that approximately 15 to 20% of
the total air entering the combustor should be introduced in the primary zone
around the fuel nozzle. Roughly 30% of the total air should be admitted in the
secondary zone and between 50 and 55% should be admitted in the dilution zone.
Similarly, Sawyer (1985)[2] and Kretschmer (2000) indicated that 25% of the
total air entering the combustor should be admitted within the primary zone, 20%
in the secondary zone and 55% (which includes film cooling) in the dilution zone
as shown in figure (3.1). Lefebvre (1999) and Rolls-Royce (1996) indicated that
the need for larger quantities of liner cooling air, to keep up with progressively
higher gas turbine pressure ratios,
Resulted in amount of air available for the dilution zone ranging between 20%
and 40% of the total air entering the combustor.
25% 20% 55% DRef

DLin
Primary zone Dilution zone

Secondary zone
Figure 3.1 Typical conventional combustor air flow distribution.

3.1.3 Equivalence Ratio Estimation

Established engine performance parameters (i.e., power output, brake specific
fuel consumption, turbine inlet temperature, air and fuel mass flow rates, etc.) the
global equivalence ratio, which is the ratio of air mass to fuel mass at
stoichiometric conditions divided by the ratio of air mass entering the combustor
to fuel mass used by the gas turbine, can be calculated from Equation (3.4) as
follows (Turns, 2000)[5]:
𝐴𝑖𝑟
(𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙)Stoich
ФGlobal = 𝑚• 3.4
( • 3 )Actual
𝑚 𝑓
Where m•3: Air mass flow rate entering the combustor kg/s.
m•f : fuel mass flow entering the combustor kg/s.
The primary zone equivalence ratio, which is the ratio of fuel-to-air at
stoichiometric conditions divided by the ratio of air entering the combustor
primary zone to fuel used by the gas turbine, can be expressed, through
mathematical manipulation, as follows Lefebvre (1999):
𝑚• 3
Ф𝑃𝑧 = Ф𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 ( ) 3.5
𝑚• 𝑃𝑧
The secondary and dilution zone equivalence ratios can be calculated as:
𝑚• 3
ФSz = Фglobal ( ) 3.6
𝑚• 𝑆𝑧
𝑚• 3
ФDz = Фglobal ( ) 3.7
𝑚• 𝐷𝑧
3.1.4 Casing and Liner Area

The first objective in the sizing of a combustor the determination of the reference
area as shown in figure (3.2). The reference area, Aref, which defines the
maximum casing area, is calculated by (Sawyer, 1985 and Lefebvre, 1999):
0.5
∆𝑝3−4
2
𝑅 𝑚3 .√𝑇3 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 = [ . [ ] . [ ∆𝑝3−4 ]] 3.8
2 𝑝3
𝑝3
1
Where 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝜌3 𝑉 2 𝑟𝑒𝑓 3.9
2
Dlin Dref
3 4
LPz LSz LDz
Figure 3.2: Combustor nomenclature

Equation (3.8) contains two important aerodynamic dimensionless parameters.
These parameters are the pressure drop ratio (PDR) and the pressure loss factor
(PLF). The PDR, (ΔP3-4/P3) is the ratio of the total pressure drop acrosּs the
combustor (ΔP3-4) ּto the combustor ּinlet total pressure (P3).
The PLF (ΔP3-4/qref) is the ּratio of the total pressure drop across ּthe combustor
to the ּreference dynamic pressure ( qref).
𝑚∙ 3
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 3.10
𝜌3 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓
Where Vref is the reference velocity.
From an aerodynamic point of view, the PLF measures the flow resistance
introduced into the air flow by the combustor and can be defined as the combustor
drag coefficient. Since the PLF is dependent solely on the combustor design and
manufacturing process, each combustor will have its unique pressure loss factor
which will be independent from engine operating conditions. Table (3.1) gives a
summary of typical values for PDR and PLF found in literature[4].
Combustor ∆𝒑𝟑−𝟒 ∆𝒑𝟑−𝟒 𝒎𝟑 . √𝑻𝟑

type 𝒑𝟑 𝒒𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝒑𝟑 . 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒇
Multi-can 5.3 40 3e-3

Annular 6 20 4.5e-3
Can- 5.4 30 3.5e-3
Annular
Table (3.1) pressure losses terms for aircraft and industrial engine combustor [Saywers]
With the reference area (maximum casing area) calculated, the liner area (AL) can
now be estimated, using the following guidelines:
Sawyer (1985) suggests that the liner area should be in the following range:
0.6Aref <AL <0.72Aref 3.11
Kretschmer (2000) suggests that the liner area should be
AL=0.7Aref 3.12
3.1.5 Annulus Area:

The annulus area (AAN ) is the region confined by the casing inner wall and the
liner outer wall figure (3.2). With the casing reference area and liner area
determined, the annulus area is calculated as,
AAn=Aref - AL 3.13
3.1.6 Combustor Primary, Secondary and Dilution Zone Lengths

The next step in the design process is the calculation of the three zone lengths
which make up the combustor liner. For the primary zone, the length (Lpz) is
usually found between the following ranges (Sawyer, 1985):
2 2
𝐷𝐿 ≤ 𝐿𝑃𝑧 ≤ 𝐷𝐿 3.14
3 3
Where DL is the liner diameter
Noting that a longer primary zone length would give more residence time to the
reacting mixture, and that a longer residence time will in turn lead to higher
combustion efficiency, the primary zone length should be a compromise between
combustor efficiency and engine costs incurred due to a longer combustor.
The secondary zone, length should be estimated to be 50% of the liner diameter
(Sawyer, 1985; Kretschmer, 2000):
1
𝐿𝐿 = 𝐷𝐿 3.15
2
The last zone to be sized is the dilution zone. The goal of the dilution zone is
to shape the temperature profile of the hot combustion products into an acceptable
and consistent temperature distribution as they are discharged into the high
pressure turbine. The temperature profile of the hot gasses is contoured by the
injection and mixing of cooler air, entering from the dilution holes, with the hot
gasses contained within the liner. The length of the dilution zone, LDZ is greatly
dependent on the pattern factor (Q) defined by Equation (3.16), which is
sometimes also named as the temperature traverse quality (Lefebvre, 1999):
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑇4
𝑄= 3.16
𝑇4 −𝑇3
Where Tmax is the maximum total temperature value at the combustor outlet.
The pattern factor has a great impact on the life of the stationary nozzle guide
vanes and on the life of the rotating first stage turbine blades. To prolong the life
of these components, the combustor designer must create a combustor that will
not have "hot spots" (localized high gas temperatures) and that will deliver a
reasonable variation of gas temperature profiles in both the radial and
circumferential directions. Correlation expressed by Equation 3.17 show how the
pattern factor of can and can-annular combustors is influenced by the flame tube
pressure ּloss factor and by the flame tube ּlength and diameter.
𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑛 △𝑃𝐿 −1
𝑄 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−0.07 ) 3.17
𝐷𝐿𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑟𝑒
Where ΔPL is the liner pressure loss, Pa
The dilution zone length ratio as a function of pattern factor for different value
△𝑃3−4
of pressure losses factor =30 and 50.
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐿𝑅𝐷𝑧,30 = 2.96 − 9.86𝑄 + 13.3𝑄2 3.18
𝐿𝑅𝐷𝑧,50 = 2.718 − 12.64𝑄 + 28.51𝑄2 3.19
𝐿𝑅𝐷𝑧,40 Calculated by interpolation method.
𝐿𝐷𝑧 = 𝐿𝑅𝐷𝑧,40 ∙ 𝐷𝐿 3.20
3.1.7 Swirler Design

During engine start-up, initial ignition of the fuel/oxidizer mixture is achieved
with the help of an igniter which produces a concentrated source of energy,
namely a spark. However, after the engine start-up procedure is successfully
completed, the igniter is disengaged and combustion is now a self-sustaining
process. This self-sustaining mechanism is achieved through the swirler as shown
in figure (3.4), whose design is primarily influenced by aerodynamics.
In a conventional combustor, the scope of the swirler is to generate a

recirculation bubble in the primary zone by creating a toroidal flow reversal that
allows for some of the hot combustion products to get entrained, to recirculate
and to come in contact with the ּfresh mixture of ּfuel and oxidizer. ּIn a typical
combustor, the swirl induced recirculation zone is also augmented by air flow
entering through injection holes strategically placed in the primary zone.
The swirl number (Sn), defined in Equ. (3.21), and is a non-dimensional

parameter that characterizes the amount of swirl impaired to the axial flow.
2𝐺𝑚
𝑆𝑛 = 3.21
𝐷𝑠𝑤 𝐺𝑡
Where Gm is the axial flux of angular momentum
Gt is the axial thrust
The swirl number can be calculated as (Lefebvre, 1999):
𝐷 3
3 1−( ℎ𝑢𝑏 )
𝐷𝑠𝑤
𝑆𝑛 = (
2 𝐷ℎ𝑢𝑏 2
) 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃𝑣 ) 3.22
1−( )
𝐷𝑠𝑤
Where Dsw is the swirler outer diameter
Dhub is the swirler inner (hub) diameter
Βv is the vans turning angle
Figure (3.3) shows the detail of the axial with straight vanes swirlar.
45º
Figure: 3.3, swirler nomenclature

Lefebvre (1999), gives the following guidelines for the design of a combustor
swirler. Generally, the amount of oxidizer entering the swirler varies from 3 to
12% of the total air flow rate entering the combustor (m3) and the pressure drop
across the swirler (ΔPsw) can be estimated to be 3 to 4% of the combustor inlet
pressure (P3). To create a recirculation zone, strong swirl conditions
corresponding to swirl numbers higher than 0.6, are needed (Lefebvre, 1999). The
swirl number and the pressure drop across the swirler, ΔPSW, calculated next, are
interlinked by the blade turning angle (βsw). A swirler is designed to meet a
specific pressure drop, which as previously mentioned is between 3 to 4% of the
combustor inlet pressure (P3).
The pressure drop across the swirler is calculated as (Sawyer, 1985;

Kretschmer, 2000 andLefebvre, 1999):
∆𝑝𝑠𝑤 ∆𝑝3−4 ∆𝑝𝑠 ∆𝑝𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓

= − − 3.23
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓
∆𝑝𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 0.01𝑃𝑡3
= 3.24
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓
∆𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 2
= 0.25 3.25
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐴𝑜
Finally swirlar area defined as:
0.5
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 2
𝐴𝑠𝑤 = ( 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 2 2 ) 3.26
∆𝑝 𝑚 𝜋
( 𝐾 𝑠𝑤 ∙(𝑚 𝑎 ) +( 𝐴 ) )∙(𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛽𝑠𝑤 180))
𝑠𝑤 𝑠𝑤 𝑙𝑖𝑛
Where Ksw is 1.3 for flat vanes and 1.15 for curved vanes
msw is the swirler mass flow rate
Asw is the swirler frontal area, calculated as (Lefebvre, 1999):
𝜋
𝐴𝑠𝑤 = ( ) ∙ (𝐷𝑠𝑤 2 − 𝐷ℎ𝑢𝑏 2 ) − 0.5𝑛𝑣 𝑡𝑣 (𝐷𝑠𝑤 − 𝐷ℎ𝑢𝑏 ) 3.27
4
𝐷ℎ𝑢𝑏 = 0.1 ∙ 𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 + 6.35 ∙ 10−3 3.28
𝐷𝑠𝑤 = 0.225 ∙ 𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 + 0.01905 3.29

Where nv is the number of vanes
tvis the vane thickness
As a general rule, combustor swirlers are designed for swirl numbers above 0.6,
they are made up of 8 to 16 blades equally spaced and the blades turning angle,
βsw , is usually set between 30° and 70° (Lefebvre, 1999 and Mellor, 1990). The
shape of the blades (curved versus flat) also has an effect on the recirculation zone
size. Curved vanes induce larger reverse mass flows (mr ) with respect to flat
vanes for the same swirl number. For very strong swirl conditions Sn>2 for curved
vanes and Sn > 2.5 for flat vanes, which corresponds to blades turning angles
above 65º, the amount of entrained flow exceeds that of the swirler flow.
𝑚𝑟
>1 3.30
𝑚𝑠𝑤
3.1.8 Dome Sizing

As a general guideline, the combustor dome is shaped so that most of the
swirling air is captured in the recirculation eddy (Mattingly, 2002). To achieve
this, authors like Sawyer (1985) and Kretschmer (2000) suggest wall angles θD
between 45° and 70° as shown in figure (3.4) for nomenclature.
Snout
θD
Dome
LD
Figure 3.4 Dome nomenclature

Where Dome angle (θD) defined as:
𝜃𝐷 =
−𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 (𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 −2𝐷𝑠𝑤 )−(𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 −4𝐿𝑅𝑧 )∙√𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 2 −4𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑠𝑤 +4𝐷𝑠𝑤 2 −8𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑅𝑧 +16𝐿𝑅𝑧 2
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )…..
2𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 2 −4𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑠𝑤 +4𝐷𝑠𝑤 2 −8𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑅𝑧 +16𝐿𝑅𝑧 2
………………………………………………………………….………….3.31
The length of the dome depends on the wall angle used. Once a wall angle is
selected, the dome length can be calculated as:
𝐷𝑠𝑤
𝐿𝐷𝑜𝑚 = (𝐷𝑙𝑖𝑛 −
2
) 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃𝐷 ) 3.32
With the completion of the dome design, the length of the recirculation
zone, which is based on the principle of "magic circles", can be obtained figure
(3.5). The idea behind this principle is to represent the flow behavior within the
recirculation zone by two imaginary circles whose diameters are half that of the
liner. These circles are placed so that the dome and liner walls function as borders
to the circles (Sawyer, 1985).
Magic circles
Figure 3.5 location of magic circles

3.1.9 Diffuser and snout sizing:
With the combustor resizing completed, the diffuser and snout sizing can be
initiated, the combustor design includes parasitic pressure losses that need to be
minimized. An example of these parasitic losses is the pressure loss across the
diffuser, ΔPdiff
∆𝑝𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 0.01𝑃𝑡3
= 3.33
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓
The purpose of the diffuser is to reduce high compressor outlet velocities,

which can be higher than 170 m/s [2] and [4], to values where flame blow off will
not occur. In general, the compressor outlet velocity must be reduced to a velocity
within the range of 30 to 60 m/s [2] and [4]. This is in agreement with Lefebvre
(1999) who indicates that the compressor outlet velocity (higher than 170 m/s)
must be decreased to about one fifth for combustion to take place. The diffuser
consists of a diverging passage through which the compressor outlet velocity is
decreased. A good diffuser design minimize pressure loss, maximize static
pressure recovery, will be fairly insensitive to engine operating conditions and

will minimize engine production costs by being as short as possible (Klein, 1995).
According to Sawyer (1985) the pressure loss across the diffuser is usually
limited to 1% of the total pressure at the combustor inlet (ΔPdiff = 0.01 P3). After
having estimated the percentage of oxidizer needed in the primary zone, about
half of this quantity will enter the snout about2 0% while the remaining amount
will flow through the annulus and will enter the primary zone via strategically
located injection holes. At the snout inlet, most of the air 80% is subjected to a
change in direction as it enters the diffusing passage. To minimize the possibility
of flow separation, the change in flow direction should be carried out at a constant
velocity. Therefore, the location of the snout inlet (L0) should be placed where
the velocity of the flow entering the combustor is equal to the velocity of the flow
entering the annulus as showni figure (3.6), by the following equation (Sawyer,
1985):
𝐴𝑜 𝑚∙ 3
= 3.34
𝐴𝐴𝑛 𝑚∙ 𝐴𝑛
Do
D3
Dsn
LDiff
Figure3.6: Diffuser and snout nomenclature

Where A0 is the area where the velocity of the flow entering the combustor is
equal to the velocity of the flow entering the annulus AAN is the annulus area.
mAN is the air mass flow entering the annulus

𝐴𝑠𝑛 𝑚∙ 𝑠𝑛
= 3.35
𝐴𝑜 𝑚∙ 3 ∙𝑐𝑑,𝑠𝑛
Where msn is the air mass flow entering the snout
Asn is the snout cross sectional area m2
Cd,sn is the snout discharge coefficient and can be assumed to be Cd,sn =1, (Sawyer,
1985).
Where diffuse angle defined as:

1
1.22
−1 ∆𝑝𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 ∙𝐴3 2 ∙𝑝𝑡3 2
𝜑𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [( 𝐴 2 ) ] 3.36
502.4∙(1− 3 ) ∙𝑚3 2 ∙𝑇3
𝐴𝑜
Diffuser length defined as:
(𝑅𝑜 −𝑅3 )
𝐿𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 3.37
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜑)
3.1.10 Air injection Hole Sizing

The last step in the preliminary design of a ּgas turbine combustion chamber is
the sizing of the injection holes, the following section will present work which
has been published by Sawyer (1985) and Lefebvre (1999) on the subject. Both
authors recognize that the injection holes geometry, the liner pressure loss, the
liner geometry and the injection hole bleed ratio have an effect on air injection
holes performance. The governing equation, given by Sawyer (1985), for primary
hole area
1432.5∙𝑚𝑝ℎ 2 ∙𝑇3
𝐴𝑝ℎ = ( ) 3.38
∆𝑝𝑝ℎ ∙𝑝𝑡3 2 ∙𝑐𝑑𝑝ℎ 2
Where ΔPh is the pressure loss across the hole, Pa

𝐾𝑔
mh is the mass flow rate through the hole,
s
Ah, is the area of the hole, m2
Cd is the hole discharge coefficient whose calculation is shown next.
According to Sawyer, depending on the design of the injection hole, whether

plain or plunged, the discharge coefficient is calculated as follows:
For plain holes the equation is:
𝑘−1
𝐶𝑑 = 3.39
0.8[4𝑘 2 −𝑘(2−𝛽)2 ]0.5
Where the hole pressure loss factor is calculated as

1
2
𝜇2
𝑘 = 1 + 𝛿 2 ∙ [(2 ∙ 𝜇2 + ( 2 ) ∙ (4 ∙ 𝛽 − 𝛽 2 )) ] 3.40
𝛿
However, before solving Equation (3.40) the following parameters need to

be identified:
The hole area ratio, α

𝐴ℎ
𝛼= 3.41
𝐴𝑎𝑛
The hole bleed ratio, β

𝑚ℎ
𝛽= 3.42
𝑚𝑎𝑛
Where the velocity area ratio, 𝜇
𝛽
μ= 3.43
α
Using Mathcad package to programing the above equations (3.1 to 3.43) for the
combustor inlet boundary conditions for micro gas turbine in table (3.2) to get the
final preliminary design dimension results in table (3.3) which will used for
numerical and experimental works.
Variable Value Unite

Variable Value Unite Aref 0.0346 m2
m3 0.6 Kg/s Alin 0.0224 m2
mf 0.0032 Kg/s Asw 8.329e-4 m2
P3 1.5E5 pa A3 7.38e-3 m2
Pr 1.4 - Dref 0.21 m
T3 600 K Dlin 0.17 m
V3 50 m/s Dsw 0.048 m
Table (3.2) inlet boundary condition Dhub 0.025 m
nv 6 -
Βv 60 ͦ
𝜽Dom 69.8 ͦ
Sn 1.368 -
Lpz 0.1269 m
Lsz 0.0846 m
Ldz 0.225 m
LDiff 0.038 m
LRz 0.0942 m
LDom 0.0223 m
φdiff 26.3 ͦ
Nph 8 -
Nsh 8 -
Ndh 8 -
Dph 0.022 m
Dsh 0.014 m
Ddh1 0.018 m
Ddh2 0.01 m
Table (3.3) preliminary design results.
3.2 Numerical simulation:

3.2.1 Introduction:
This section presents the numerical part of this work to analyze and simulate the
case of optimization of volumetric reactant fluid flow and associated phenomena
are considered as one of the involved matters with the system analysis that
depends on the several fields of science. In this work, the three-dimensional
model for the combustion model system will be simulated numerically by
ANSYS CFX 17.2 package. In order to analyze the flow field inside gas turbine
tubular combustor, governing equations will be used in this study which are,
momentum, energy, continuity and species chemical equations.
This technique is based on the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
optimizations to reduce emission gases. Relates the mass fraction of the multi-
line of fuel injection as well as equivalence ratio of the tubular combustion

chamber designed for Methane fuel use as benchmarking for pollutant
concentration of the gas exhausted from the combustor. It is concerned with the
comprehensive assessment of the flow feature by using k-ε as turbulent model
and PDF Flamelet as combustion model. The running data of micro gas turbine
is used the validation of flow mixing and combustion analyses were carried out
with a focus on species concentration in the combustor outlet section.
3.2.2 Geometry:
In this section, the final dimensions results of preliminary design in table (3.3)
have drawn as geometry through employing a AutoCAD 2016. Two line of fuel
injection have represented the flows that accesses through the combustor which
are, the secondary line and the mainstream of the main injector line. However,
the geometry that utilized in the experimental study and used in the numerical
simulation are same as shown in figure (3.7).
Primary 16 95 105 228 232

injection 0.228m
m
m
line
m
170
100
214
Secondary
fuel injection
line
Swiriler Primary Secondary Dilution Transition
zone zone zone channel
All dimensions in mm
Figure: 3.7. Combustor details.

3.2.3 Assumptions:
Assumptions were proposed to simulate the combustion model as follows:
1. Steady-state condition.
2. Newtonian fluid.
3. Incompressible flow.
4. Three dimensional, Turbulent flow.
5. Body forces are neglected.
3.3 The k-ε turbulent model:
There are four steps to solve the CFD problem which are, first, Generation of
the geometry grid, second, setting-up the physical k-ε model with chemical
species preprocessing, then solving it, and finally, post-processing the data. The
standard model is utilized in the present study.
The standard k -ε model is represented by a semi-empirical model that depends

on the transport equations of the model for the turbulence energy dissipation rate
(ε) and the turbulence kinetic energy (k). The transport equation of the model for
(k) is derived by the exact equation. While, the transport equation of the model
for is determined by the physical logic that likes and is equivalent to the
mathematically exact counterpart. The equation of the turbulent viscosity (µt)
represents the values of the turbulence kinetic energy (k) and the turbulence
energy dissipation rate (ε) at each grid point:
3.3.1. Governing Equations:

The numerical work included solving the four types of the equations which are
the momentum, continuity, energy and species chemical equations as follows
[49]:
3.3.2 Continuity equation:
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
+ + =0 3.44
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
3.3.3 Momentum equation:
𝜕𝜌𝑈𝑖 𝜕(𝜌𝑈𝑖 𝑈𝑗 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑤) 𝜕𝑝́ 𝜕 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈𝑗

𝜕𝑡
+
𝜕𝑥𝑗
+
𝜕𝑧
=−
𝜕𝑥𝑖
+
𝜕𝑥𝑗
[𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓 [ 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥 ]] + 𝑆𝑀 3.45
𝑗 𝑖
Where SM is the sum of body forces,

μeff is representing the actual viscosity and also it represents the Combination of
the laminar and turbulent stresses as:
𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜇 + 𝜇𝑡 3.46
p′ is the modified pressure as defined in
2 2 𝜕𝑈𝑘
𝑝́ = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑘 + 𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓 3.47
3 3 𝜕𝑥𝑘
3.3.4. Energy equation:
𝜕(𝑢𝑇) 𝜕(𝑣𝑇) 𝜕(𝑤𝑇) 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇

𝜌 +𝜌 +𝜌 = (𝛤𝑇 )+ (𝛤𝑇 )+ (𝛤𝑇 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
3.48
(ГT) is representing coefficient of the real exchange for heat and is defined
By:
𝜇 𝜇𝑡
𝛤𝑇 = + 3.49
𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑡
The equation of the turbulence kinetic energy is [49]:
𝜕𝜅 𝜕𝜅 𝜕𝜅 𝜇𝑡 𝜕2 𝜅 𝜕2 𝜅 𝜕2 𝜅
𝜌 (𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ +𝑤
̅ ) = (𝜇 + )( 2 + 2 + ) + 𝐺𝜅 − 𝜌𝜖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜎𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
3.50
While, the equation of the dissipation rate of turbulence energy is [45]:
𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝜖 𝜇𝑡 𝜕2 𝜖 𝜕2 𝜖 𝜕2 𝜖 𝜖
𝜌 (𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ +𝑤
̅ ) = (𝜇 + )( 2 + 2 + 2 ) + 𝐶1𝜖 𝐺𝜅 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜎𝜖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜅
𝜖2
𝐶2𝜖 𝜌 3.51
𝜅
𝐺𝜅 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑆 2 3.52
3.4 Turbulence model, Bossiness Assumption

According to these equations, Gk is referring to the turbulence kinetic energy
generation caused by gradients of the mean velocity. Sk and Se refer to the user-
defined source terms. Other constants of the model that have default values in
table (3.3).
C1ϵ C2ϵ Cμ σ𝜅 σϵ
1.44 1.92 0.09 1 1.3
Table (3.3) the k-ε turbulence model constants
3.5. Reaction Models:-

Conservation equation for a chemical species J is defined as:-
1   1      1   m j  1   m j 
  rvm j    wm j    um j    R j   r j   
 r r   r    x   r r 

 r  r    j r  
  

   m j 3.53
  j 
x  x 
 
Where mj is the mass fraction of the chemical species J, R j the mass rate of
creation of species (J) by chemical reaction per unit volume and j is the exchange
coefficient. In a multi-component system simplification can be introduced
through the use of the concept of a simple chemically reacting system. This
assumes that fuel and oxidant react chemically in a unique proportion,
furthermore, the effective diffusivities of all the chemical species are taken to be
equal and the reaction is a single step with no intermediate compounds or two-
step.
Also the probability density function (pdf) model equations defined as:
3.54
3.5 Geometry of the System:

According to figure (3.7), the system includes the mainstream of fuel injection
by the main injector and the secondary line of fuel injection with two commune
rail of eight radial 90º in word injectors for each row, swirlar, dome, liner with
three row of air injection holes (primary, secondary, and dilution holes) and the
main reference combustor case, where row of the air injection holes are symmetry
for the different models. The main injector consists of six holes with 2 mm in
diameter for each, while the secondary line of fuel injection consist of two radial
sub line with sixteen holes with 2mm in diameter injectors, directed through the
secondary sub line of air injection holes with area which extracted from the main
preliminary design results. For air injection holes area of the primary and
secondary holes area and fuel injection of the secondary combustion zone, there
is eight holes in each row while in the primary there is eight holes with 20 mm in
diameter bound to the first row of fuel injection which directed through eight air
injection holes with 14 mm in diameter, and secondary zone holes with eight
holes of 14 mm diameter bound the second row of fuel injection which directed
through 12 mm in diameter of air injection holes, as shown in figure (3.8), for
swirler with 6 straight blades with angle of inclination of 60 º which provid swirler
number of 1.3, with totaling about five million of mesh cells. The computational
field discretization numerical mesh ּgeneration ּsoftware was realized in Meshing,
the ּsame package of ּscientific ּsoftware (ANSYS-CFX, Workbench 17.2).
Relating the mass flow rate ratio of secondary line of fuel injection to main line
of fuel injection (F2/F1) with calculation the emissions in the combustor outlet
and temperature , velocity and emissions distribution distribution contour inside
the combustor to optimizing the reactant flow for distributed fuel injection
combustion in the designed tubular combustor.
14mm
12mm 14mm
20mm
Fig. 3-2, a
0.8mm
Figure: 3.8 the S.F.I. system geometry

3.6 Mesh Generation:
The next step after the computational domain and modeling stages is the mesh
generation. The grid (mesh) is produced in volume within the geometry of the
model. It is adopted for the discretized solution of the energy and species
chemical equations as well as the governing equations in three dimensions. To
implement the standard CFD methods, it requires a mesh that fits the boundaries
for the computational domain. Three dimensional Navier- Stokes equations
considered as one of the ways that attracted the researchers for the computational
mesh generation. The purpose of mesh stage is to discretize the geometric domain
into small shapes. These shapes are either triangles or quadrilaterals for the two
dimensions shapes and tetrahedral or hexahedral for the three dimensions shapes
otherwise, mesh can also be represented as a locus, where the solver discretization
method used to solve the partial differential equations. The principle of the mesh
that relates with the elements shape depends on dividing the main groups into
three parts which are, structured, unstructured and hybrid. The first mesh
(structured mesh) offers itself as a quite homogeneous and the elements are to be
similar for all dimensions. Unstructured mesh refers to the different elements of
vertices and shapes as well as it utilized for the complicated shapes.
3.7 Three Dimensions Mesh Generation:
There are many codes used to generate the mesh, but ANSYS CFX 17.2 is
considered as one of the important codes, where it is used for the solid geometry
and three-dimensional models. Moreover, it is more robust to divide this
operation into subsequent stages and one main subject for the additional mesh
controlling.
3.7.1 Volume mesh generation:
ANSYS CFX 17.2 package is able to create the mesh for the volume for each
region that includes a closed loop area. Also, the mesh construction requires good
cells in all the domain geometry. Thus, the manual manipulation and controlled
to smooth transition for the mesh. The detail of the generated mesh in the fluid
domain of the combustor model shown in figure (3.9).
c
a
Figure: 3.9.Tetrahedral mesh distribution for the combustor, a- all domain, b- main fule
injector domain, c- secondary fuel injector domain.
3.8 Count of the total cells:

The last matter that related with the fine mesh is the total number for the generated
cells. In order to get a good resolution, enough cells number should be generated.
However, the other important notice is related to the memory requirements and
the cells number, where the memory requirements increase with increasing of the
cells number. 5 million Cells have been utilized in this study.
3.9 Boundary conditions:
Figure (3.10) shows the boundary conditions of the computational extracted fluid
domain for each region. However, the shared domain between the internal areas
(zones) and the common areas (faces) does not require any boundary conditions,
they are indicated as a fluid.
3.9.1 Inlet boundary conditions:
The term of inlet boundary conditions relates with the specified planes of the
mainstream of air flow and two line of fuel injection flow (fuel flow). At the
incompressible flows case, the experimental data provides the values of the inlet
mass flow rate and temperature.
3.9.2 Outlet boundary condition:
Setting the pressure at the value of specific gauge pressure and applying at the
outlet boundary are called pressure outlet boundary condition. When the pressure
value at outlet equals to zero that means the pressure became equal to the
atmospheric operating pressure. The standard value of pressure used in this study
is at the sea level which equals to 101,325 Pa.
3.9.3 Wall boundary conditions:
The function of these boundary conditions are utilized to bound the solid and
fluid zones. No-slip boundary condition is specified for the sides of the
secondary flow, and the mainstream flow air is set, as shown in figure (3.10).
Wall
Inlet Air and Fuel
Section Summitry
Outlet Products
Figure (3.10), Wall boundary conditions for fluid domain.

3.10 Computing Time and Total Cell Number:
For complicated geometry, the fact refers that the accepted solution needs a
long time in simulation part. Also, when the complicated geometry model
accompanies with the complex flows in addition to model mesh resolutions,
restrictions of the computational time step will be imposed. In principle, the time
step will be restricted when the mesh resolution be intensive.
3.11 Number of Iterations and Convergence:
The iterations number refers to the maximum number that required for the
solver to stop. In this work, 300 iterations were used, as shown in figure (3.11).
First, 50 iterations were needed for finishing and if this number under the
appropriate values, additional iterations will be provided.
Figure (3.11), Convergence history for continuity and momentum equations.

CHAPTER FOUR EXPERIMENTAL WORK 65
CHAPTER FOUR EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Chapter Four Experimental work 66
Chapter Four Experimental work

4.1. Introduction:
This chapter discusses the methodology used for building the experimental test
rig to investigate the effect of the volumetric reaction on the performance and
emission of the gas turbine tubular combustor by using multi-line of fuel injection
technologies, at the department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Technology. Details of the experimental test facilities used for the study, all the
apparatus used, experimental setup, measuring devices, test model, are discussed
in subsequent sections.
4.2 Experimental Setup:
4.2.1 Test rig:
Micro gas turbine system designed and manufactured by using exhaust gases
turbo charger (BBC) type, consist of centrifugal air compressor and radial inward
turbine of general specifications of 46000 rpm and allowable turbine max
temperature about 750Cº, combined with designed and manufactured combustion
chamber to construct open loop micro compressor gas turbine as shown in figure
(4.1), with exhaust plenum designed to produce pressured flow for EGR flow
supplemented with gate valve to produce flow stream with minimum back
pressure when combined with exhaust gases recirculation line designed to
recirculate the hot products gases to preheating the inlet air with minimum flow
losses, intake projection pipe line with venturi section to produce vacuum flow
for recirculated gasses to produce (EGR/Fresh Air ratio) at least 30% with
minimum losses in main stream of the flow and auxiliary system represented by
starting motor, oil lubrication system, ignition system, bearing cooling system
and other measurement device, the detail of the overall test rig setup is presented
in figures (4.2, 4.3 and 4.4).
Micro gas turbine starting at rotational speed about 4500 rpm which achieved
by electric motor by temporary installing in the compressor hub bolt as show in
figure (4.3, b) as starting motor, for more details see appendix A.
Figure (4.1): Photographic pictures of the test rig.

All dimension in mm
Pitot static tube
Fuel injection lines
Control panel
Exhaust plenum
Inlet plenum
EGR line
Fuel pressure
regulator Bearing cooling blower
Oil pump
Oil tank
Figure (4.2): schematic and detail of experimental test rig.

Pitot tube
Flame capturing glasses Igniter

Control panel
Combustion chamber
Compressor turbine
Outlet get valve
-a-
b-Starting motor
Figure (4.3) a- Side view of experimental test rig set, b-starting motor.
Oil pump timer flash Inlet air get valve

Digital manometers
Thermocouple data reader

U-tube manometers
Thermocouple selectors
Main fuel line Rota meter
S.F.I. Rota meter
Fuel lines control valves
Figure: 4.4, Control panel

4.2.2 Experimental method considerations:
The secondary line mass flow rate of fuel injection was varied for various
selected range at the expense of the mass flow rate of the first line of fuel injection
for all cases investigated in the combustion system experiment. Thus, in order to
create a similar condition for each combustion case, a fixed range of air
mainstream air mass flow rate of range 0 to 0.4 kg/s was used, for different fuel
mass flow rate (equivalence ratio) for different compressor total head and EGR
value. A variable ratio of (F2/F1) was varied at rang (0, 0.6, 1, 1.2) based on
desired case of combustion stability which achieved by continues fire region to
confirm flame holding in primary zone.
4.3 Experimental measurement

4.3.1 Fuel flow measurement:
The fuel flow measurement system used variable area flow meter (Rota meter),
to measure LPG fuel flow rate with two (jasbin) Rota meter (0 to100 L/min),
shown in figure (4.5, a).
4.3.2 Fuel pressure measurement:
The three fuel line comes from three gas fuel bottle collected together in main
fuel line connected to pressure regulator device with pressure Borden gage of
range (0 to10 bar) as shown in figure (4.5, b).
a b
Figure: 4.5, a- Gas fuel Rota meter, b- Fuel pressure regulator

4.3.4 Temperature measurement
Temperature at the center line and at the outlet section of the combustor
measured with eleven K-type thermometer range (-50 C to + 1300 C), accuracy
1.5 Cº or 0.25% Of reading, installed inside the combustor to monitor the
combustor center line temperature profiles and outlet temperature travers quality
(Pattern factor) as shown in figure (4.6).
40
T3
85 a
T4
95
T5
80
T6
90
T7 170
35
46
260 95
Average 80 80
outlet T8
All dimension in mm b
Figure: 4.6 combustor thermocouple distribution a- center line, b- outlet section

Air temperature before and after the compressor measured with two T-type
thermometer range (-50 C to 300 C). To acquired temperature data, T and K-type
thermocouple data reader fixed thermocouple are connected to the reader as
shown in the measurement device distribution diagram figure (4.7).
Hot gases
FM
Primary fuel line T1 Cool air
Relief valve
Fuel Secondary fuel line
Compressed air
Pressure regulator FM
Relief valve EGR
Thermocouple data
Static pressure line
reader
T2
Total pressure line
Chapter Four Experimental work
T3
T4 Selector 1
Total pressure line T5 T8
U-tube manometer T6 Selector 2
T7
T8-1
Digital manometer
T8-2
T8-3
Digital manometer
T8-4
Outlet section T8-5

Tachometer port T8-6
U-tube manometer Tachometer Get valve
Air
Gas
analyzer
Pitot-static tube
Get valve EGR line Centrifugal compressor Compressor turbine

73
Figure: 4.7 Sckematic diagram for measurement device distribution

4.3.5 Exhaust gases measurement

Measurement of gases emissions is essential in this study. Gas analyzer
comprise an extensive product line. For the current project, employed a HG-550
EGMA (5 gas Emission analyzer) to assess flue within the exhaust plenum. The
HG-550 EGMA has short probe that can analyzed flue gases components within
10 minutes of straight contact with the exhaust and can sample UHC, CO, CO2,
O2 and NOx concentrations.
4.4 Combustion observation
Since the colorless combustion is a special Phenomenon, visualization plays an
important role to ensure colorless combustion has been achieved, a Nikon D 5300
digital camera was installed in front of the two glass screen in about 25cm from
the glasses of the combustor, the first glass fixed at the combustor case in front
of the primary holes and the second glass fixed at the combustor case in front of
the secondary holes to execute direct photographs for the flame as shown in figure
(4.8).
Primary zone flame

capturing glass
Secondary zone flame

capturing glass
Figure 4.8. Primary and secondary zone flame capturing glass
4.5 Air and EGR flow measurement

Measurement of air flow by using Pitot-static tubes which are fixed at fully
developed region of the inlet plenum and compressor outlet pipe respectively as
shown in figure (4.7), for more details see appendix F.
4.6 Pitot-static tube:
Standard circular nosed Pitot- static tube with curved junction (N.P.L Standard),
with a 10 mm external diameter (d), 350 mm stem length, a nosed total pressure
inner diameter of 1.32 mm, and 0.9 mm static holes diameter, was used to
measure the dynamic pressure of the inlet mainstream and compressor outlet main
stream. The stem-static holes distance equals (8.02 d) [82], as presented in
appendix (F).
4.7 Turbine rotating speed measurements
Measurement of turbine rotating speed by using digital laser photo tachometer,
the reflection tag fixed at the compressor rotter hub as shown in figure (4.9 a) and
the tachometer sensor port fixed in the inlet plenum as shown in figure (4.9 b).
a Reflection tag b Rotation sensor port
Figure 4.9, Turbine rotation measurements detail
4.8 Cases investigated

Table (4.1) summarize the investigation performed along with the variables
changed for each investigation case. The cases name is indicative of the location
of main and radial fuel injection location, and sizing.
Cases No. of Diameter mm Description

holes
MFI 6, 28 0.5, 0.8, 1, 1.5and Main fuel injection
2
1RPDFI 8 0.8 1Row primary zone near dome fuel injection
1RPHFI 8 0.8 1Row primary zone near air holes fuel injection
1RSFI 8 0.8 1Row secondary zone fuel injection
2RSFI 16 0.8 2Row secondary zone fuel injection
2RSDFI 16 0.8 2Row secondary and dilution zone fuel injection
Table (4.1) cases investigated.
4.9 Experimental Procedures:

For all experiments with different cases of running six liner with secondary fuel
injection line models with four different main injector type were used for the
experiment study. The value of F2/F1 varied five times between (F2/F1 = 0, 0.6,
0.1, and 1.25) for all models. The experimental procedures were performed
according to the following steps:
1- The sample model (radial secondary line of fuel injection) was attached to the
selected liner model.
2- Connecting all the pipe line to prepare the fuel supplying to the test section
(fuel line).
3- Adjust the outlet exhaust, EGR, F1 and F2 valves manually to control the
required mass flow rate that gives the selected operation condition. The Pitot -
static tube, digital and water U-tube manometer were then used to calculate the
mass flow rate, pressure difference.
4-The inflow temperature inside the inlet plenum was measured by using a digital
T- type thermometer, steady-state case temperature must be at the range (15 to
250 ºC).
5- The main stream flow rate and temperature of air were adjusted by using a
manual inlet and exhaust gate valve device. The compressor outlet main stream
air velocity and temperature are varied at selected range for case of off-load,
loaded and loaded with EGR, respectively.
6- Prepare the camera to capture the image of flame for the primary and secondary
zone through the flame capturing glass.
7- Recording the in line temperature at the center point and along of the
combustor by using five K-type thermometer to evaluate the behavior of the
temperature distribution through the center line of the combustor.
8- Recording the outlet temperature by using six K-type thermometer to calculate
the temperature pattern factor at the combustor outlet section .
9-The temperatures at twelve locations inside the combustor and outlet section
were recorded simultaneously at the same time.
10-Recordin the gas analyzer reading for exhaust gases.
11-Recording the environmental temperature and humidity in every test.
12-Repeating the above steps every time when changing the mass flow rate of the
secondary line of fuel flow.
13- Repeating the above steps every time when changing the model.
CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 78
CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chapter Five Results and Discussions 79
Chapter Five Results and Discussions

5.1 Introduction:
The current chapter presents the results of experimental and numerical studies
and the discussion are conducted. The average combustion efficiency, pattern
factor, temperature distribution profile along the center line of the combustor and
the emission gasses are calculated. Also in this chapter, point fuel injection (main
injector) and inline radial inward 90º of secondary line of fuel injection (S. F. I.)
are discussed, the range of injected fuel rate approximately about 0 to 3.2 g/s and
is maintained with the models that consist of six liner model deal with different
location of radial inward secondary fuel injection ports, the diameter of each fuel
injector of secondary fuel injection are equal 0.8 mm for all model. The numerical
solution is conducted to predict NO, velocity profile and temperature distribution
profile by using commercial CFD code by ANSYS CFX 17.2 package solver.
5.2 Experimental Method Verification:
5.2.1 Conventional main injector optimization with different fuel injector
holes size and dome holes effects (MFI):
This section related with the experimental steady-state test method and
verification of the combustion with conventional main injector case for different
fuel injector holes size (0.5, 0.8, 1, 1.5 and 2 mm) as shown in figure (5.1).
Measuring the centerline temperature along the combustor, outlet temperature
profile, emissions gases and capturing flame by camera, both tests were achieved
for the same air injection holes in primary, secondary and dilution holes geometry
of inline arrangements, number of holes, size and constant fuel pressure about 2
bar.
For main injector of six holes and 0.5mm of injector holes diameter and 1.4 g/s
of chocked fuel flow rate, results shows very short blue flame limited
approximately to the third quarter of the primary zone length as shown in figure
(5.2, a), due to the chocked fuel flow and high velocity of fuel stream with respect
to the air stream velocity which directed by the swirilar, provide strong
penetration of fuel flow through the air stream lead to perfect lean mixture, with
very dark secondary zone as shown in figure (5.2, b), constant low addle speed
approximately 4500 rpm due to completely absence of the yellow flame with
complete combustion, desirable pattern factor < 0.3 due to the flame shortening
which provide sufficient time and distance for temperature homogeneity and high
outlet temperature about 920 K due to low running speed which effect on dilution
holes effectiveness . Low power generation about 0.32 kW, high B. S. F. C about
17 kg/kWh. Difficult to start and low responsive to acceleration because of fuel
choking in main injector while starting by assisting of S. F. I. line.
For main injector of six holes and 0.8mm of injector holes diameter and 2.1
g/s of chocked fuel flow provide high velocity of fuel flow stream with respect to
the air stream velocity with strong penetration of fuel flow through the air stream
lead to perfect lean mixture, results shows short blue flame limited approximately
to the end of the primary zone as shown in figure: (5.3, a) and dark blue flame in
secondary zone as shown in figure (5.3, b), with low addle speed approximately
5500 rpm due to completely absence of the yellow flame with complete
combustion and ultimate maximum speed about 6800 rpm because of the
limitation in fuel injection flow rate due to the chocking in fuel flow stream at 2.1
g/s.
Desirable pattern factor < 0.3 due to the flame shortening which provide
sufficient time and distance for temperature homogeneity and high outlet
temperature about 900 K due low running speed which effect on dilution holes
effectiveness. Low power generation about 0.8 kW, high B. S. F. C. about13.35
kg/kWh. Difficult to start and low responsive to acceleration because of fuel
choking in main injector while starting by assisting of S.F.I line.
For main injector of six holes and 1mm of injector holes diameter with 3.2 g/s
of choked fuel flow, results shows long pale stringy yellow flame as shown in
figure (5.4 a and b), due to rich mixture in the reaction zone thereby for flameless
consideration required to increasing the injected air in the primary region through
the swirler and dome region by removing the snout and gradual open the cover
of 48 dome holes of 4mm of diameter and 45º of inclination angle with the axial
direction as shown in figure (5.5) to prepare lean mixture as possible.
Results shows intermediate length blue with yellow tip flame limited
approximately up to the total length of secondary zone as shown in figure (5.6, a
and b), due to the high velocity of the fuel flow with respect to the air velocity
which directed by the swirilar which provide good mixing and with high addle
speed approximately 6500 rpm due to effects of yellow flame at the low fuel mass
flow rate low speed of fuel stream which caused imperfect penetration of fuel
through the injected air for the addle speed of this case, and ultimate maximum
speed about 11200 rpm.
For Fully Opened Exhaust Get Valve (FOEV) running i.e. non-choked flow of
air main stream with max speed running turbine figure (5.7) shows the variation
of temperature distribution profile along the center line of the combustor for
different fuel mass flow rate, the outcome reveals that there is sharp decreasing
in temperature along the combustor due to focusing of flame in primary zone and
the main role of the primary holes cooling effects, also the effect of FOEV turbine
caused increasing in turbine speed (increasing in compressed air flow rate)
decreasing in equivalence ratio with respect to the injected fuel as shown in figure
(5.8).
For combustor performance figure (5.9) shows the variation of pattern factor
and average outlet temperature with equivalence ratio outcome reveals desirable
decreasing in pattern factor due to the flame shortening which provide enough
time and distance for temperature homogeneity and increase in average outlet
temperature due to increases of released heat with respect to the air flow rate.
Figure (5.10), shows the variation of combustion efficiency by different three
experimental correlations with equivalence ratio the results shows increasing in
combustion efficiency due to decreasing in emission gases CO and UHC as
High power generation about 3.43 kW, low B. S. F. C. about 3.49 kg/kWh, easy
to start high responsive to acceleration without S.F.I assisting. There is an
observed effect of dome holes by decreasing in yellow tip flame and convert to
perfect distributed pal blue flame thereby for the next experimental works, dome
holes will be fully open all ways.
For main injector of six holes and 1.5mm of injector holes diameter with fully
opened dome holes and 3.2 g/s of fuel flow rate results shows long yellow with
blue base flame limited approximately up to the total length of secondary zone
as shown in figure (5.12), a and b due to the low velocity of the fuel stream flow
with respect to the air stream velocity which directed by the swirilar which
provide bad mixing and high addle speed approximately 8500 rpm due to effect
of yellow flame at the low fuel mass flow rate low speed of fuel flow which
caused imperfect mixing and incomplete combustion for this case, and ultimate
maximum speed about 10000 rpm due to effects of yellow flame incomplete fuel
heating release and soot generation effects.
Desirable pattern factor < 0.3 and high average outlet temperature about 854 K
due to the decreasing the dillution air effectiveness because of decreasing in the
engine speed, low power generation about 0.82 kW, High B.S.F.C about
14.1kg/kWh, difficult to start and low responsive to acceleration.
Figue (5.13) shows the variation of temperature distribution profile along the
center line of the combustor, the outcome reveals that there is slow decreasing in
temperature along the combustor up to the dilution holes due to the effects of
slow speed of the turbine which caused decreasing in primary and secondary
holes effectiveness and high equivalence ratio.
For main injector of six holes and 2mm of injector holes diameter with fully
opened dome holes and for 0 to 3.2 g/s of fuel flow rate results shows very long
complete yellow flame approximately up to the total volume of combustor as
shown in figure (514, a and b ) due to the low velocity of the fuel stream flow
with respect to the air stream velocity which directed by the swirilar and high
equivalence ratio approximately rich flammability limit with bad mixing rate the
turbine running limited with high addle speed approximately 8500 rpm due to
effect of yellow flame at the low fuel mass flow rate low speed of fuel flow which
caused imperfect mixing and incomplete combustion for this case .
Low range of UHC about 60 ppmv, O2 = 0.16 %, high range of CO=0.0532 %
and high rang of soot generation inside the combustion chamber as shown in
figure (5.15), [30],[74]. Desirable pattern factor and high average outlet
temperature about 883 K due to the distributed long yellow flame, long flame
which provide temperature homogeneity.
Ultimate minimum power generation about 0.53 kW, High B. S. F. C. about
21.5 kg/kWh low combustion efficiency due to the generated soot, very difficult
in starting only by assisting of S. F. I. line. Figure (5.16) shows the variation of
temperature distribution profile along the combustor the outcome reveals that
there is slow decreasing in temperature along the combustor up to the dilution
holes due to the effects of slow speed of the turbine which caused decreasing in
primary and secondary holes effectiveness.
The main injector of six holes and diameter of 1mm is more efficient for the
flameless consideration for 3.2 g/s of fuel mass flow rate, where figures (5.17)
shows the effects of the fuel choking with main injector of 0.5 and 0.8 mm of
diameter caused low running speed low air flow rate and reduction in primary
and secondary holes effectiveness which caused increasing in outlet temperature,
while the same behavior with main injector of 1.5 and 2mm of holes diameter
which caused soot generation and high equivalence ratio[75] and [76], caused
low running speed with increasing in outlet temperature and pattern factor, while
for engine performance figure (5.18), shows the same behavior where there is
decreasing in specific fuel consumption and increasing in power generation up to
1mm of main injector holes diameter because of vanishes of choking effects and
then decreasing in power generation and increasing in specific fuel consumption
due to increasing in soot generation and appearing of yellow flame which

represents incomplete combustion.
5.2.2 Main injector optimization conclusions:
Main injector optimization for flameless consideration (high efficient
combustion) for 3.2g/s of fuel flow rate results shows:
1- High level of fuel distribution perfection through the swirled air must be
tack in to the account by increasing of fuel penetration through the injected
air stream.
2- Point fuel injection play an important role in yellow flame generation
(combustion behavior) in fast oxidation reaction which had bad effects on
the starting and the acceleration responsivety in gas turbine running.
3- For the above conclusions the multi-port fuel injection (volumetric
oxidation reaction) required to be study.
5.3 Main fuel injection with secondary radial inward 90º fuel injection
optimization:
For volumetric reaction optimization required to disperse the point injected fuel
into volumetric form as possible, in the present work radial in line and inward
in 90º of fuel injection port will be used with eight port in each row and 0.8 mm
diameter of each port with injection depth of 10 mm as shown in figure (5.19).
5.3.1 Characteristics of Secondary radial inward 90º fuel injection in

primary zone (1RPDFI):
For main injector of six holes and 1mm injector holes diameter and eight holes
with 0.8mm diameter of secondary line of fuel injection located in primary zone
approximately at the tip edge of the dome as shown in figure (5.20), for 3.6 g/s
of fuel mass flow rate, results shows long bright yellow flame approximately
up to the total length of secondary zone as shown in figure (5.21, a and b ) for the
yellow tip flame generated form the main fuel injector which effect on the
reaction of the secondary fuel injected because of decreasing of O2 shown in
figure (5.22) for numerical results caused yellow flame in all the primary zone
produce low heat release at the expense of B. S. F. C. low addle speed
approximately 5500 rpm, high B. S. F. C. =12 kg/kWh for this case and ultimate
maximum speed about 15000 RPM, because of soot generation low range of UHC
= 80 ppmv, O2= 0.165% and high range of CO = 0.052% and CO2= 0.0583%.
For main injector of six holes and 0.5mm of injector holes diameter and eight
holes with 0.8mm diameter of secondary line of fuel injection located in primary
zone approximately at the tip edge of the dome as shown in figure (5.20) for 3.2
g/s of total fuel flow rate, results shows short homogeneous yellow flame
approximately up to the total length of primary and secondary one zone as shown
in figure (5.23, a and b ) for F2/F1 = 5 due to location of the flame in the strong
recirculation region (recirculation generated by combined effects of the
combustion, air and fuel flow) as shown in figure (5.24) caused recirculation of
the burned fuel more than required quantity caused rich fuel region low range of
oxidizer as shown in numerical results figure (5 .22).
For F2= 3.2g/s and close the main line of fuel injection F1=0 i.e. strong flame
holding, results reveals soot generation as shown in figure 5.24 c, short pal yellow
flame reach the end of the primary zone only, with dark secondary zone as shown
in figure (5.25) a and b. figure (5.26) shows slow decreasing in temperature along
the center line of the combustor for compressor working pressure of 70 cm H 2O
and sharp decreasing in temperature distribution profile along the combustor for
the compressor outlet pressure 136 cm H2O because complete the reaction in
primary zone due to the strong effectiveness of the primary, secondary and
dilution holes to cooling the products by the increased mass flow rate of the air.
For combustor performance figure (5.27) shows the variation of pattern factor
and average outlet temperature with equivalence ratio and fuel mass flow rate
ratio outcomes reveals desirable and constant pattern factor due to the flame
shortening which provide enough time and distance for temperature homogeneity
and decreasing in average outlet temperature due to the choking effects of main
fuel line[77].
Figure (5.28), shows the variation of combustion efficiency with equivalence

ratio and fuel mass flow rate ratio the results shows decreasing in combustion
efficiency due to increasing in emission gases CO and UHC as shown in figure
(5.29), low range of power and B. S. F. C. as shown in figure (5.30).
For main injector of 24 holes and 0.5mm of injector holes diameter and eight
holes with 0.8mm diameter of secondary line of fuel injection located in primary
zone approximately above of the tip edge of the primary holes in about 7mm
shown in figure (5.31), case (1RPHFI) for 3.2 g/s max fuel flow rate for FOEV
running results shows distributed spherical blow flame bounded by yellow flam
in primary zone with pal yellow flame in secondary zone as shown in figure (5.32,
a and b), there is strong effect of the main injector on the second line of injection
and vice versa, the flame convert to yellow flame continually as increasing in
main line activation because of the exhaustion of the oxidizer in reaction zone
there for the flame convert to yellow fame as increasing in equivalence ratio as
shown in figure (5.33), strong flame holding region because of the location of the
S.F.I in recirculation zone.
Figure (5.34) shows high decreasing in temperature distribution profile along
the combustor because complete the reaction in primary and the secondary zone.
for combustor performance figure (5.35) shows the variation of pattern factor and
average outlet temperature with equivalence ratio and fuel mass flow rate ratio
outcomes reveals desirable increasing in pattern factor after fuel choking region
2.1 g/s due to the flame shortening which provide enough time and distance for
temperature homogeneity and approximately constant average outlet
temperature. Figure (5.36), shows the variation of combustion efficiency, results
shows decreasing in combustion efficiency after fuel choking region due to
increasing in emission gases CO and UHC as shown in figure (5.37), decreasing
in power generation and increasing in B. S. F. C. after fuel choking region due to
decreasing in fuel heat generation by increasing in secondary fuel line activation
as shown in figure (5.38). Addle speed approximately 5500 rpm for this case and
ultimate maximum speed about 12800 rpm. Easy to start only with S.F.I
Conclusion: Characteristic of Secondary radial inward flow 90º fuel injection in
primary zone.
1- Easy to start with S. F. I.
2- Strong flame holding in this zone.
3- Strong alternative effect between primary and secondary fuel injection.
4- For oxidation reaction perfection the secondary port of fuel injection must
be bounded or isolated with fresh air stream injection holes.
5.3.2 Characteristic of Secondary radial inward flow 90º fuel injection in
secondary zone with fuel injection points bounded by air holes (2RSFI):
For main injector of six holes and 1mm of injector holes diameter and sixteen
holes with 0.8mm diameter of secondary line of fuel injection divided into two
sub line located in secondary zone bounded by air holes of area extracted from
the main primary and secondary holes area where the fuel injector located
between two holes in zigzag form as shown in figure (5.39) with 3.2 g/s of max
fuel flow rate, results shows volumetric distributed oscillated blue flame
(colorless considerations) approximately up to the total length of secondary zone
as shown in figure 5.40, a, b produce low addle speed approximately 5500 rpm,
for this case and ultimate maximum speed about 11000 rpm.
Figure (5.41) shows slow decreasing and volumetric uniformity in temperature
distribution profile along the combustor because complete the reaction in primary
and the secondary zone. For combustor performance figure (5.42) shows
undesirable increasing in pattern factor due flow vortex core region effects on
accumulation of hotspot. Figure (5.43), shows decreasing in combustion
efficiency due to increasing in emission gases UHC and CO as shown in figure
(5.44) due to combined effects of dispersed the fuel injection more than
requirement condition caused less than lean flammability limit regions and the
fuel in this region will mixed with cooled air which caused cool quenching and
increasing in UHC and CO emissions, [75], [78] and[79], decreasing in power

generation and increasing in B. S. F. C. due to decreasing in fuel heat generation
by increasing in secondary fuel line activation as shown in figure (5.45).
While when activation the exhaust gases recirculation (EGR) flow up to sense in
air preheating effects in about 20% of main air to achieve preheating level in
about 75 Cº, results shows long pal dark blue continues flame as shown in Fig:
(5-46, a,b ) produce low addle speed approximately 5500 rpm and ultimate
maximum speed about 10800 rpm. Figure (5.47) shows slow decreasing in
temperature distribution profile along the combustor because complete the
reaction in primary and the secondary zone.
For combustor performance figure (5.48) shows desirable increasing in pattern
factor due to air preheating effects on temperature homogeneity. Figure (5.49),
shows decreasing in combustion efficiency due to increasing in emission gases
UHC and CO as shown in figure (5.50) due to combined effects of dispersed the
fuel injection more than requirement condition caused less than lean flammability
limit regions which caused increasing in UHC and CO, and decreasing in power
5.3.3 Optimization of Secondary radial fuel injection in secondary and
dilution zone with fuel injection points bounded by air holes (2RSDFI):
For main injector with six holes and 1mm injector holes diameter and 16 holes
with 0.8mm diameter of secondary line of fuel injection divided into two sub line
located in secondary and dilution zone bounded by air holes extracted from the
main primary and secondary holes area where the fuel injector located between
two holes in zigzag form as shown in figure (5.52) for 3.2 g/s of fuel flow, results
shows long pal blue oscillated flame as shown in figure (5.53, a and b ) produce
low addle speed approximately 5500 rpm and ultimate maximum speed about
10500 rpm. Figure (5.54) shows slow decreasing in temperature distribution
profile along the combustor because complete the reaction in primary, secondary
and dilution zone caused dispersed and volumetric homogeneous flame with
constant pattern factor as shown in figure (5.55), [37].
Figure (5.56), shows decreasing in combustion efficiency due to increasing in
emission gases UHC and CO as shown in figure (5.57) due to combined effects
of dispersed the fuel injection more than requirement condition caused less than
lean flammability limit regions and the fuel in this region will mixed with cooled
air which caused cool quenching and elongation of reaction zone caused
incomplete combustion and increasing in UHC and CO, decreasing in power
While when activation of EGR flow in about 20% of main air and preheating the
air stream p to 70 Cº, results shows long pal dark blue continues flame as shown
in figure (5.59, a and b ) produce low addle speed approximately 5000 rpm and
ultimate maximum speed about 10800 rpm. Figure (5.60) shows high uniformity
in temperature distribution profile along the combustor because complete the
reaction in the primary, secondary and dilution zone. For combustor performance
figure (5.61) shows desirable increasing in pattern factor due to the flame
homogeneity. Figure (5.62), shows high decreasing in combustion efficiency due
to increasing in emission gases UHC and CO as shown in figure (5.63) due to
combined effects of dispersed the fuel injection more than requirement condition
caused less than lean flammability limit regions and elongation of the flame more
than the reaction region caused increasing in UHC, decreasing in power
Conclusion: Characteristic of Secondary radial inward flow 90º fuel injection in
secondary zone with fuel injection points bounded by air holes:
1- Easy to start and low responsive to acceleration.
2- Week for flame holding region unreliable running with S.F.I alone in this
region.
3- There isn’t alternative effects between main and secondary line of fuel
injection.
4- For volumetric reaction optimization for distributed fuel injection must be
designed to provide continues flame.
5.3.4 Optimization of Secondary radial fuel injection in secondary zone 1 cm
injection depth (1RSFI):
Distributed fuel injection must provide continues flame with the main injector
which responsible for flame holding and combustion stability and also continues
flame with each port of secondary fuel injector, to achieve all the previous
conclusions for combustor secondary fuel injection design, radial inward 90º with
eight port of secondary fuel injector isolated by fresh air in the wake region of the
primary air hole penetration will be optimize with main injector of different holes
size.
For main injector of six holes and 2mm injector holes diameter holes and eight
holes with 0.8mm diameter of diameter of secondary line of fuel injection located
in secondary zone where the fuel injector located below the primary holes in 1
cm as shown in figure (5.65), with 3.2 g/s max flow of fuel results shows long
yellow continues flame in primary and secondary zone as shown in figure (5.66,
a, b, d and e ) convert continually to pal dark yellow flame as increasing in
effective of secondary line of fuel injection at the expense of the main line of fuel,
so as increasing in fuel injection more than 3.2 g/s and increasing in turbine speed
increasing in air mass flow rate caused converting the flam to distributed blue
flam with yellow tip flam as shown in figure (5.66, c and f) for primary and
secondary zone respectively the starting and acceleration of engine speed for this
case is done by the S. F. I. produce low addle speed approximately 6000 rpm with
complete combustion, and ultimate maximum speed about 23000 rpm with
appearing the unstable combustion in 18000 rpm associated with flame blow of
case for FOEV running turbine which required to closed the dome holes and
gradually closed the exhaust get valve.
For loaded turbine figure (5.67) shows increasing in temperature in the

secondary zone due to the effects of the secondary line of fuel injection and then
decreasing in temperature along the combustor due to dilution effects.
factor due to the elimination of long yellow flame generated by main injector and
decreasing in average outlet temperature due to increasing in air mass flow
rate[38]. Figure (5.69), shows decreasing in combustion efficiency due to
increasing in UHC and CO emissions with the absence of soot generation effect
on combustion efficiency as shown in figure (5.70).
Figure (5.71) shows variation of power and B. S. F. C. results shows sharp
decreasing in B. S. F. C. as increasing in secondary line of fuel injection activation
due decreasing in soot generation (increasing in fuel heat release ) caused
increasing in generated power. For low speed there is large effect of primary fuel
injection on S.F.I and this effect vanish as increasing in turbine speed.
For main injector of six holes and 1.5mm of injector holes diameter and eight
holes with 0.8mm diameter of secondary line of fuel injection located in
secondary zone where the fuel injector located below the primary holes in 1 cm
as shown in figure (5.65) for 3.2 g/s max flow of fuel results shows long pal
yellow continues flame in primary and secondary zone as shown in figure (5.72,
a, b, d and e ) convert continually to pal yellow mixed with blue flame as
increasing in effective of secondary line of fuel injection at the expense of the
main line of fuel, so as increasing in fuel injection more than 3.2 g/s and
increasing in turbine speed increasing in air mass flow rate caused converting the
flam to distributed blue flam as shown in figure (5.72 c and f) for primary and
secondary zone respectively the starting of engine is done by secondary line of
fuel injection and high responsive acceleration of engine speed for this case is
done by secondary line of fuel injection produce low addle speed approximately
5500 rpm with complete combustion and ultimate maximum speed about 19000
rpm with appearing the flame blow of in 16000 rpm.
For loaded turbine figure (5.73) shows the variation of temperature distribution
profile along the combustor the outcome reveals that there is increasing in
temperature in the secondary zone due to the effects of the secondary line of fuel
injection up to the dilution zone and there is sharp decreasing in temperature due
to increasing in engine speed due to complete combustion and increasing in
dilution effectiveness.
factor due to the elongation of reaction zone and decreasing in average outlet
temperature due to increasing in air mass flow rate. Figure (5.75), shows
decreasing in combustion efficiency due to increasing in UHC and CO emissions
with the absence of soot generation effect on combustion efficiency, as shown in
figure (5.76).
Figure (5.77) shows variation of power and B. S. F. C. results shows sharp
decreasing in B. S. F. C. as increasing in secondary line of fuel injection activation
due decreasing in soot generation (increasing in fuel heat release ) caused
increasing in generated power.
For main injector of six holes and 1mm of injectors holes diameter and eight
holes with 0.8mm diameter of secondary line of fuel injection located in
as shown in figure (5.65) results shows long pal blue continues flame (flameless
considerations) as shown in figure (5.78, a and b ) produce low addle speed
approximately 5000 rpm with complete combustion and ultimate maximum speed
about 13000 rpm, easy to start and accelerated the engine by both the primary and
secondary fuel line.
For loaded turbine figures (5.79, 5.80 and 5.81) shows the variation of
temperature distribution profile along the combustor for different fuel mass flow
rate ratio and equivalence ratio, the outcome reveals that there is increasing in
injection at the expense of the primary zone and then decreasing in temperature
along the combustor while the overall temperature gradient decrease as

decreasing in compressor pressure 100 cm H2O to loaded turbine about 60 cm
H2O due to increasing in equivalence ratio.
For combustor performance figures (5.82, 5.83 and 5.84) shows the variation
of pattern factor and average outlet temperature with the fuel mass flow rate ratio
and equivalence ratio the outcome reveals desirable increasing in pattern factor
for each running case of compressors pressure while the overall gradient in
pattern factor decrease with the decreasing in compressor pressure due to the
elongation of reaction zone and decreasing in effectiveness of penetration
cooling effects of all zones holes caused temperature homogeneity with
approximately constant average outlet temperature.
Figures (5.85, 5.86 and 5.87) shows the variation of combustion efficiency where
results shows decreasing in combustion efficiency for 100 cm H2O head of
compressor outlet pressure due to increasing in UHC and CO emissions as shown
in figure (5.88) because of the high effectiveness of cooling holes, the cooled
mixture caused cool quenching and incomplete combustion for the distributed
fuel while this effect decrease as decreasing in pressure 80 cm H2O to loaded
turbine 60 cm H2O because of increasing in equivalence ratio caused continues
flame caused increasing in efficiency and decreasing in emission gases CO and
UHC as shown in figures (5.89 and 5.90).
Figures (5.91, 5.92 and 5.93) shows variation of power and B. S. F. C. results
shows for constant outlet power for each case of compressor pressure decreasing
in B. S. F. C. as increasing in secondary line of fuel injection activation for each
case due to increasing in fuel energy release (complete combustion) and
increasing in B. S. F. C. as decreasing in pressure.
With activation the EGR flow rate to preheat the air up to 50 Cº for 95cm H2O
and 75Cº for 80 cm H2O head of compressor pressure, results shows long pal dark
blue continues flame (flameless considerations) as shown in figure (5.94, a and
b) produce low addle speed approximately 5000 rpm with complete combustion
and ultimate maximum speed about 13000 rpm, easy to start and accelerated the
engine by both the primary and secondary fuel line.
For loaded turbine and with preheated air effects figures (5.95 and 5.96) shows
the variation of temperature distribution profile along the combustor for different
fuel mass flow rate ratio, the outcome reveals that there is increasing in
injection at the expense of the primary zone and then decreasing in temperature
along the combustor while the overall temperature gradient increase as decreasing
in compressor pressure 95 cm H2O to 80 cm H2O due to increasing in equivalence
ratio and decreasing in dilution effects, also the overall combustor temperature of
the combustor rise about 80 to100 Cº when EGR ratio increase 20% to 25% .
For combustor performance figures (5.97 and 5.98) shows desirable increasing
in pattern factor for each running case of compressors pressure while the overall
gradient in pattern factor increase with the increasing in EGR ratio 20% to 25%
and decreasing in compressor pressure due to the elongation of reaction zone and
decreasing in effectiveness of penetration cooling effects of all zones holes
caused temperature homogeneity, approximately constant average outlet
temperature.
Figures (5.99 and 5.100) shows increasing in combustion efficiency for each
cases of 95 and 80 cm H2O head of compressor outlet pressure due to decreasing
in UHC and CO emissions figures (5.101 and 5.102) because of increasing in
combustor overall temperature and increasing of inlet air temperature the low
effectiveness of cooling holes with the hot air caused over pass of the thermal sill
limits for air preheating temperature which about 340 K which caused complete
combustion for the distributed fuel while this effect increase as decreasing in
pressure 80 cm H2O because of increasing in equivalence ratio caused continues
flame caused more increasing in efficiency and more decreasing in emission
gases CO and UHC.
Figures (5.103 and 5.104) shows variation of power and B. S. F. C. results

in B. S. F. C. as increasing in secondary line of fuel injection activation for each
increasing in B. S. F. C. as decreasing in pressure and increasing in EGR ratio
20% to 25%.
More revelation of S. F. I. effects required turbine running with preheating
effects and variable compressor pressure for each fuel mass flow rate ratio,
enhancement effects results shows long pal dark blue continues flame (flameless
considerations) as shown in figure (5.94, a and b).
For partial loaded turbine and with EGR ratio of 8% to 13% and air preheating
rang 40 to 50Cº figure (5.105) shows there is slow decreasing in temperature in
the secondary zone due to the effects of the secondary line of fuel injection at the
expense of the primary zone and then decreasing in temperature along the
combustor after dilution effects.
factor for each running case and approximately constant average outlet
temperature. Figure (5.107) shows increasing in combustion efficiency for each
cases of running due to decreasing in UHC and CO emissions figure (5.108)
because of increasing in combustor overall temperature and absence of cool
quenching effects. Figure (5.109) shows variation of power and B. S. F. C. results
shows increasing in outlet power and decreasing in B. S. F. C. with the increasing
of pressure and increasing if S.F.I activation due to increasing in fuel energy
release (complete combustion).
5.3.5 Optimization of Secondary radial fuel injection in secondary zone 2.5
cm injection depth (1RSFI):
For main injector of six holes and 1mm injectors holes diameter and eight holes
with 0.8mm of hole diameter of secondary line of fuel injection located in
and 2.5 cm depth inward to center of combustor as shown in figure (5.110),

injector located in depth 2.5 cm because the CO generation convert
approximately from core region to the near the wall as shown in numerical results
figure (5.111) for this case results shows long pal blue continues flame (flameless
considerations) as shown in figure (5.112, a and b ) produce low addle speed
approximately 5500 rpm and ultimate maximum speed about 12500 rpm, easy to
start and accelerated the engine by both the primary and secondary fuel line.
For loaded turbine, figures (5.113 and 5.114) shows the variation of temperature
distribution profile along the center line of the combustor the outcome reveals
that there is high increasing in temperature in the secondary zone due to the
effects of the secondary line of fuel injection at the expense of the primary zone
due to generation of the reaction zone in the flow vortex core region [80] and then
decreasing in temperature along the combustor after dilutions effects while the
overall temperature gradient increase as decreasing in compressor pressure 100
cm H2O to loaded turbine 70 cm H2O.
For combustor performance figures (5.115 and 5.116) desirable increasing in
pattern factor for each running case of compressors pressure while the overall
gradient in pattern factor decrease with the decreasing in compressor pressure due
to the elongation of reaction zone and decreasing in effectiveness of penetration
cooling effects of all zones holes because the reaction enter the flow vortex core
region caused temperature homogeneity with approximately constant average
outlet temperature[81]. Figures (5.117 and 5.118) shows increasing in
combustion efficiency for 100 to 70 cm H2O head of compressor outlet pressure
due to decreasing in UHC and more decreasing in CO emissions as shown in
figures (5.119 and 5.120) because of decreasing in the main injector generated
CO effects also the temperature focusing axial stream core region near the center
line of the combustor caused decreasing in the CO emissions more than last
works.
Figures (5.121 and 5.122) shows variation of power and B. S. F. C. results

in B. S. F. C as increasing in secondary line of fuel injection activation for each
increasing in B. S. F. C. as decreasing in pressure.
For loaded turbine and with EGR effects and air preheating up to 65Cº, figure
(5.123) shows the variation of temperature distribution profile along the center
line of the combustor the outcome reveals that there is increasing in temperature
in the secondary zone due to the effects of the secondary line of fuel injection at
the expense of the primary zone and then decreasing in temperature along the
combustor.
factor for each running case of compressors pressure while the overall gradient in
pattern factor decrease with the decreasing in compressor pressure due to the
elongation of reaction zone and decreasing in effectiveness of penetration
cooling effects of all zones holes caused temperature homogeneity,
approximately constant average outlet temperature. Figure (5.125) shows
increasing in combustion efficiency for 95 cm H2O head of compressor outlet
pressure due to decreasing in UHC and CO emissions figure (5.126) because of
the temperature focusing near the center line of the combustor caused decreasing
in the CO emissions more than last works and after over pass of the thermal sill
limits for air preheating temperature which about 340 K.
Figure (5.127) shows variation of power and B. S. F. C. results shows for
constant outlet power for each case of compressor pressure decreasing in B. S. F.
C. as increasing in secondary line of fuel injection activation for each case due to
increasing in fuel energy release (complete combustion) and increasing in B. S.
F. C. as decreasing in pressure.
5.4 CFD results:

Numerical simulation were performed and compared with the experimentally
obtained flow field to help develop an understanding of the flow field inside the
combustor for methane fuel and different model of fuel injection configuration.
The main goal of numerical was to predict the effect of the volumetric distribution
of injected fuel on the emissions, temperature distribution profile inside the
combustor in each cases. Fuel allowed to inter the combustor by two line to
produce volumetric reaction as possible as show in figure (5.128).
Figure (5.129), compared the predicted and measured temperature profile along
the center line of the combustor, for case (2RSFI).for which re in a good
agreement. Moreover in the flame region the measured temperature is observed
to be lower than the predicted one.
Figure (5.130) demonstrate the temperature contour at the outlet section of the
combustor for the case (2RSFI) with difference fuel mass flow ratio for total fuel
mass flow rate of 0.006 kg/s and air flow rate 0.34 kg/s, results shows that
decreasing in temperature gradient deference 320K to 160 K with the increasing
of F2/F1 from 0 to 1.
Figure (5.131) demonstrate the temperature contour inside the combustor for
the case (2RSFI) with difference fuel mass flow ratio on plane (A), for total fuel
mass flow rate of 6 g/s and air flow rate 0.34 kg/s, results shows that the maximum
the maximum temperature is formed near the fuel injection region. The
temperature near the injector for all cases are observed to be higher than drop
down stream (exhaust region) because the dilution effects of primary, secondary
and dilution holes. However the hot spot reduce as increasing in activation of
S.F.I.
Figure (5.132) demonstrates the mass fraction of NO outside the combustor for
case (2RSFI) for total fuel mass flow rate of 4 g/s and air flow rate about 0.3 kg/s
results reveals that the NO mass fractions decrease as activation of secondary line
of fuel injection due to decreasing in hot spot area where NO generation bounded
with temperature 1700-2400K [lefebvre], figure (5.133) shows the increasing in

effectiveness percentage of volumetric reaction (hot spot reduction) with the
increasing of activation of S.F.I line, figure (5.134) shows the difference in NO
increasing for cases F2/F1=0 and F2/F1=1with the increasing of equivalence ratio
results shows increasing in difference as increasing in equivalence ratio. Figure
(5.135) a demonstrates the mass fraction of NO in volumetric rendering inside
the combustor for cases (2RSFI) results reveals that the NO mass fractions
decrease as activation of secondary line of fuel injection due to decreasing in hot
spot area .
Figure (5.136) demonstrates the O2 mass fraction contours inside the
combustor for cases (2RSFI) for cases F2/F1=0 and F2/F1=1 in plane (A). The O2
mass fraction is low in the dome region as increasing in activation of S. L. I.
which prepare O2 concentration for the fast oxidation reaction and this in contrary
CO2 contours as shown in figure (5.137)
Figure (5.138) demonstrates the axial velocity distribution profile inside the
combustor with 6 g/s of fuel flow rate on plane (A) results reveals increasing in
accumulation of reverse flow region in recirculation zone and increasing in
normal axial flow region as activation of secondary line of fuel injection.
2 mm 1.5 mm 1 mm 0.8 mm 0.5 mm
Figure: 5.1 Swirler with the variable Main injector holes size (MFI).
a.Pz b.Sz
Figure (5.2, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main injector of
six holes and 0.5 mm holes diameter (MFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.33 a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main injector of
six holes and 0.8 mm holes diameter (MFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.4 a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for formain injector
of six holes and 1 mm holes diameter (MFI).
45º
b- Fully closed
a- Fully opened
dome holes
dome holes
Figure (5.5) Dome holes and control system.

a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.6 a and b) Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for formain injector of
six holes and 1 mm holes diameter (MFI).
FT=3.26 g/s FT= 3 g/s FT=2.7 g/s FT=2.4 g/s FT= 2.1 g/s
1300
1200
Temperature K
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.7), Temperature distribution profile along the center line of the combustor for
FOEV running turbine (MFI).
RPM Ф
14000 0.185
12000 0.18
0.175
10000
0.17
RPM
8000
0.165
Ф
6000
0.16
4000
0.155
2000 0.15
0 0.145
2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.26
Total fuel mass flow rate g/s
Figure (5.8), Turbine rotational speed and equivalence ratio for different total fuel mass flow
rate and FOEV turbine (MFI).
pattern factor Avarage T out K

1200
0.14
1100
0.12
1000
0.1
Pattern factor
Temperature K
900
0.08
800
0.06
0.04 700
0.02 600
0 500
0.1606 0.1625 0.1660 0.1728 0.1819
Ф
Figure (5.9), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature with equivalence ratio for FOEV
running turbine (MFI).
eff
ηc1 effηc2 effηc3
c1 c2 c3
0.99900
0.99850
0.99800
ηc 0.99750
0.99700
0.99650
0.99600
0.99550
0.1606 0.1625 0.1660 0.1728 0.1819
Figure (5.10), Combustion efficiency with equivalence ratio for FOEV running turbine
(MFI).
O2 CO2 CO UHC
0.2 70
0.18
60
0.16
0.14 50
CO2, CO, O2
0.12
UHC ppm
40
0.1
30
0.08
0.06 20
0.04
10
0.02
0 0
0.1606 0.1625 0.1660 0.1728 0.1819
Ф
Figure (5.11) Emission gases with equivalence ratio for FOEV running turbine (MFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.12 a and b), Flame in primary zone and secondary zone respectively for 1.5 mm
main injector holes diameter (MFI).
1100
1050
1000
Temperature k
950
900
850
800
750
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.13), Temperature distribution profile along the center line of the combustion
chamber for mai injector of six holes and 1.5 mm of diameter (MFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.14 a and b) Flame in primary zone and secondary zone respectively for 2 mm main
injector holes diameter with FOEV running turbine (MFI).
a-Swirler b-Liner
Figure (5.15, a and b), Generated soot inside the combustion chamber for 2 mm main
injector holes diameter for F1= 3.2 g/s (MFI).
1100
1050
1000
Temperature k
950
900
850
800
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.16), Temperature distribution profile along the center ine of the combustion
chamber for main injector of six holes and 2mm of diameter (MFI).
pattern factor T out ave

0.14 950
0.12 900
0.1
850 T out ave K
pattern factor
0.08
800
0.06
Fuel choking, Long flame 750

0.04 Low speed effects
effects
0.02 700
0 650
0.5 0.8 1 1.5 2
Main injector holes size mm
Figure (5.17), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature with the main injector holes size
for FOEV running case (MFI).
S.F.C power
25 4
3.5
20
3
power kW
B.S.F.C kg/kWh
2.5
15
10
Fuel choking,
low speed 1.5
effects
Yellow flame
affects
1
5
0.5
0 0
0.5 0.8 1 1.5 2
Main injector holes size mm
Figure (5.18), S.F.C. and outlet power with the main injector holes size for FOEV running
case (MFI).
13mm
0.8mm
Figure (5.19), Detail of the secondary line radial inward 90º of fuel injection.
Secondary
line of fuel
injection
Figure (5.20), S. F. I. in primary zone near dome (RPDFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.21, a and b), Flame in primary zone and secondary zone respectively for six holes
1 mm main injector and 8 with 0.8 mm S. F. I. near dome for F2/F1 = 4.5 (RPDFI).
Figure (5.22), O2 concentration contour for S.F.I. near dome (RPDFI).

a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.23, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for six holes 0.5
mm main injector and 8 with 0.8 mm, S. F. I. near dome for F2/F1 = 5,(RPDFI).
a b
High recirculation zone
Figure (5.24), velocity vector in primary region a- F2/F1=1, b- F2/F1=0 for Ft = 4g/s of fuel
and c- photograf for soot generation, (RPDFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.25, a and b,) Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for six holes 0.5
mm main injector and 8 with 0.8 mm S. F. I. near dome for F2=3.2 g/s and F1=0, (RPDFI).
F2=3.2 g/s F1= 0 g/s F2/F1=5 F2/F1=3.5 F2/F1=0

1300
1200 Main injector choking effects
working pressure 70 cm H2O
1100
Temperature K
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
0 4 12.5 21 29 38
Axial distance cm
chamber for S.F.I near dome for compressor outlet pressure 138 cm H2O, (RPDFI).
T out averag K pattern factor
Ф
0.123 0.126 0.128 0.137
1000 0.25
950
900 0.2
Average outlet temp K
Pattern factor
850
800 0.15
750
700 0.1
650
600 0.05
550
500 0
0.00 3.54 5.00 3,200.00
F =3.2
2
F2/F1 F1=0
Fig: 5.27, variation of pattern factor and average outlet temperature with fuel mass flow rate
ratio and equivalence ratio for S.F.I near dome.(RPDFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.123 0.126 Φ 0.128 0.137
0.9980
0.9970
0.9960
ηc
0.9950
0.9940
0.9930
0.9920
0.9910
0.0 3.5 5.0 3,200.0
F =3.2
2
F1=0
F2/F1
Figure (5.28), Combustion efficiency with fuel mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio for
S.F.I near dome, (RPDFI).
UHC CO2 CO O2
0.123 0.126 Φ 0.128 0.137

60 0.2
0.18
50
0.16
UHC ppmv
0.14
O2 %, CO2 %, CO %
40
0.12
30 0.1
0.08
20
0.06
0.04
10
0.02
0 0
0.0 3.5 5.0 3,200.0
F2=3.2
F2/F1 F1=0
Figure (5.29), Emission gases with fuel mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio for S.F.I
near dome, (RPDFI).
power kw S.F.C kg/kwh

Ф
0.123 0.126 0.128 0.137
6.00 3.00
2.80
5.00
2.60 S.F.C. kg/kWh
2.40
power kW
4.00
2.20
3.00 2.00
1.80
2.00
1.60
1.40
1.00
1.20
0.00 1.00
0.00 3.54 5.00 3,200.00
F2=3.2
F2/F1 F1=0
Figure (5.30), Power and S.F.C. with fuel lines mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio for
S.F.I. near dome, (RPDFI).
7 mm
Figure (5.31), S. F. I. in primary zone near primary holes, (1RPHFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.32, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone for main injector of 24 holes 0.5
mm diameter and S. F. I. of eight with 0.8 mm of diameter with F2=2.8 g/s and F1=0 /s,
(1RPHFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.33, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone, loaded turbine (high
equivalence ratio), (1RPHFI).
F2/F1=0 F2/F1=0.6 F2/F1=1 F2/F1=1.28
1250
1150
1050
Temperature k
950
850
750
650
550
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
chamber for S. F. I. near primary holes, (1RPHFI).
pattern factor T out ave k
0.132 0.136
Ф 0.141 0.145
0.4 850
0.35 800

0.3
Pattern factor
750
0.25
700
0.2
650
0.15
600
0.1
0.05 550
0 500
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.35), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S.F.I. near primary holes,
(1RPHFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

Φ
0.127 0.124 0.129 0.148
0.998
0.997
0.996
0.995
ηc
0.994
0.993
0.992
0.991
0.99
0.989
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.36), Combustion efficiency for S.F.I near primary holes, (1RPHFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.127 0.124 Ф 0.129 0.148

0.2 120
0.18
100
0.16
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.14
UHC ppmv
80
0.12
0.1 60
0.08
40
0.06
0.04
20
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.37), Emission gases for S.F.I near primary holes, (1RPHFI).
power kw S.F.C
Ф
0.127 0.124 0.129 0.148
5 4.5
4.5 4
S.F.C. kg/kWh
4 3.5
3.5
3
Power kW
3
2.5
2.5
2
2
1.5
1.5
1 1
Main injector
0.5 Choking effect 0.5
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.38), Power and B. S. F. C. for S.F.I near primary holes, (1RPHFI).
40 mm
Figure (5.39), Double row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (2RSFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.40, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main injector of
six holes and 1 mm of diameter , (2RSFI).
F2/F1 =0 g/s F2/F1= 0.6 g/s

F2/F1= 1 g/s F2/F1=1.2 g/s
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
chamber, (2RSFI).
T out ave pattern factor

0.167 0.185 Ф 0.191 0.204
1000 0.18
950 0.16
900 0.14
850
0.12
Pattern factor
800
0.1
750
0.08
700
0.06
650
600 0.04
550 0.02
500 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.42), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature, (2RSFI).

ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

Ф
0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20
0.997
0.996
0.995
ηc 0.994
0.993
0.992
0.991
0.99
0.989
0.988
0.987
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.43), Combustion efficiency, (2RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.17 0.18 Ф 0.19 0.20
0.2 140
0.18
120
0.16
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
UHC ppmv
0.14 100
0.12
80
0.1
60
0.08
0.06 40
0.04
20
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.44), Emission gases, (2RSFI).

S.F.C power kw
0.17 0.18 Ф 0.19 0.20

8.0 3.5
7.0
3.0
power kW
S.F.C kg/kWh
6.0
2.5
5.0
2.0
4.0
1.5
3.0
2.0 1.0
0.0 0.6 1.0 1.3
F2/F1
Figure (5.45), Power and B. S. F. C. for (2RSFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.46, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for S. F. I. in
seconday zone with EGR and preheated air effects, (2RSFI).
F2/F1 =0 g/s F2/F1= 0.6 g/s F2/F1= 1 g/s F2/F1=1.2 g/s
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.47), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber with EGR and
preheated air effects, (2RSFI).

0.181 0.200 Ф 0.207 0.220
950 0.18
900 0.16
850 0.14
Pattern factor
800 0.12
750 0.1
700 0.08
650 0.06
600 0.04
550 0.02
500 0
0.0 0.6 1.0 1.3
F2/F1
Figure (5.48), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature with EGR and preheated air
effects for, (2RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

Ф
0.18 0.20 0.21 0.22
0.995
0.994
0.993
0.992
ηc 0.991
0.99
0.989
0.988
0.987
0.986
0.985
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.49), Combustion efficiency with EGR and preheated air effects for, (2RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.18 0.20
Ф 0.21 0.22
0.2 200
0.18 180
0.16 160
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
UHC ppmv
0.14 140
0.12 120
0.1 100
0.08 80
0.06 60
0.04 40
0.02 20
0 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.50), Emission gases with EGR and preheated air effects for, (2RSFI).
S.F.C power kw
Ф
0.18 0.20 0.21 0.22
8.0 3.5
7.0
3.0
power kW
S.F.C kg/kWh
6.0
2.5
5.0
2.0
4.0
1.5
3.0
2.0 1.0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.51), Power and S. F. C. with fuel lines mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio,
with EGR and preheated air effects (2RSFI).
40 mm
Figure (5.52), Double row of S. F. I. in secondary and dilution zone, (2RSDFI).

a-Pz b-Pz
Figure (5.53, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for (2RSDFI).
F2/F1 =0 g/s F2/F1= 0.6 g/s

F2/F1= 1 g/s F2/F1=1.2 g/s
1150
1050
950
Temperature K
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.54), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber for, (2RSDFI).
Tout av pattern factor
0.18 0.21 Ф 0.23 0.26

1000 0.3
950 0.25
900
Pattern factor
0.2
850
0.15
800
0.1
750
700 0.05
650 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.55), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature, (2RSDFI).
eff c1 eff c2 eff c3

0.18 0.21 Φ 0.23 0.26
0.998
0.996
0.994
0.992
ηc
0.99
0.988
0.986
0.984
0.982
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.56), Combustion efficiency for, (2RSDFI).

CO CO2 O2 UHC
Ф
0.18 0.21 0.23 0.26
0.2 350
0.18
300
0.16
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.14 250
UHC ppmv
0.12
200
0.1
150
0.08
0.06 100
0.04
50
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.57), Emission gases for S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone, (2RSDFI).
S.F.C kg/kwh power kw

0.18 0.21 Ф 0.23 0.26
12.00 3.50
10.00 3.00
2.50
S.F.C kg/kWh
power kW
8.00
2.00
6.00
1.50
4.00
1.00
2.00 0.50
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F
Figure (5.58), Power and B. S. F. C. for S. F. I. in, (2RSDFI).

a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.59, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for S. F. I. in
secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI).
F2/F1 =0 g/s F2/F1= 0.6 g/s

F2/F1= 1 g/s F2/F1=1.2 g/s
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.60), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber for S. F. I. in
secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI).

0.19 0.21 Ф 0.23 0.25
0.25
1000
950 0.2
Pattern factor
900
0.15
850
800 0.1
750
0.05
700
650 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.61), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S. F. I. in secondary and
dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.19 0.21 Φ 0.23 0.25
0.998
0.996
0.994
0.992
ηc
0.99
0.988
0.986
0.984
0.982
0.98
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.62), Combustion efficiency for S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone with EGR
effects, (2RSDFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.19 0.21 Ф 0.23 0.25
0.18 300
0.16
250
0.14
UHC ppmv
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.12 200
0.1
150
0.08
0.06 100
0.04
50
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.63), Emission gases with fuel mass flow rate ratio and equivalence ratio for S. F. I.
in secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects, (2RSDFI).
0.19 0.21 Ф 0.23 0.25

12.00 3.00
10.00 2.50
S.F.C kg/kWh
8.00 2.00
power kW
6.00 1.50
4.00 1.00
2.00 0.50
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29
F2/F1
Figure (5.64), Power and S.F.C. for S. F. I. in secondary and dillution zone with EGR effects,
(2RSDFI).
1 cm
Figure (5.65), One row of S. F. I. in secondary zone below primary holes about 1cm,
(1RSFI).
a b c
Primary zone
d e f
Secondary zone
Figure (5.66) Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main injector of six holes
and 2 mm diameter and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI).

1200
1100
1000
Temperature K
900
800
700
600
500
400
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.67), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber for one row of
S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI).
T out ave Pattern factor

0.15 0.17
Ф 0.18 0.29
0.3
1000
0.25
900 Pattern factor

0.2
800
0.15
700
0.1
600 0.05
500 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.21
F2/F1
Figre (5.68), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for main injector of six holes and
2mm diameter and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.15 0.17 Φ 0.18 0.29
1
0.999
0.998
ηc 0.997
0.996
Soot generation
0.995
0.994
0.993
0.992
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.21
F2/F1
Figure (5.69), Combustion efficiency for main injector of six holes and 2mm diameter and
one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI).
UHC CO2 CO O2
0.15 0.17 Φ 0.18 0.29
80 0.2
70 0.18
0.16
UHC ppmv
60
0.14
O2 %, CO2 %, CO %
50 0.12
Soot generation
40 0.1
30 0.08
0.06
20
0.04
10 0.02
0 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.21
F2/F1
Figure (5.70), Emission gases for main injector of six holes and 2mm diameter and one row
of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI).

0.15 0.17 Ф 0.18 0.29
25.00 4.50
4.00
20.00 3.50
power kW
S.F.C kg/kWh
3.00
15.00
2.50
2.00
10.00
1.50
5.00 1.00
0.50
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.21
F2/F1
Figure (5.71), Power and S.F.C for main injector of six holes and 2mm diameter and one row
of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI).
a b c
Primary zone
d e f
Secondary zone
Figure (5.72), Flame in primary and secondary zone respectively for main injector of six
holes and 1.5mm diameter and one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone, (1RSFI).
F2/F1 =0 g/s F2/F1= 0.6 g/s

F2/F1= 1 g/s F2/F1=1.2 g/s
1100
1050
1000
Temperature k
950
900
850
800
750
700
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.73), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber for main
injector of six holes and 1.5mm diameter and (1RSFI).
T out ave k Pattern factor
0.12 0.13
Ф 0.15 0.27
900 0.3
850 0.25
Pattern factor
800 0.2
750 0.15
700 0.1
650 0.05
600 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.17
F2/F1
Figure (5.74), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for main injector of six holes and
1.5mm diameter and (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.12 0.13 Φ 0.15 0.27
0.9955
0.995
0.9945
0.994
ηc
0.9935
0.993
0.9925
0.992
0.9915
0.991
0.9905
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.17
F2/F1
Figure (5.75), Combustion efficiency for main injector of six holes and 1.5mm diameter and
(1RSFI).
UHC CO2 CO O2
0.12 0.13 Φ 0.15 0.27
120 0.2
0.18
100
0.16
O2 %, CO2 %, CO %
UHC ppmv
0.14
80
0.12
60 0.1
0.08
40
0.06
0.04
20
0.02
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.2
F2/F1
Figure (5.76), Emission gases for main injector of six holes and 1.5mm diameter and
(1RSFI).
S.F.C kg/kwh Power kw

Ф
0.12 0.13 0.15 0.27
16.00 4.50
14.00 4.00
12.00 3.50
S.F.C kg/kWh
3.00
Power kW
10.00
2.50
8.00
2.00
6.00
1.50
4.00 1.00
2.00 0.50
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.17
F2/F1
Figure (5.77), Power and S.F.C for main injector of six holes and 1.5mm diameter and
(1RSFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.78, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone for main injector of six holes
and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI).
F2/F1=0 F2/F1=0.6
F2/F1=1 F2/F1=1.28
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.79) Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for main injector of six
holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI), loaded turbine 100 cm H2O compressor outlet
pressure.
F2/F1=0 F2/F1=0.6 F2/F1=1 F2/F1=1.28
1500
1400
1300
Temperature K
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.80), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for main injector of six
holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI), loaded turbine 80 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure.
F2/F1=0 F2/F1=0.6
F2/F1=1 F2/F1=1.28
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.81), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for main injector of six
holes and 1mm diameter and (1RSFI),loaded turbine 60 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure.

0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.17
1000 0.35
950
0.3
900
850 0.25 pattern factor
800 0.2
750
700 0.15
650 0.1
600
0.05
550
500 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.65
F2/F1
1mm diameter and (1RSFI),loaded turbine 80 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure.
T out ave k pattern factor

0.17 0.18 Ф 0.19 0.21
1000 0.3
950
0.25
900
850
pattern factor
0.2
800
750 0.15
700
0.1
650
600
0.05
550
500 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
1mm diameter and (1RSFI),turbine 80 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure.
average T outlet pattern factor

0.23 0.25 Ф 0.27 0.28
1110 0.3
1090
0.25
1070
pattern factor
0.2
1050
1030 0.15
1010
0.1
990
0.05
970
950 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
1mm diameter and (1RSFI), loaded turbine 60 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure.
ηC1 ηC3 ηC2

0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.17
0.9954
0.9952
0.995
0.9948
ηc
0.9946
0.9944
0.9942
0.994
0.9938
0.9936
0.9934
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.65
F2/F1
Figure (5.85), Combustion efficiency for main injector of six holes and 1mm diameter and
(1RSFI), loaded turbine 100 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure.
ηC1 ηC3 ηC2

0.17 0.18 Ф 0.19 0.21
0.9958
0.9956
0.9954
ηc
0.9952
0.995
0.9948
0.9946
0.9944
0.9942
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.86), Combustion efficiency for loaded turbine 80 cm H2Ocompressor outlet

pressure, (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηC3 ηc2

0.23 0.25 Ф 0.27 0.28
0.9965
0.996
0.9955
ηc
0.995
0.9945
0.994
0.9935
0.993
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.87), Combustion efficiency for loaded turbine 60 cm H2O compressor outlet
pressure, (1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.17
0.2 80
0.18 70
0.16
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
60
UHC ppmv
0.14
0.12 50
0.1 40
0.08 30
0.06
20
0.04
0.02 10
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.65
F2/F1
Figure (5.88), Emission gases for loaded turbine 100 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure,
(1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
Ф
0.17 0.18 0.19 0.21
0.18 60
0.16
50
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.14
UHC ppmv
0.12 40
0.1
30
0.08
0.06 20
0.04
10
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
(1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
Ф
0.23 0.25 0.27 0.28
0.16 60
0.14
50
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
UHC ppmv
0.12
40
0.1
0.08 30
0.06
20
0.04
10
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
(1RSFI).

0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.17
4.50 3.00
2.90
4.00 2.80
2.70
power kW
S.F.C kg/kWh
3.50 2.60
2.50
3.00 2.40
2.30
2.50 2.20
2.10
2.00 2.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.65
F2/F1
Figure (5.91), Power and S.F.C for loaded turbine 100 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure,
(1RSFI).
S.F.C power kw
0.17 0.18 Ф 0.19 0.21
7.00 3.00
2.80
6.00
2.60
5.00 2.40
power kW
S.F.C kg/kWh
2.20
4.00
2.00
3.00
1.80
2.00 1.60
1.40
1.00
1.20
0.00 1.00
0 0.5 1 1.6
F2/F1
(1RSFI).

Ф
0.23 0.25 0.27 0.28
12.00 2.00
1.80
10.00
1.60
1.40
power kW
8.00
S.F.C kg/kWh
1.20
6.00 1.00
0.80
4.00
0.60
0.40
2.00
0.20
0.00 0.00
0 0.5 1 1.6
F2/F1
(1RSFI).
a-Pz b-Sz
Figure (5.94, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone with Preheated air effects,
(1RSFI).
F2/F1 =0 g/s F2/F1= 0.6 g/s

F2/F1= 1 g/s F2/F1=1.2 g/s
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.95), Temperature distribution profile loaded turbine 95 cm H2O compressor outlet
pressure with EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI).
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.96), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor loaded turbine 80 cm
H2O compressor outlet pressure with EGR ratio 25%, (1RSFI).

Ф
0.14 0.15 0.16 0.18
950 0.14
900 0.12
Pattern factor
850 0.1
800 0.08
750 0.06
700 0.04
650 0.02
600 0
0.00 0.53 1.00 1.78
F2/F1
Figure (5.97), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature loaded turbine 95 cm compressor
outlet pressure with EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI).

0.168 0.174 Ф 0.193 0.206
0.3
1000
0.25
Pattern factor
950
0.2
900
0.15
850
800 0.1
750 0.05
700 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.98), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for loaded turbine 80 cm H2O
compressor outlet pressure with EGR ratio 25%, (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.18
0.9975
0.997
0.9965
ηc
0.996
0.9955
0.995
0.9945
0.994
0.9935
0.00 0.53 1.00 1.78
F2/F1
pressure EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.17 0.17 Ф 0.19 0.21
0.9995
0.999
0.9985
0.998
0.9975
ηc 0.997
0.9965
0.996
0.9955
0.995
0.9945
0.994
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
pressure EGR ratio 25%, (1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
Ф
0.14 0.15 0.16 0.18
0.18 60
0.16
50
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.14
0.12 40
UHC ppmv
0.1
30
0.08
0.06 20
0.04
10
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.53 1.00 1.78
F2/F1
Figure (5.101), Emission gases for loaded turbine 95 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure
EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 Series4
Ф
0.168 0.174 0.193 0.206
0.18 40
0.16 35
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.14 30
UHC ppmv
0.12
25
0.1
20
0.08
15
0.06
0.04 10
0.02 5
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.102), Emission gases for loaded turbine 80 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure
EGR ratio 25 %, (1RSFI).

0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.18
4.50 4.50
4.00 4.00
S.F.C kg/kWh
3.50 3.50
power kW
3.00
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.00 1.50
0.50 1.00
0.00 0.50
0.00 0.53 1.00 1.78
F2/F1
Figure (5.103), Power and S.F.C for loaded turbine 95 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure
EGR ratio 20%, (1RSFI).

Ф
0.168 0.174 0.193 0.206
6.00 4.00
5.00 3.50
3.00
S.F.C kg/kWh
4.00
power kW
2.50
3.00
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.00 1.00
0.00 0.50
0 0.5 1 1.6
F2/F1
Figure (5.104), Power and S.F.C for loaded turbine 80 cm H2O compressor outlet pressure
EGR rati 25 %, (1RSFI).
F2/F1=0, Pc=85cm H2o F2/F1=0.6, Pc=95cm H2o

F2/F1=1, Pc=115cm H2o F2/F1=1.28, Pc=125cm H2o
1300
1200
Temperature K
1100
1000
900
800
700
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.105), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor loaded combustion and
EGR effects, (1RSFI).
average T outlet pattern factor

0.16 0.17 Ф 0.18 0.19
950 0.3
900 0.25
Average outlet tempK
850
0.2
Pattrern factor
800
0.15
750
0.1
700
650 0.05
600 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29 F2/F1
85 95 115 125 cm H2O
Figure (5.106), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for loaded turbine and with
EGR effects, (1RSFI).
ηC1 ηC3 ηc2

Ф
0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19
0.998
0.9975
0.997
0.9965
ηc
0.996
0.9955
0.995
0.9945
0.994
0.9935
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29 F2/F1
85 95 115 125 cm H2O
Figure (5.107), Combustion efficiency loaded turbine with EGR effects, (1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
Ф
0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19
0.18 60
0.16
50
0.14
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
UHC ppmv
0.12 40
0.1
30
0.08
0.06 20
0.04
10
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29 F2/F1
85 95 115 125 cm H2O
Figure (5.108), Emission gases with equivalence ratio for loaded turbine and with EGR
effects, (1RSFI).
power kw S.F.C kg/kwh

0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19
4.50 6.00
4.00
5.00
3.50
3.00 4.00
S.F.C kg/kWh
power kW
2.50
3.00
2.00
1.50 2.00
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.60 1.00 1.29 F2/F1
85 95 115 125 cm H2O
Figure (5.109), Power and S.F.C for loaded turbine with difference compressor outlet
pressure, (1RSFI).
Figure (5.110), one row of S. F. I. in secondary zone below primary holes about 1cm and 2.5
cm injector depth, (1RSFI).
a b
Figure (5.111, a and b), Volumetric rendering of CO generation in primary zone for S.F.I.
with EGR effects, (1RSFI).
a b
Figure (5.112, a and b), Flame in primary and secondary zone for S.F.I. of 2.5 cm of depth,
(1RSFI).
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figur (5.113), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for S. F. I. depth of 2.5
cm and compressor pressure of 100 cm H2O, (1RSFI).
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.114), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for S. F. I. depth of 2.5
cm and compressor pressure of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI).

0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.17
900 0.3
850
0.25
800
750
Pattern factor
0.2
700
650 0.15
600
0.1
550
500
0.05
450
400 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.115), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and
compressor pressure of 100 cm H2O (1RSFI).
T out ave k pattern factor

0.18 0.20 Ф 0.21 0.22
0.3
950 0.25
Pattern factor
850 0.2
750 0.15
650 0.1
550 0.05
450 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.116), Pattern factor and average outlet temperature for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and
compressor pressure of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.17
0.999
0.9985
0.998
0.9975
0.997
ηc
0.9965
0.996
0.9955
0.995
0.9945
0.994
0.9935
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.117), Combustion efficiency for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and compressor pressure
of 100 cm H2O, (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3
0.18 0.20 Ф 0.21 0.22

0.9987
0.9984
0.9981
ηc 0.9978
0.9975
0.9972
0.9969
0.9966
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
of 70 cm H2O, (1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.14 0.15 Ф 0.16 0.17
0.2 70
0.18
60
0.16
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.14 50
UHC ppmv
0.12
40
0.1
30
0.08
0.06 20
0.04
10
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.119), Emission gases with equivalence ratio for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.18 0.20 Ф 0.21 0.22
0.18 35
0.16
30
0.14
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
25
0.12
UHC ppmv
0.1 20
0.08 15
0.06
10
0.04
5
0.02
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1

Ф
0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17
4.50 4.50
4.00 4.00
3.50
3.50
3.00
power kW
S.F.C kg/kWh
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.00
0.50 1.00
0.00 0.50
0 0.5 1 1.6
F2/F1
Figure (5.121), Power and S.F.C for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and compressor pressure of 100
cm H2O, (1RSFI).

Ф
0.18 0.20 0.21 0.22
8.00 2.50
7.00 2.30
2.10
6.00
power kW
1.90
S.F.C kg/kWh
5.00 1.70
4.00 1.50
3.00 1.30
1.10
2.00
0.90
1.00 0.70
0.00 0.50
0 0.5 1 1.6
F2/F1
cm H2O, (1RSFI).
F2/F1 =0 g/s F2/F1= 0.6 g/s

F2/F1= 1 g/s F2/F1=1.2 g/s
1350
1250
1150
Temperature K
1050
950
850
750
650
550
450
4 12.5 21 29 38 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.123), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for S. F. I. depth of 2.5
cm and compressor pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI).

0.15 0.17 Ф 0.18 0.19
1050 0.3
950 0.25
Pattern factor
850 0.2
750 0.15
650 0.1
550 0.05
450 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
Figure (5.124), Pattern factor and average outlet for S. F. I. depth of 2.5 cm and compressor
pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI).
ηc1 ηc2 ηc3

0.15 0.17 Ф 0.18 0.19
0.9975
0.9972
0.9969
ηc 0.9966
0.9963
0.996
0.9957
0.9954
0.9951
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI).
CO CO2 O2 UHC
0.15 0.17 Ф 0.18 0.19
0.18 45
0.16 40
0.14 35
CO %, CO2 %, O2 %
0.12 30
UHC
0.1 25
0.08 20
0.06 15
0.04 10
0.02 5
0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.60
F2/F1
compressor pressure of 95 cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI).

0.15 0.17 Ф 0.18 0.19
5.00 4.00
4.50
3.50
4.00
3.50 3.00
S.F.C kg/kWh
power kW
3.00 2.50
2.50
2.00 2.00
1.50 1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.00 0.50
0 0.5 1 1.6
F2/F1
cm H2O with EGR effects, (1RSFI).
Secondary line Main line of

of fuel injection fuel injection
Figure (5.128), CDF modeling of extructed fluid domain for can combustor with 2 line of
fuel injection, (2RSFI).
T theo 3 g/s T exp 1mm, 3.2 g/s T exp, 2mm, 3.5g/s
1600
1400
1200
Temperature K
1000
800
600
400
200
0
4 12 19 25 32 38 45 51 58 64
Axial distance cm
Figure (5.129), Temperature distribution profile along the combustor for fuel injection depth
1 cm, (2RSFI).
a-F1=0.006 kg/s, F2=0 kg/s. b-F1=0.006 kg/s, F2=0 kg/s.
Figure (5.130) contour plot of temperature at the outlet section of the combustor for Ф= 0.303
and air temperature 400 K, (2RSFI).
A
B
A A
B B
F1=0.0045kg/s, F2=0.0015kg/s F1=0.003kg/s, F2=0.003kg/s
Figure (5.131), contour plot of temperature distribution profile in axisymmetric plane A and
plane B of the combustor for total fuel 0.006 kg/s, Фtotal = 0.303 and Air temperature 400k,
for case (2RSFI).
T=300 k T=400 k T=500 k T=600 k
12
10
NO ppmv
0
0 0.3333 1 3 F239
=4 g/s
F1=0 g/s
F2/F1
Figure (5.132), NO concentration with fuel fraction and inlet air temperature for Ft=0.004 kg,
for case (2RSFI).
T=300 k T=400 k T=500 k T=600 k

60%
50%
40%
Effectivnes
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 0.3333 1 3 F239
=4 g/s
F2/F1 F1=0 g/s
Figure (5.133), Effectiveness percentage of the NO reduction with respect to the conventional
fuel injection when using multi-line of fuel injection for Ft=0.004 kg/s, φt= 0.1, for case
(2RSFI).
F2/F1=0 F2/F1=1
140
120
100
NO ppmv
80
60
40
20
0
0.00 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Ф
Figure (5.134), NO with the total equivalence ratio for the fuel fraction F2/F1=0 and F2/F1=1
and air temperature TAir =400 K, for case (2RSFI).
F1=0.004, F2=0, φtotal=0.202

kg/s
F1=0.002, F2=0.002, φtotal=0.202
Figure (5.135), Volume rendering plot for the NO emission for Ft 0.004 kg/s, φtotal= 0.202
and air temperature TAir =400 K, for ase (2RSFI).
Plane A
F1=0.004kg/s, F2=0 kg/s
F1=0.002kg/s, F2=0.002kg/s
Figure (5.136), Contour plot of O2 concentration in axisymmetric plane A of the combustor

for total fuel 0.004 kg/s, Фtotal = 0.202 and Air temperature 400k, for case (2RSFI).
Figure (5.137), Contour plot of CO2 concentration in axisymmetric plane A of the combustor
for total fuel F1=0.004 kg/s, F2=0, for case (2RSFI).
Plane A
Reverse flow F1=0.006 kg/s, F2=0
F1=0.0045 kg/s, F2=0.0015 kg/s
F1=0.003 kg/s, F2=0.003 kg/s
Figure (5.138), Predicted axial velocity profile counters at different fuel mass flow rate ratio
for Ф = 0.246, and total injected fuel 0.006 kg/s, for case (2RSFI).
CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY 169
CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR FUTURE STUDY
6.1 Conclusions
This thesis strove to advance our understanding of flameless combustion
(volumetric oxidation reaction) by computational and experimental investigation
using optimization of volumetric reaction phenomenon by using multi-port of
fuel injection method to burned gaseous fuel (LPG). It is found that to achieve
flamless combustion without adding dilution gases (i.e. CO2, H2O, N2 and Ar) is
heavily dependent on combustor design, method of fuel injection. Following are
the conclusions of this study based on the objectives.
1. Colorless oxidation reaction mode happened only for a narrow range of

conditions at ּfuel ּlean conditions, great preheat air temperature and high air and
fuel mass flow rates.
2. Colorless flame combustion chamber achieved extremely ּlow NO, CO and

UHC when dispersed flame was formed (distribution of hot spot).
3. High fuel mass flow rates (choking range) with respect to oxidizer mass flow
rate supporting good mixing and with stable combustion, thus greater UHC and
CO level, when compared with ּlower fuel flow rate at the ּsame equivalence ּratio.
Also high air ּflow rate ּformed ּless NOx because of the more evenly dispersed
ּflame.
4. The flameless combustion achieved when the preheated air overpass the limit
sill which abut 340K promote extremely low, CO and UHC when the distributed
flame was formed (distribution of hotspot).
5. Investigation on the effect of multi-line of fuel injection configuration in a

tubular gas turbine flameless combustor found that the case of (1RSFI) with 2.5
cm depth and preheated air by EGR line to be best configuration for optimum
flameless combustion performance. CO and UHC emissions is minimum at lean
condition with global equivalence ratio 0.25 and equals 0.0018 % of CO and 5
ppmv for UHC the combustion efficiency in case (1RSFI) increases 99.64 % to
99.86 % compared with the (2RSFI) 99.34% to 99.62 %. The temperature

uniformity for case (1RSFI) 1 cm depth is more than case (1RSFI) 2.5 cm depth.
6. In this thesis some simulation study was also performed to investigate the detail
flow field inside the combustor. Numerical investigation performed in this study
confirm better performance for distributed fuel injection for case (2RSFI) found
that for (2RSFI) configuration the bulk fuel air mixing created in combustor
caused hot spot reduction gives decreasing in NO concentration in about 30% to
56% .
6.2 suggestion for future study

Significant progress toward the basic understanding of flameless combustion
(volumetric oxidation) has been achieved by this effort. As always, issues remain
that warrant future investigation and/or improvement. The following
recommendations for future work in this field:
1. Investigate the stable combustion with distributed fuel injection with multi-
partitions for combustor reaction zone.
2. Investigate the stability of flameless combustion under different fuel type
(liquid fuel) with different condition (vaporizing and atomizing).
3. Obtain detail reaction zone structure, species and temperature distribution
using advanced non-intrusive optical diagnose techniqueּּs ּsuch as planar
ּlaser induced ּfluorescence (PLIF) for characterization of turbulence
combustion regimes.
4. Evaluate the performance of different mixing and reaction models:
 Different air and fuel flow (relative direction, penetration with each
other) configurations and geometries of the combustor.
 More accurate non-intrusive measurement methods are needed.
Example is the use of LDA (Laser Doppler Anemometer) to measure
the instantaneous air and fuel flow velocity field.
5. Study the performance and stability with new automated design by

programing Logic Controller (PLC) for wide and variable range of air and
fuel flow.
6. Using dimensionless parameter for physical and chemical criterion of the
reactant flow for colorless oxidation reaction consideration by simplifying
the flow field.
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APPENDEX A1
APPENDEX
Appendix A
A1. Design parts of the air inlet plenum
Air inlet plenum shown in figure (A1), designed to prepare as max about 1 to3
cm H2O vacuum head at the throttle section to obtain recirculation case for
Exhaust Gases from the exhaust plenum to the inlet plenum at the throttle section
with minimum loses of flow to avoid decreasing in air density which had bad
effects on the compressor performance.
Inlet plenum Throttle section Compressor
Figure (A1), Air inlet plenum.

A2. Design parts of Exhaust plenum and EGR pipe line
Exhaust gases plenum shown in figure (A.2), designed to prepared as max
pressure about 1 to 10 cm H2O head at the turbine exit section to obtain EGR case
and to rise the pressure inside the combustion chamber for requirement of running
cases with minimum loses of flow to avoid high rises in pack pressure which play
an important role in decreasing of air mass flow rate.
Appendix A 2
Compressor turbine Exhaust plenum Get valve
Figure (A2), Exhaust gases plenum.

A.3 Design part of the EGR line
EGR pipe line designed to recirculate the exhaust gases to the inlet plenum by 3
inch of inner diameter pipe supplied by control valve to control the EGR mass
flow rate as shown in figure (A.3).
EGR control valve EGR pipe line

Figure (A.3), EGR pipe line.
Appendix B B1
Appendix B
Thermocouples calibration
All thermocouple were calibrated by the central organization for standardization
and quality control against the two point. For the T type thermometer melting
point of ice and 200 Cº and mid-point between them, the readings were taken with
thermometer and thermocouples through the reader. The maximum error was
15Cº. A sample of calibration results is shown in the figures B.1 and B.2, below.
Figure (B.1), T- type thermocuple calibration list.

Appendix B 2
Figure (B.2), T- type thermocouple calibration dtails.

Appendix B 3
For the K type thermometer melting point of ice and 400 Cº and mid-
point between them, the readings were taken with thermometer and
thermocouples through the reader. The maximum error was 12Cº. A
sample of calibration results is shown in the figures B.3 and B.4, below.
Figure (B.3), K-type thermocouple calibration list.

Appendix B 4
Figure (B4), K- type thermocouple calibration dtails.

Appendix C C1
Appendix C
Air mass flow rate, EGR mass flow rate and theoretical work calculation
C1. Air mass flow rate
Air mass flow rate in the inlet plenum calculated according to BS1042 by using
Pitot-static tube fixed in the fully developed region in the inlet plenum as shown
in figure: C.1, the basic flow rate equation is given by [82]:
a
a > 1.6 d
P1 P2
Figure (C.1), Pitot-static tube location at the inlet plenum.
𝑚• 𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 . 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 . 𝐴 eq. C1

𝜋
𝐴 = 𝐷2 eq. C2
4
𝑃
𝜌= eq. C3
𝑅.𝑇
For turbulent flow the average velocity defined as[83]:
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 0.84 eq. C4

Applying Bernoulli equation on the Pitot - static tube on point 1 and 2
Appendix C 2
1 1
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 + • 𝜌 • 𝑉1 2 + 𝜌 • 𝑔 • 𝑍1 = 𝑃𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 + • 𝜌 • 𝑉2 2 + 𝜌 • 𝑔 • 𝑍2 eq.C5
2 2
0 S. P 0
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 eq. C6
2•𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 •𝑔•ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜
⸫𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ eq. C7
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
By substituting equations C2 to C7 to get final form equation for mass flow

calculation in the inlet plenum.
C2. Total mass flow rate calculation at the compressor outlet pipe lineAir
mass flow rate in the compressor outlet pipe line calculated according to BS1042
by using Pitot-static tube fixed in the fully developed region in the pipe line as
shown in figure: C.2, applying the same basic flow rate equations C1 to C7 [28]:
P1
P2
a > 2D
b >> D
Figure (C.2) Pitot-static tube location at compressor outlet pipe line.

Appendix C 3
Air mass flow rate at the compressor outlet section

𝑚• 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 . 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 . 𝐴 eq. C8
C2. Total EGR mass flow rate:
𝐸𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚• 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑚• 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 eq. C9
𝐸𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐸𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 100% eq.C 10
𝑚• 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛
C3. Theoretical work calculation.

The theoretical torque required to rotate the compressor will be equal to the rate
of change of angular momentum experienced by the air. Considering a unit mass
of air, this torque is given by theoretical torque, as[84]:
𝜏 = 𝐶𝑤2 . 𝑟2 eqn. C11
where, Cw2 is whirl component of absolute velocity C2 and r2 is impeller tip radius
and U2 is impeller tip linear velocity.
Let ω = angular velocity. Then the theoretical work done on the air written as:
Theoretical work done. 𝑊𝑐 = 𝐶𝑤2 . 𝑟2 . 𝜔 = 𝐶𝑤2 . 𝑈2 eqn.C12

𝐶𝑤2
Slip factor defined as: 𝜎𝑠 = eqn.C13
𝑈2
Using the slip factor, we have theoretical 𝑊𝑐 = 𝜎𝑠 . 𝑈2 2 eqn. C14
Where σs is about 0.9,
To take account of these losses, a power input factor can be introduced. This
factor typically takes values between 1.035 and 1.04. Thus the actual work done
on the air becomes[85]:
𝑊𝑐 = 𝜑. 𝜎𝑠 . 𝑈2 2 kW/kg eqn. C15

Appendix C 4
For impeller tip diameter 0.17m
0.17∗3.14∗𝑁 2
𝑊𝑐 = 1.035 ∗ 0.9 ∗ (
60
) ∗ 𝑚• 𝑎𝑖𝑟 eqn. C16
Brake specific fuel consumption (B. S. F. C.) defined as:
𝑚• 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐹1 +𝐹2
𝐵. 𝑆. 𝐹. 𝐶. = ∗ 3600 = ∗ 3600 eqn. C17
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑐 𝑊𝑐
Appendix D D1
Appendix D
Combustion efficiency calculation
Theoretically, combustion efficiency is defined as the heat released in the
combustion process over the heat potential in the burnt fuel [3,4 and5]. There for
combustion efficiency can be calculated by using heat released principle or by
emission gases sample unburned hydro carbons UHC and carbon monoxide CO
are subtracted from 100%. Therefore Combustion efficiency calculated by
different three imperial correlations defined as the emission gases sample
correlations which are depend on the emission gases index of CO and NOx studied
by D1 [61], D2 [62] and D3 [63].
4340 𝐶𝑂𝐸𝐼 +18500 𝑈𝐻𝐶𝐸𝐼

𝜂𝑐 = 100[1 − ] D1
18.5∗106
𝜂𝑐 = 1 − (𝑈𝐻𝐶𝐸𝐼 + 0.211 𝐶𝑂𝐸𝐼 )10−3 D2

10109𝐶𝑂𝐸𝐼 𝑈𝐻𝐶𝐸𝐼
𝜂𝑐 = 100 − − D3
10𝐻𝑓 10
Where ηc= combustion efficiency

UHCEI =emissions index of UHC, g/kg fuel
COEI = emission index of CO, g/kg fuel
The relation between emission index and emission expressed for UHC and CO
are follow as:
𝑈𝐻𝐶𝐸𝐼 = 0.0288𝑈𝐻𝐶 D4
𝐶𝑂𝐸𝐼 = 0.0503𝐶𝑂 D5
Where UHC= emission of UHC in ppmv.
and CO= emission of CO in ppmv.
Appendix E E1
Appendix E
Operation Manual of the Micro gas turbine test rig
E1. Startup Procedure
This procedure assumes all valves/cocks are SHUT and power is OFF.
Make sure that the fuel pressure regulator gage reading 2 bar.
Turn ON all digital pressure gage (digital manometer).
Turn ON thermocouple data reader.
Turn ON gas analyzer.
Turn ON oil lubrication system.
Turn ON bearing cooling blower.
Turn ON spark plug igniter.
Turn ON starter motor.
Open valve #1and #2 (fuel injection line valves) and set at least up to 2.5g/s of
total fuel flow rate.
At this point after running must be care to avoid vibration resonance case by
quake turn OFF and separating of the starting motor.
Turn OFF spark plug igniter.
Wait for at least 20 minutes to achieve a stability for each running case.
Start measuring and recording experimental data.

Appendix E 2
E2. Shutdown Procedure

1. Turn OFF fuel valves. (Turn off the fuel gas supply).
2. Turn ON system cooling blower at least 20 minute.
3. Turn OFF oil pump.
4. Turn OFF baring cooling blower.
5. Turn OFF other measurements device.
Appendix F F1
Appendix F
Composition and properties of the (LPG) gas fuel.
LPG stands for Liquefied Petroleum Gas. It is commonly used for cooking,
lighting and central heating. It is a clean burning, non-poisonous, dependable and
high performance fuel stored and transported in containers as a liquid, but is
generally drawn out and used as gas.
What is the composition of (LPG).

LPG occurs naturally in crude oil and natural gas production fields, and is also
produced during the oil refining process. It is a mixture of light gaseous
hydrocarbons (e.g. propane, butane) which are gaseous at normal ambient
temperature and atmospheric pressure, but made liquid by application of
moderate pressure.
In Iraq LPG fuel contain 60% of Propane and 40% of Butane in winter season
while in summer season LPG contain 40% of Propane and 60% of Butane.
Equivalence ratio calculation:

𝐴𝑖𝑟
( )
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐
Equivalence ratio defined as Ф = 𝐴𝑖𝑟
( )
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
For Liquid petroleum gases (LPG) gas fuel which contain 60% of propane and
40% of Butane the chemical stoichiometric equation is:
0.6𝐶3 𝐻8 + 0.4𝐶4 𝐻10 + 5.6𝑂2 + 20.552𝑁2 → 3.4𝐶𝑂2 + 4.4𝐻2 𝑂 + 20.552𝑁2
𝐴𝑖𝑟
⸫( ) = 15.5
𝐴𝑖𝑟
( )
⸫ Ф𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚• 𝐴𝑖𝑟
( )
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚• 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
Appendix G G1
Appendix G
List of Publications
1-Gas Turbine Tubular Combustor Main Injector Optimization for Low Emission
Combustion.
2-Numerical Investigation of Influence of Multi-Line Fuel Injection (Methane)

on a Tubular Combustor emissions of Micro Gas Turbine.
3-Characteristics of Multi-Line of Fuel Injection in Primary Zone of Can

Combustor of Gas Turbine for Colorless Combustion Considerations.
4-Influence of Multi-Line of Fuel Injection (LPG) in Secondary Zone of Tubular

Combustion Chamber of Micro Gas turbine.
5-Experimental Investigation of Preheated Air Effects with Multi-line of Fuel

Injection (LPG) on a Tubular Combustor of Micro Gas turbine.
‫انبعاثات عالي يصل الى ‪ 85ppmv‬للهيدروكاربونات الغير محترقه ومعدل عالي لتوليد السخام مقارنة‬
‫باألقطار األخرى للحاقن الرئيسي‪.‬‬
‫للحقن الثانوي الموزع فيمثل نسق ‪ 1RSFI‬مع عمق حقن ‪ 2.5cm‬بهواء مسبق التسخين بواسطة خط اعادة‬
‫تدوير غازات العادم نسق كفوء جدا ألحتراق بدون لهب مع نسق حقن وقود موزع بمعدل قدره عالي يصل‬
‫الى ‪ 4.43 kW‬وانخفاض في معدل األستهالك النوعي للوقود الى ‪,8..2 kg/kwh‬خصوصا بعد اجتياز‬
‫حد العتبه الحراريه للهواء مسبق التسخين والمتمثله بدرجة حراره ‪ 0.3‬مئوي‪ ,‬سهولة التشغيل مع أستجابه‬
‫عاليه للتعجيل للحقن الثانوي دور فعال في مساعدة الحاقن الرئيسي خصوصا الحاقن الرئيسي ذو اقطار‬
‫حقن كبيره ‪ 5.1‬ملم الى ‪ 8‬ملم‪ ,‬مع معدل انبعاثات قليل تقريبا ‪ 5ppmv UHC‬و‪ 0.0018% CO‬مقارنة‬
‫مع قدره بمقدار ‪ 1.6kW‬ومعدل استهالك نوعي للوقود بمقدار ‪ 7 kg/kWh‬صعوبه في التشغيل مع‬
‫استجابه ضعيفه للتعجيل ومعدل انبعاثات عالي يصل تقريبا من ‪ 521‬لى ‪ 813‬جزء بالمليون ‪ UHC‬و من‬
‫‪ 0.045%‬الى ‪ CO 0.065%‬للتنسيقات األخرى المستخدمه في نضام الحقن الثانوي الموزع‪.‬‬
‫ألخالصة‬
‫يقدم هذا العمل تقنيه لعمل نمذجه لتصميم حارق انبوبي لتوربين غازي صغير وألعتبارات أحتراق بدون‬
‫لون‪ ,‬تعتمد هذه التقنيه على عمل نمذجه بالطريقه العدديه باستخدام تقنية حركية المائع الحسابي ‪CFD‬‬
‫بأستخدام برنامج ‪ ASYS-CFX‬والتقنيه التجريبيه لتفاعل حجمي بأستخدام طريقة حق الوقود متعدد المنافذ‬
‫للحصول على أحتراق بدون لون و التقليل من األنبعاثات الغازيه و معامل النمط الحراري و معدل استهالك‬
‫الوقود النوعي مع رفع كفائة األحتراق والقده الخارجه قدر األمكان بربط نسبة التدفق الكتلي لخطوط حقن‬
‫الوقود والنسبه المكافئه لخلط الوقود لحارق انبوبي صمم ليعمل بالغاز المسال ‪ LPG‬بالنسبه للنمذجه‬
‫التجريبيه ‪.‬‬
‫تم التركيز بواسطة النمذجه العدديه بشموليه لميزات الجريان بأستخدام ‪ k-ε‬للموديل األضطرابي و‬
‫‪ PDF- Flamelet‬لموديل األحتراق بوقود الميثان ‪ .‬تمثل الضروف التشغيليه المستخدمه بيانات لتوربين‬
‫غازي صناعي صغير بأستخدام سريان خلط الوقود وتحليل االحتراق مع التركيز على تركيز االنبعاثات‬
‫في مقطع الخروج للحارق‪ .‬وجد انه مع التصميم الحديث فأن ‪ NO‬سوف يقل بنسبة ‪ 56%‬لنسبة تدفق كتلي‬
‫للوقود بمقدار ‪ 0‬عندما تكون النسبه المكافئه لخلط الوقود عاليه و ‪ 03%‬لنسبة تدفق كتلي للوقود بمقدار ‪5‬‬
‫عندما تكون النسبه المكافئه لخلط الوقود واطئه‪.‬‬
‫نموذج األختبار العملي المستخدم عباره عن توربين غازي صغير مصنع من شاحن توربيني نوع ‪BBC‬‬
‫مع منضومة حقن وقود متعدد المنافذ‪ ,‬تم أختيار العوامل المتغيره في البحث معدل أستهالك الوقود النوعي‬
‫المكبحي )‪ ,(B.S.F.C.‬كفائة أألحتراق‪ ,‬معامل النمط الحراري والقدره الخارجه وأألنبعاثات الغازيه متمثله‬
‫ب )‪ (CO, CO2, O2, UHC‬بأستخدام ستة نماذج مختلفه من أنبوب األشعال والحواقن لمعدل جريان كلي‬
‫للوقود بمقدار ‪ 0.8‬غم\ثا وبضغط ‪ 8‬بار أضهرت النتائج للحاله ‪ MFI‬بحاقن رئيسي ذو فتحات بقطر ‪1mm‬‬
‫ألعلى معدل تدفق للهواء مع جريان وقود في حالة األختناق في الحاقن الرئيسي يعطي أحتراق بدون لهب‬
‫بلون أزرق شاحب مع معدل عالي في القدره المنتجه تصل الى ‪ 0..8 kw‬وانخفاض في معدل األستهالك‬
‫النوعي للوقود الى ‪ ,0..2 kg/kwh‬سهولة التشغيل مع أستجابه عاليه للتعجيل دون الحاجه للمساعده من‬
‫خط الحقن الثانوي مقارنة مع معدل انبعاثات قليل تقريبا ‪ 88‬جزء بالمليون للهيدروكاربونات الغير محترقه‪,‬‬
‫مقارنة بقدره اطئه تصل الى ‪ 0.8kW‬ومعدل استهالك نوعي للوقود عالي ‪ 21.2 kg/kWh‬صعوبه في‬
‫التشغيل مع استجابه بطيئه للتعجيل بمعدل‬
‫جمهورية العراق‬
‫وزارة التعليم العالي‬
‫والبحث العلمي‬
‫الجامعة التكنولوجية‬
‫قسم الهندسة الميكانيكية‬
‫تصميم وتحليل جريان لغرفة أحتراق بدون لهب‬
‫أطروحة مقدمة إلى‬

‫قسم الهندسة الميكانيكية في الجامعة التكنولوجية كجزء من متطلبات نيل‬
‫درجة الدكتوراه فلسفة في الهندسة الميكانيكية‬
‫إعداد‬
‫فؤاد عبدأألمير خلف‬
‫)بكالوريوس ‪, 5222‬ماجستير ‪)8332‬‬
‫بإشراف‬
‫أ‪ .‬م‪ .‬د‪ .‬محمود عطه هللا مشكور‬ ‫أ‪.‬د ‪.‬أركان خلخال حسين الطائي‬
‫‪ 8352‬م‬ ‫‪ ٩٣٤١‬ه‬

Design and Flow Analyses of Flameless Combustion Chamber

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Design and Flow Analyses of Flameless Combustion Chamber

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Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education and

Design and Flow Analysis of a Flameless

Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering of

Fuad Abdul ameer Khalaf

(B.Sc. 1999, M.Sc. 2006)

Prof. Dr. Arkan AL-Taie Assist Prof. Dr. Mahmoud. A. Mashkour

2018 A.D. 1439 A.H.

I certify that this thesis entitled “Design and Flow Analysis of a

I certify that this thesis entitled, “Design and Flow Analysis of a

Examining Committee Certificate

Approved by The Mechanical Engineering Department:

Name: Assist. Prof. Dr. Moayed R. Hasan

Fuad Abdul Ameer

It is concerned with the comprehensive assessment of the flow feature by using

diameter is more efficient for flameless consideration, high power generation

1.9.2 Lean direct injection: ........................................................................... 16

3.3.3 Momentum equation: ........................................................................... 57

C2. Total EGR mass flow rate: .......................................................................... 3

Figure (5.47), Temperature distribution profile along the combustion chamber

Figure (5.87), Combustion efficiency for loaded turbine 60 cm H2O compressor

Figure (B.3), K-type thermocouple calibration list. ............................................. 3

Chapter one Introduction

Chapter One Introduction

Figure 1.1 Schematic of a simple gas-turbine engine. [Int.]

ּincreased difficulty of CFD simulations minimizes their use for theorizing of

Basic requirement of almost all combustors is as follows:[2] and [3]

1- High combustion efficiency;

Figure 1.2, Conventional Gas Turbine tubular Combustion chamber details.

1.4 Parts of Combustors

also lead to increasing in running cost and pollutions. ּDiffuser consists of a

Figure 1.4 Effect of divergence angle on diffuser Performance [3].

1.4.2 Fuel Injector

Figure 1.6 gas turbine liquid fuel injector

1.4.3 Air Casing

1.4.5 Combustion Zones

Primary zone: It is known as reaction zone in which only 15 to 25% of total

Secondary zone: It is known as reaction completing zone, where the oxidation

Air flow passage Fuel flow hole

Figure: 1.7, schematic of axial straingth vanes swirler

Figure (1.9), swirler types, a-Axil swirler [3], b- Radial swirler[13].

1.5 Flameless consideration

Flameless combustion is one of these techniques, the main feature of the

Combustion process of colorless oxidation reaction is characterized by ּslow

Flameless combustion (colorless oxidation reaction) flame defined as

Benefits of flameless combustion technology are high combustion efficiency,

1.6 Low Emission Combustors:

1.7 Pollutant Formation

Figure 1.11 Mechanism of emission formation

1.7.1 Thermal (Zeldovich mechanism):

1.7.2 Prompt (Fenimore Mechanism):

HCN→CN→NCO→NO to form prompt NO

Temperature Equivalence Thermal Prompt Nitrous Fuel

1.8 CO, UHC and soot formation:

operate at lean condition hence the role of residence time on CO conversion is

Figure 1.13 Gas turbine emission generation.

Pollutant Effect Mechanism

1.9 NOx Abatement Strategies

Figure 1.14 NOx abatement strategies [4].

1.9.2 Lean direct injection:

Lean direct injection combustor operates in non-premixed combustion mode at

1.10 problem statement

3- Efficient design of a ּflameless combustor is to insure volumetric fuel