CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LAB III

 

LAB REPORT   
 
  

EXPERIMENT  8: VOLTAGE, CURRENT

AND POWER MEASUREMENT
 

  
GROUP: 4G 
 
NO  NAME   MATRIC ID  

1  ABDUL CARIM COMANDA MOMADE    25563  

2  FARRAH ATIKAH ABD RAHMAN   25312  

3  SITI NUR FATIHAH BINTI ADNAN   25398  

4  NASRIN FATINI BINTI AHMAD FAUZI   17005968  

5  MUHAMMAD ANWAR BIN HAIZAL   25202  

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ 2

2.0 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 4

3.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 5

5.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 9

6.0 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 17

7.0 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 18

8.0 REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 19

2
1.0 ABSTRACT

This report will discuss on six different major experiment involving voltage, current
and power using alternating current and direct current which includes observing for the
calibration of voltage using AC and DC power source, current using AC and DC, the resolution
and the hysteresis. The desired value has been observed is given in the lab manuals for each
sub experiment. When the reading is set to some point, the amount of actual voltage/current
needed for the reading to achieve the desired value is observed. Some value would require
higher or lower actual supply compared to the desired reading. That is because calibration of
those readings is needed, to standardize the reading according to the master standard unit
(MSU).
The experiment also includes some observation regarding the influence of the
impendence in alternating current and the internal resistance for the direct current. The results
and discussion in this paper has detailed out every reasoning supported by factual data based
on the experiments done in the laboratory. Based on the data, it could be observed that the
smaller the differences between the desired values and the actual value, the smaller the
deviation of the readings. The higher the resolution, the better the readings. The impendence
and internal resistance do give some impactful deviation to the voltage and current readings as
well. All of these will be further discussed and explained in the result and discussion part in
this paper.

3
2.0 INTRODUCTION

In real life situation, there would always some deviation in any equipment reading to the
actual value. Calibration method has been introduced to measure the accuracy of the reading
to its actual value. In the strictest sense, a calibration is a measurement that determines the
errors in an instrument. More generally, though, a calibration refers to both a determination of
the errors and an adjustment to correct the errors (Dragounova, 2005) In this experiment, there
are six major part of sub experiment involving alternating current and direct current being
tested on the voltage and current also the resolution and hysteresis reading.

The calibration of the reading involves the measurement of the reading delivered by a
device under the test being compared to a calibration standard value. The most valuable thing
in calibration is its accuracy. The reading being taken is subject to errors. That is why it is being
compared to certain standard value, calculated the deviation as an error and we could now the
level of accuracy of a reading. However, the true value of some things could only be estimated.
There are two type of general error, static error and dynamics errors. Static error consists of
systematic error and random errors. Meanwhile the dynamic error consists of the transient
error.
The calibration would have no significant error or having much significant error based
on the measurement compared to the standard values. In this case, the master standard units
(MSU) is being used. As an example, the voltage reading in a voltmeter using a power source
should be the same as actual voltage supplied to it, but in this experiment, it was proven not
true for certain of the data. The data have some deviations in it, and some have quite significant
differences compared to the energy supply. The experiment involves impendence, which is the
opposition occurs in an alternating circuit and internal resistance which is considered as the
electrical resistance in the power supply that can limit the potential difference that can be
supplied to an external load. Both do affect the errors occurs in the reading, which has been
discussed later in the report.

4
3.0 METHODOLOGY
DC Voltmeter and Ammeter Calibration
1. The equipment was connected as shown in the lab manual
2. The specific model for UUT device was selected and the reading begun from the lowest
value
3. The MSU is set at zero and the needle pointer adjusted to show at the zero marker.
4. The DC calibrator output voltage was adjusted so that the voltmeter pointer indicates
full scale reading.
5. The output voltage was gradually varied in steps down to zero. At appropriate intervals
the reading of the calibrator was recorded and of the voltmeter as in Table 8.3 in the
manual. Then the calibrator reading was increased gradually till the maximum value of
the voltmeter is reached.
6. Before disconnecting the wires, the MSU was disabled by pressing the SOURCE on/off
button
7. The procedures were repeated for each range of the unit under test. Also, conduct the
calibration for the remaining UUT.
8. The table of calibration Table 8.3 in the manual was completed.
9. The same procedures were conducted for DC Ammeter calibration but using different
UUT equipment which is UUT (say model 201134) and begin at the lowest range of
measurement (i.e.3mA).
10. The set up follows Figure 8.5 in the lab manual, and the readings were recorded in the
data calibration table, Table 8.5 in the manual.

Internal Resistance Measurement for DC Voltmeter and Ammeter

1. For determining the internal resistance of the voltmeter, the equipment was connected
as shown in Fig. 8.4 of lab manuals.
2. For measuring ranges below 10 V, use the standard resistor of 1 k (model: 279207),
For measuring ranges of 10 V use the standard resistor of 10 k (model: 279208) and
for the measuring ranges above 10 V use the standard resistor of 100k (model:
279209)
3. With the standard resistance kept constant, the output voltage was adjusted from the
DC calibrator and measure the voltage from the voltmeter.

5
 4. The calibrator voltage was increased from the minimum to maximum and record three
to four data at appropriate intervals as in Table 8.4.
5. The average internal resistance was calculated of the instrument range.
6. The procedures were repeated for the remaining ranges and remaining UUT.
7. The same procedures 3 to 6 were repeated to observe the internal resistance for DC
Ammeter calibration.
8. The only differences are, for determining the internal resistance of the ammeter connect
the standard resistor of 100 (model: 279206), For measuring ranges above 10mA use
the standard resistor of 10  (model: 279205)
9. All values of the data recorded in the table.

AC Voltmeter and Ammeter Calibration

1. The equipment was connected as shown in the lab manual.
2. UUT (say 201318) was selected and begin at the lowest range of measurement
voltmeter (i.e. 150V).
3. The MSU was set at zero and the needle pointer adjusted to show at the zero marker.
4. The AC calibrator output voltage/current was adjusted so that the voltmeter/ ammeter
pointer indicates full scale reading. To enable the source voltage, press the Output
on/off switch To avoid an over swing of the needle, adjust to 90 % of the full scale and
then to the 100%.
5. The output voltage was gradually varied in steps down to zero. At appropriate intervals
record the reading of the calibrator and of the voltmeter and recorded in the table. Then
the calibrator reading gradually increased till the maximum value of the voltmeter is
reached.
6. Before disconnecting the wires, the output value was reduced and disable the MSU by
pressing the Output on/off switch
7. Repeat the procedure for each range and for other UUT.
8. Experiment was repeated for AC Ammeter calibration but UUT (say 205302) was used
and begin at the lowest range of measurement ammeter (i.e. 1A).

Internal Impedance in AC Voltmeter and Ammeter

1. For determining the internal impedance of the voltmeter/ammeter the equipment was
connected as shown in the lab manual. For the unit under test, Model 201730, use the
10 k standard resistor (model: 279208). For the rest of the multi range analog meters,
use the standard resistor of 1 k (model: 279207) for measuring ranges above 75 V and
6
 for measuring ranges 75 V and below use the standard resistor of 100  (model:
279206).
2. While for ammeter, if measuring ranges above 5 A, use the standard resistor of 0.1
(model:279203), For measuring ranges of 2A use the standard resistor of 1 (model:
279204) and for measuring ranges of 1 A use the 10 standard resistor. When using
the 20A range use the large black measurement cables provided.
3. With the standard resistance kept constant, the output voltage/current was adjusted
from the AC standard and measure the voltage/current from the voltmeter/ammeter.
4. The calibrator voltage/current was increased from the minimum to maximum and
record three to four data at appropriate intervals as in the table provided.
5. The internal impedance of the instrument range is calculated.
6. The procedures were repeated for the remaining ranges and UUT’s.

Resolution
1. The UUT was connected to the corresponding MSU. As the first UUT we used Model
201138 DC Voltmeter. The MSU is Model CA11 Handy Calibrator. The instrument
has four ranges, 100mV, 1, 10 and 30V. This experiment is conducted at the 10 V range
as an example.
2. The scale has 100 divisions. Hence each division is 10/100=0.1 V. Assuming that it
can be distinguished to half a division, hence the theoretical resolution of the instrument
is 0.1 V.
3. The UUT was set at its lowest range, 0 V. The MSU was adjusted to give the UUT
reading of 0. The value of the MSU as given in lab manual. Then the MSU reading was
slowly be increased till the UUT has not reached the midpoint mark of one division.
This value of MSU was recorded. The difference between these two reading of the
MSU is the UUT resolution.
4. The experiment was repeated for each range of 201138 and for the remaining UUT.
The maximum value of the resolution was reported as the resolution error of the
instrument. The UUT Resolution was determined.

Hysteresis Error
1. The equipment was connected as shown in lab manual.
2. The Model 201134 DC milliammeter was used as the first instrument being tested. The
instrument has three ranges, 1,3,10 and 30mA range. The 10mA range was chosen as

7
 the first range. The 1 and 3 mA range cannot be tested due to the low resolution of the
calibrator CA11.
3. The value of the MSU was set to the lowest UUT value. The MSU and UUT readings
as in table in lab manual. The value of MSU in was increased steps till the highest value
of UUT is reached, the corresponding MSU and UUT values were recorded.
4. Then the MSU reading was progressively decreased till the lowest range of the UUT is
reached. This constitutes once cycle.
5. The largest difference between the readings were reported as the maximum hysteresis
error.
6. The above procedures were repeated for the remaining ranges and remaining UUT’s.

8
5.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Experiment 8.1 DC Voltmeter Calibration and Internal Resistance Measurement

Table 8.1.1: Calibration Data for 205106 Range 3V

Reading of Scale Reading of MSU Percentage Error Correction
V (V) Vs (V) e= 100% x(V- Factor, a
Vs)/Vs a= 100% x(Vs-
V)/V
3 3.1 -3.23 3.33
2.4 2.422 -0.91 0.92
1.8 1.92 -6.25 6.67
1.2 1.23 -2.44 2.50
0.6 0.61 -1.64 1.67
0 0.15 -100.00 0
0.6 0.612 -1.96 2.00
1.2 1.203 -0.25 0.25
1.8 1.8 0.00 0.00
2.4 2.406 -0.25 0.25
3 3.013 -0.43 0.43

For the experiment DC Voltmeter Calibration, a Voltmeter 205106 of Range 3V was

used to compare its reading with the Master Standard Unit by using direct current. From the
results obtained and recorded on table 8.1, it can be concluded that the Voltmeter 205106 Range
3V has a relatively high accuracy as the minimum recorded percentage error was 0% and the
maximum was 3.23% excluding the 100% error which is an outlier in this set of values. This
also explains why the reading of the scale is close to the actual reading obtained from the
Master Standard Unit (MSU). Since the percentage error obtained from the readings is low, the
correction factor, a is low as well. Moreover, it can be observed that the percentage error and
correction factor oscillate as they have no fixed trend when the readings in the voltmeter
increase or decrease.

9
 Table 8.1.2: Internal Resistance 205106 Range 3V
Reading of Reading of Difference, Internal
Scale V1 (V) MSU V2 (V) D Resistance
V2-V1 v2*SR/D
1 1.34 0.34 3.94
2 2.68 0.68 3.94
3 4.04 1.04 3.88

2.94+2.94+2.88
Calculation for Average Internal Resistance Range 3V = = 3.92 kohm
3

Average Internal Resistance Range 3V = 3.92 kohm

The above table contains the readings obtained from the internal resistance
measurement experiment. Internal resistance usually means the electrical resistance inside
batteries and power supplies that can limit the potential difference that can be supplied to an
external load. A standard resistor of 1 kOhm was connected to the previous circuit. From the
values presented on the table, we notice that the difference between the readings from the scale
and the readings from the MSU increase as the potential difference increases. On the other
hand, the internal resistance fairly decreased from 3.94 kohm to 3.88 kohm as the reading of
scale increased from 1 to 3 volts after remaining constant when the reading of Scale increased
from 1 to 2 volts.

10
Experiment 8.2 DC Ammeter Calibration and Internal Resistance Measurement

Table 8.2.1 Calibration data for 201134 range 3mA

Reading of Scale Reading of MSU Percentage Error, Correction Factor,
(mA) (mA) e a
3.00 2.99 0.33 -0.33
2.40 2.38 0.84 -0.83
1.80 1.78 1.12 -1.11
1.20 1.17 2.56 -2.50
0.60 0.59 1.69 -1.67
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.60 0.59 1.69 -1.67
1.20 1.18 1.69 -1.67
1.80 1.78 1.12 -1.11
2.40 2.38 0.84 -0.83
3.00 2.98 0.67 -0.67

This experiment is conducted using an ammeter model 201134 range from 3mA for
direct current. From the table 8.2.1, it shows that the reading of the scale (mA) is higher
compared to the reading of the MSU (mA). This is because the electric current that pass through
a conductor produce a magnetic field that perpendicular to the axis of the electron flow which
will cause the needle to deflect from the actual reading. Apart from that the percentage of the
error varies from 0% to 1.69%. This shows that this equipment has high accuracy since the
percentage error is very low. As the percentage error is low, the correction factor is also low
hence the systemic error from this calibration is low.

11
 Table 8.2.2 Internal Resistance for 205106 range 3V

Reading of Scale Reading of MSU Difference, D

Internal Resistance
(mA) (mA) (mA)
0.60 1.77 1.17 19.50
1.20 3.51 2.31 19.25
1.80 5.24 3.44 19.11
2.40 7.03 4.63 19.29
Average Internal Resistance 3mA (ohm) 19.29

To determine the internal resistance of an ammeter model 201134 range from 3mA for
direct current, the standard resistor of 10ohm are used. Resistance is a concept that used for
direct current and the internal resistance of an ammeter will causes the scale to read smaller
current than what actually passing. As the reading of the scale increased, the difference of the
experimental value and true value is also increased. The reading scale of 0.60mA has the
highest internal resistance compared to 1.20mA, 1.80mA, and 2.40mA. From the calculation,
the average internal resistance of 3mA ammeter is 19.29ohm.

Experiment 8.3 AC Voltmeter Calibration and Internal Impedance Measurement

Table 8.3.1: Calibration Data for 201318 Range 3V

Reading of Scale V Reading of MSU Vs Percentage Error Correction Factor, a
(V) (V) e= 100% x(V- a= 100% x(Vs-V)/V
Vs)/Vs
150 147.3 1.83 1.80
120 118.7 1.10 1.08
90 89.8 0.22 0.22
60 60.5 0.83 0.83
30 31.9 5.96 6.33
0 11 100.00 0.00
30 31.7 5.36 5.67
60 60.3 0.50 0.50
90 89.9 0.11 0.11
120 118.9 0.93 0.92
150 147.8 1.49 1.47

12
 For the experiment AC Voltmeter Calibration, a Voltmeter 201318 range 150V was
used to compare its reading with the Master Standard Unit by using alternating current. From
the results obtained and recorded on table 8.3, it can be concluded that the Voltmeter 201318
Range 150V has a high accuracy as the percentage errors obtained from the readings are quite
low. The minimum percentage error was 0.11% which is very low, while the maximum reading
obtained was of 5.96% which is an acceptable margin of error. This explains why the difference
between the readings obtained from the MSU and the reading if scale is very small.
Furthermore, since the percentage error is quite low the correction factor is low as well because
the correction required for the given errors is small. Moreover, it can be observed that the
percentage error and correction factor oscillate as they have no fixed trend when the readings
in the voltmeter increase or decrease.

Table 8.3.2: Internal Impedance 201318 Range 150V

Reading of Scale Reading of MSU Difference, D Impedance
V2 (V) V1 (V) V1-V2 v2*SR/D
40 49.1 9.1 4.39
60 71.9 11.9 5.04
90 106.1 16.1 5.59
120 140.1 20.1 5.97

4.39+5.04+5.59+5.97
Calculation for Average Internal Impedance Range 150V = = 5.25 kohm
4

Average Impedance Range 150 V = 5.25 k ohm

The above table contains the readings obtained from the internal impedance
measurement experiment. Internal impedance usually means the electrical resistance inside
batteries and power supplies that can limit the potential difference that can be supplied to an
external load in an alternating current. A standard resistor of 1 kOhm was connected to the
previous circuit. From the values presented on the table the difference between the readings
from the MSU and the readings from the scale increased with the increase in voltage. Moreover,
the impedance calculated also increased from 4.39 k ohms at 40 volts to 5.97 k ohms at 120
volts.

13
Experiment 8.4 AC Ammeter Calibration and Internal Impedance Measurement

Table 8.4.1 Calibration data for 205302 range 1A

Reading of Scale Reading of MSU Percentage Error, Correction Factor,
(A) (A) e a
1.00 1.00 0.40 -0.40
0.80 0.79 1.14 -1.13
0.60 0.59 2.21 -2.17
0.40 0.39 3.36 -3.25
0.20 0.18 8.70 -8.00
0.00 - 0.00 0.00
0.20 0.18 8.70 -8.00
0.40 0.39 3.09 -3.00
0.60 0.59 2.04 -2.00
0.83 0.79 5.06 -4.82
1.00 0.99 0.70 -0.70

This experiment is conducted using an ammeter model 205302 range 1A for alternating
current. From the table 8.2.1, it shows that the reading of the scale (A) is higher compared to
the reading of the MSU (mA). This is because the electric current that pass through a conductor
produce a magnetic field that perpendicular to the axis of the electron flow which will cause
the needle to deflect from the actual reading. Apart from that the percentage of the error varies
from 0% to 8.70%. This shows that this equipment has high accuracy since the percentage error
is very low. As the percentage error is low, the correction factor is also low hence the systemic
error from this calibration is low.
Table 8.4.2 Internal Impedance for 205302 range 1A
Reading of Scale Reading of MSU
Difference, D (A) Impedance (ohm)
(A) (A)
0.20 0.20 0.00 -0.15
0.40 0.42 0.02 0.40
0.60 0.63 0.03 0.50
0.80 0.85 0.05 0.60
Average Impedance Range 1A 0.34

14
 To determine the internal impedance of an ammeter model 205302 range from 1A for
alternating current, the standard resistor of 10ohm are used. Impedance is a concept that used
for alternating current and the internal impedance of an ammeter will cause the scale to read
smaller current than what actually passing. As the reading of the scale increased, the difference
of the experimental value and true value is also increased. The reading scale of 0.80A has the
highest internal resistance compared to 0.60A, 0.40mA, and 0.20A. From the calculation, the
average internal impedance range 1A ammeter is 0.34ohm.

Experiment 8.5 Resolution of DC Voltmeter

Measured Theoretical
Resolution Resolution
Reading of Scale 1st Reading of 2nd Reading of 2nd-1st Reading (Range/Division)
(V) MSU (V) MSU (V) (V) *1/2

2 1.95 2.15 0.2 0.05

4 3.93 4.13 0.2 0.05

6 5.88 6.08 0.2 0.05

8 7.89 8.09 0.2 0.05

Table 8.5.1 Resolution Data for 201138 range 10V

For this experiment, we have MSU which Model CA11 Handy Calibrator and UUT which is
Model 201138 DC Voltmeter. Supposed in the DC Voltmeter have interval of 1V with 10
division, so we vary 0.1 for the upper limit (+) and lower limit (-) for reading of the scale.
Theoretical resolution has been calculated as range of DC Voltmeter is 10V with 100 division,
equivalent to ±0. 05V.After experiment carried out for all reading scale of UUT, measured
resolution for all the scale experimented is ±0.2V. This means that the user can see changes as
small as 0.2 As this resolution portray the sensitivity of the DC Voltmeter for the corresponding
voltage that passes through it. However, the resolution of the scale can be increase might be
adjusted using the appropriate range at the voltmeter itself to increase the sensitivity when
taking reading as long as the measurement is within the set range.

15
Experiment 8.6 Hysteresis Error

Hysterisis Graph MSU Reading(mA) Vs UUT Reading (mA)

12

10 y = 0.9964x - 0.0248
Reading of the MSU (mA)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-2
Reading of the Scale (mA)

Table 8.6.1 : Hysteresis Graph MSU Reading vs UUT Reading

For this experiment, it is observed the effect of hysteresis on the current reading. After the
experiment carried out, a significant different noticed when the reading scale turn 8 mA, while
the value recorded in the MSU is 7.93, lead to 0.07 mA highest difference among other
readings. This phenomenon caused by hysteresis loop as current flow, they will induce
magnetizing force (H) cause lagging of the current flow. As the hysteresis are important for
electrical device that used rapid magnetism reversals or memory storage. Hence, commonly
material used divided into two classification which soft magnetic (easily demagnetise) and hard
magnetic (demagnetization is difficult to achieve).

16
 6.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, calibration process is a basic step in every experiment to determine the error
that possible produced from the instrument. Other than that, Calibration method has been
introduced to measure the accuracy of the reading to its actual value. Hence, in this experiment,
it can be observed that the Voltmeter 205106 Range 3V has a relatively high accuracy as the
minimum recorded percentage error is 0%. From the internal resistance result for DC voltmeter,
it can be concluded that as the potential difference increases, the value of internal resistance
decrease this is due to the inversely proportional relationship that can be seen in internal
resistance formula.
Next, as for DC ammeter calibration result, it can be justified that the electric current that
pass through a conductor produce a magnetic field that perpendicular to the axis of the electron
flow that will cause the needle to deflect from the actual reading, this occurrence has caused
the actual data to have slightly higher values than the MSU readings. Then, the internal
resistance also being observed for ammeter, the reading of the scale increased, the difference
of the experimental value and true value is also increased this is due to internal resistance of an
ammeter that cause the scale to read smaller current than what actually passing.
Besides, The AC calibration and impedance value for Voltmeter and Ammeter also
being include in the experiment. Based on the discussion, the justification of AC Voltmeter
calibration is quite the same as DC voltmeter calibration, as the the difference between the
readings obtained from the MSU and the reading if scale is very small, therefore the voltmeter
considered has a relatively high accuracy as the minimum recorded percentage error was 0%.
Hence, for AC ammeter calibration also being justified similar to DC ammeter calibration
result. As for resistance, in AC it being called as internal impedance where existed for both
ammeter and voltmeter.
Lastly, for resolution observation, the upper and lower limit for the scale reading are
varies in 0.1, but in the end the resolution obtained was ±0.2V whereas this can concluded that
user can see changes as small as 0.2 because the resolution portray the sensitivity of the DC
Voltmeter for the corresponding voltage that passes through it. Then, for the Hysteresis error
part, it can be seen that the hysteresis loop occurred as current flow, they will induce
magnetizing force (H) cause lagging of the current flow and it effect the experiment as
significant different noticed when the reading scale turn 8 mA, while the value recorded in the
MSU is 7.93, lead to 0.07 mA highest difference among other readings.

17
7.0 APPENDICES

Sample Calculation

1. Percentage error, e

e = (V-Vs)/Vs X 100%
e = (3-3.1)/3.1 X 100%
e = 3.23%

2. Correlation factor, a

a = (Vs-V)/V X 100%
a = (3.1-3)/3 X 100%
a = 3.33%

3. Internal Resistance
= v2*SR/D
= (1.34*1)/(1.34-1)
= 3.94 kohm

4. Internal Impedance
= v2*SR/D
= (40*1)/(49.1-40)
= 4.39 kohm

18
8.0 REFERENCES

1. What is a Meter?: DC Metering Circuits: Electronics Textbook. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-8/what-is-a-meter/

19