Mareng 02 PDF

1 MarEng Segunda Parte
Bengala de Mano
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En color azul texto disponible en formato audio mp3.
PORT OPERATIONS
Port Management As you are aware, governments have retreated from port
The retreat of government in seaports: towards a renewed management in the firm belief that an enterprise-based
port management style? economy allows for greater flexibility and efficiency in the
Ports, which have traditionally been run like government market and a more effective response to consumers’
departments, are becoming a normal industry thanks to the demands. Many so-called port privatization schemes are in
infusion of private money that promises greater competition, fact some form of commercialization or corporatization of a
higher productivity and eventually lower costs that will be port authority
passed on to importers and exporters. In this new and
volatile environment, the public sector is forced to reassess Right, now, let’s turn to corporatization itself: I hear you
its role in the port industry. saying, what exactly is corporatization? Well, corporatization
basically amounts to a shift from public sector organizations
The retreat of government flourishes in the belief that an to autonomous companies. These are owned by the public
enterprise-based economy would allow for greater flexibility sector but have accounting procedures and legal
and efficiency in the market and a more effective response requirements similar to the private sector. In the case of
to consumers’ demands. Many so-called port privatization commercialization the government retains control and
schemes are in fact some form of commercialization or ownership of the port organization, but within a business-like
corporatization of a port authority environment involving some management autonomy and
accountability. OK, are you with me so far?
Corporatization basically amounts to a shift from public
sector organizations to autonomous companies which are Let’s move on, then, to the private sector: This sector
owned by the public sector but have accounting procedures undertakes many commercial activities through performance
and legal requirements similar to the private sector, subject agreements, management contracts, service contracts,
to very limited direct government control. In the case of lease systems and/or concession agreements with the
commercialization the government retains control and public port organization. Mainland Europe has followed the
ownership of the port organization, but within a business-like path of public sector retreat via corporatization and
environment involving some management autonomy and commercialization, as most governments have loosened
accountability. The private sector undertakes many their grip on ports. We shouldn’t forget, however, that port
commercial activities through performance agreements, authorities still have robust ties with their respective
management contracts, service contracts, lease systems municipalities through ownership structure.
and/or concession agreements with the public port
organization. Mainland Europe has followed the path of I’d just like to finish by saying that the final aim is the
public sector retreat via corporatization and creation of an independent port management system with a
commercialization, as most governments have loosened sound commercial strategy. I hope we can show you some
their grip on ports. Port authorities still have robust ties with of that strategy today. Thank you and enjoy the rest of your
their respective municipalities through ownership structure, visit to the Port of Antwerp.
but decisions are made on a more independent basis and
port managers are accountable for these decisions. The Port of Antwerp sees cargo volume grow once more by
final aim is the creation of an independent port management nearly 6 per cent
system with a sound commercial strategy – including the B0102
possibility to diversify into other ports or activities via Strong third quarter for container cargo
financial participation – and full accountability for the results Antwerp, 24 October 2005
of administrative and operational activities.
In the first nine months of 2005 the port of Antwerp handled
This text is based on the article published in De Lloyd/Le nearly 120 million tonnes of cargo, an increase of 5.7 per
Lloyd entitled “The retreat of government in seaports: cent compared with the same period last year, with imports
towards a renewed port management style?” byDr. Theo and exports up by the same amount.
Notteboom: Associate Professor, ITMMA, University of The container volume between January and September
Antwerp amounted to 55.8 million tonnes, up 8.6 per cent on the
previous year. In terms of twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU)
Port Management this represents an increase of 5.8 per cent, to 4.8 million
Giving a presentation: The retreat of government in TEU.
seaports: towards a renewed port management style?
B0101 Antwerp’s container trade did particularly well in the last
Ok, ladies and gentlemen, just before we set off on our tour three months. In the third quarter the volume of containers
of the Port I just wanted to take a couple of minutes to say a handled was up on the same period in 2004 by 11 per cent
few words about the style of port management today. Now, in TEU and 14 per cent in tonnes. The Deurganck dock
how many of you have hands-on experience of port promises further growth in the port’s container activities. The
management? Ok, that’s quite a number of you then. So “OOCL New York” was the first ship to be handled in the
you’ll be able to relate to what I’m saying. Deurganck dock since the official inauguration of the
Antwerp Gateway Terminal.
So, to begin, let’s look more closely at ports. Well,
traditionally these have been run like government Ro/ro cargo for its part contracted slightly during the past
departments, but now they’re becoming a normal industry nine months, by 4 per cent. 589,413 cars, trucks and trailers
thanks to the infusion of private money. This brings a) have been shipped through the port of Antwerp so far this
greater competition, b) higher productivity and c) eventually year. Imports remain stable, and the decline in exports has
lower costs that will be passed on to importers and been reduced during the past quarter from 20 to 15 per
exporters. And what’s the result? Yes, a public sector that cent. The drop in exports is due to the stricter import rules in
has been forced to reassess its role in the port industry. West Africa and the closure of the Iraq market.
B0103
Conventional general cargo expanded by 3 per cent in the (Belgian Railways). Roughly 1,800 people are employed in
first three quarters of this year, reaching 13.6 million tonnes. operating them.
Imports in particular have risen significantly as a result of © Port of Antwerp Authorities
the strong increase in steel products (up 23 per cent). India,
Russia and Iran are exporting enormous amounts of steel to The Port of Antwerp, private sector partnership
Europe, since the EU is struggling with high steel prices. The organization of the private sector in Antwerp is
This trend, which made itself apparent last year, is now dependent on the activities of a number of professional
levelling off. Meanwhile, the volumes of fruit and forest associations. These organizations act as industry
products remain stable. spokesmen with regard to the various authorities and with
other industries.
The volume of bulk freight handled in Antwerp stood at 47.8 The Antwerp Shipping Federation (ASV) represents the
million tonnes at the end of the third quarter, an increase of agents and shipowners' offices who watch over the interests
nearly 4 per cent. Both imports and exports were up during of the 300 or so shipowners whose ships make regular use
the past nine months. There were particularly strong of the port. Its 100-odd members include shipbrokers and
increases in the volume of chemicals (up 11 per cent) and operators. The Belgian and Luxembourg merchant fleet is
oil derivatives (up 14 per cent). This good result is a only small, but is one of the most specialized in the world.
consequence of higher output by various companies in the Consequently the Belgian Shipowners' Association (BRV)
Antwerp region. Furthermore, the port of Antwerp is gaining represents shipowners who are involved in the carriage of
in significance as a distribution centre for chemicals and gas, bulk cargoes and oil.
derivatives. A second large group is made up of the 210 forwarders and
industrial shipping agents in Antwerp. Their interests are
From January to September a total of 11,407 seagoing represented by the Antwerp Freight Forwarding, Logistics
vessels called at the port of Antwerp. This represents a and Works' Agents Association (VEA).Antwerp's cargo
further slight decrease of 1.7 per cent in comparison with handlers are represented by ABAS (Professional
the first nine months of last year. On the other hand, the Association of Antwerp Master Stevedores and Port
gross register tonnage continues to trend upwards, with Operators) and the KVBG (Royal Association of Traffic Flow
growth of more than 3.7 per cent. Controllers).
© Port of Antwerp Authority 2005
ABAS has about thirty members. The majority are
Port organization in the Port of Antwerp stevedores, although both warehousing specialists and
The Antwerp Port Authority owns the docks and the sites companies performing related activities such as lashing and
used by port operators and industrial companies on the securing also belong to the association. The sixty members
Right Bank of the Scheldt. It is, moreover, the owner of part of the KVBG take care of the handling, warehousing and
of the port equipment. The Port Authority likewise manages distribution of goods. These firms were originally warehouse
the Left Bank port, which ensures the application of uniform operators (Antwerp's "naties") which have now developed
policies on both sides of the river. However, land use and into suppliers of logistic services. These professional
industrial development policy on the Left Bank is in the associations have established a number of umbrella
hands of a separate public sector corporation for land use organizations that serve as forums for consultation and
and industrialization. cooperation.
The private port companies make the necessary • ALFAPORT ANTWERPEN acts as the representative of
investments in superstructure and handling equipment on business in the port and promotes the interests of port users
the bare facilities they lease from the Port Authority. Private in many different areas.
enterprise is also responsible for all logistic and transport • CEPA or the Port of Antwerp Employers' Association and
services to the port users. the Employers’ Association of Trade and Shipping Offices
© Port of Antwerp are both involved in the social sector.
• INPRO, the Dangerous Products Information Centre is a
The Port of Antwerp, public sector partnership helpdesk for firms seeking information about dangerous
goods.
Part 1 Firms in other areas of the transport industry have their own
B0104 professional associations. These include associations for
All kinds of public services are involved in the activities of Belgian inland navigation companies, Rhine shipping
the port. The Antwerp Port Authority, with a workforce of agents, and road hauliers. In this way all parties can be
1,900, owns and manages docks, berths, locks, etc. It is drawn into the consultation process.
responsible for planning, expanding, modernising and © Port of Antwerp
maintaining the infrastructure of the port, and also operates
its own equipment, including warehouses, floating cranes, A multipurpose port
shore cranes, tugs and dredgers. B0106
Part 2 The Port of Antwerp handles more than 150 million tonnes
of cargo per year (55% incoming and 45% outgoing
B0105 traffic).This volume makes Antwerp the second largest port
The Authority also leases sites and land and is responsible in Europe and the fourth largest in the world.
for the distribution of electricity in the port. Furthermore B0107
various national and regional authorities play an important A little under half of Antwerp's goods traffic consists of bulk
part in ensuring the safety of shipping and satisfactory port such as coal, ores, fertilisers, grains and so on. Antwerp
operations. The Ministry of the Flemish Community is, for also handles large quantities of breakbulk. The various port
example, responsible for maintaining the navigation channel operators have invested heavily in specialised handling
in the Scheldt, and also for the pilotage service. The installations for trades such as iron and steel, fruit, forest
government is also responsible for issuing tonnage products, cars, dangerous goods and sugar.
certificates and certificates of seaworthiness. B0108
Other public services include the various Police Services, It thus comes as no surprise that Antwerp is a market
the Health Inspectorate and the Customs Service. All the leader in many of these trades.
railways in the port are the property of the NMBS-SNCB
Antwerp has responded positively to the unitised load seafarers find it more difficult to leave the ship and
phenomenon. Nowadays 76% of all general cargo is packed chaplains and welfare workers find it more difficult to gain
in containers. access to the ships and to the seafarers on board. On one
B0109 occasion, I encountered a security guard who refused me
Antwerp's container terminals pride themselves on their access to one ship on the grounds that the cargo was of a
productivity and low costs, outdoing many of their European sensitive nature. I said that I had nothing to do with the
competitors. Not surprisingly, Antwerp offers the best quality cargo, all I wanted to do was to go and talk to the crew.
to price ratio of all North Sea ports. After some time, the security guard finally agreed to let me
on board. The crew were so grateful for my visit. It seems
© Port of Antwerp Authority 2005 obvious that the nature of the cargo should not get in the
way of welfare of the crew, but more often than not it seems
Isolation and Communication the cargo is valued more highly than the welfare of the
B0110 seafarers.”
The Port of Antwerp has a large ecumenical team which is B0111
responsible for the welfare of all seafarers. So far this year, SH “But is there any good news on the horizon?”
Port Chaplain John Attenborough has been busy visiting the JA “There certainly is. For the new Deurganck Dock,
ships that have come into the Port of Antwerp. He has officially opened on June 6th 2006, there is provision in the
concentrated his efforts on the Left Bank as this area is agreement by the companies running the new dock, HN-
rather far away from most amenities, which are located on PSA and P&O Ports, to provide welfare facilities to the
the Right Bank of the river Scheldt. seafarers that come in on the ships which berth in the dock.
Stephanie Hughes spoke to him. “John, please tell me “
something about your work on the Left Bank.” SH “So it is just a case of waiting and seeing.”
JA “Well Stephanie, during the weekends the whole area is JA “Yes, It will be interesting to see how the new facilities
like a ghost town, no lorries, no cars, not much of anything. make a difference to the lives of the seafarers visiting
Isolation is one of the biggest challenges that seafarers face Antwerp. I was recently invited to a meeting with one of the
in the modern shipping world. The seafarers are very lucky if companies running the new dock and am pleased to report
they can even manage to find a telephone in order to call that the needs of the seafarers have been taken into
their loved ones back home. This is something that many consideration. The companies have agreed to provide
people fail to understand in this modern world of mobile telephones, computers, a TV, a comfortable seating area
phones. Seafarers have a harder time than most of the and some shelving on which we can put newspapers and
population, because the roaming service on a mobile is magazines for the seafarers to take. The ships using the
extortionately expensive. One seafarer told me that being on new dock will only be container vessels, so the time in port
a ship on the Left Bank was like being in a desert. He went will be a matter of hours. It is really exciting to see that, at
on to say, “All you need is some sand and the picture would last, seafarers will have somewhere relatively accessible
be complete!” He did not want me to take his photo, where they feel welcome.”
because he was not in a happy mood. ” SH “Thank you for your time and for the useful insights into
SH “Can you tell me something about the challenges you the developments in the Port of Antwerp.”
face when visiting the ships?” JA “You’re welcome.”
JA “Though ships are getting bigger and faster, crewing
levels are decreasing. With new security regulations,
SHIPPING AND MARITIME MANAGEMENT
What is ship management? outsource the remaining day-to-day management activities
B0200 to the ship manager.
I: Jack Roberts, you’ve worked in ship management for the
last 20 years, so I’m sure you won’t mind if we describe you In another example the ship owner himself may retain a
as an old-hand at the job! technical department to run a core fleet of, let’s say, bulk
B0201 carriers, but should he then acquire a fleet of specialist
I: Can you tell us a bit about yourself to start with? vessels he would need to use a ship manager to provide the
B0202 skills required for that specialist fleet – I’m talking about
JR: Well, I initially chose a career at sea because of my maintenance skills as well as the sourcing of sea staff with
interest in sailing and all things nautical. I was determined to skills and experience relevant to the fleet in question. These
learn the art of seamanship first hand and first went to sea are just two examples though. To sum it up, it’s actually the
in 1974 as a deck cadet. I then spent several years in contract between the manager and the owner which defines
service, moving up the ranks, on many different types of the exact relationship.
ships. Going to sea certainly broadened my horizons, gave B0209
me the chance to see the seven seas, as it were. I didn’t I: Moving on then, can you tell us more about the contract
know then that it would provide professional training for a itself?
lifelong rewarding career. After a number of years at sea I B0210
decided that an entire life on the ocean waves was maybe JR: Contracts vary, of course, and are again dependent on
not what I wanted, and in 1985 made the move back to land, the needs and resources of the contracting parties involved.
where I swiftly entered the world of ship management. I As I mentioned earlier, the manager provides a single or a
have seen many changes in ship design, technological range of services. The ship owner elects to use a
equipment and management practices since my early days comprehensive range or possibly just one service from
and as a result the job has always remained fascinating and those offered by the manager. The contract, then, governs
challenging the professional supply or in other words sets out the terms
B0203 by which the supplier – that’s our ship manager – provides
I: How, then, would you define ship management? services to the user in return for a management fee. The
B0204 ship manager is bound to a contractual set of terms and
JR: Well, that’s a good question. I suppose the first thing to conditions. We see this in several ways; the ship manager
say is that ship management is really an umbrella term, must ensure that the vessel always complies with
covering various different types of management services international rules and regulations, that it is run in a safe and
and these are, in turn, related to all aspects of daily vessel cost efficient manner without threat to the environment and
operations. The term describes an international business of that it is maintained so as to preserve as far as possible its
many characteristics including low margins, relatively low asset value.
barriers of entry for ship management companies, heavy B0211
paperwork, intense competition, high risks and a need to I: We began this interview by talking about a range of
provide a round the clock service. The ship manager must services which might be supplied by the ship manager?
be able to tailor the service to the differing needs of the ship What exactly are those services?
owner, whilst maintaining efficiency and cost effectiveness B0212
in service delivery. In other words ship management is the JR: Essentially the services in question comprise three main
professional supply of a single or a range of services by a groups, namely technical management, crew management
management company separate from the vessel’s and commercial management. There is also a fourth group
ownership. that can be termed ancillary services, but I won’t go into that
B0205 in detail at the moment.
I: Does that mean that the ship manager and ship owner are
separate entities? The main objective of technical management is safe,
B0206 pollution free and cost efficient vessel operation in
JR: Yes, indeed. The point I’m making is that the accordance with international rules and regulations and
management company is separate from the ship owner. also, to some extent, the protection of asset value. Perhaps
This means, in effect, that the supplier of the services, in one of the most obvious examples of technical management
other words the management company, is considered is regular vessel inspections.
independent from the user working with his own staff and
sometimes from a separate company. The term separate Crew management is the provision of well-trained and
means, in the strictest sense, that there is no common suitably experienced crew of the nationality required by the
shareholding interest between the ship owner and the ship owner to ensure safe and efficient operation according,
manager. We could talk about this particular point later again, to international regulations.
perhaps. Commercial management involves the provision of
B0208 miscellaneous ship broking services relating to the
I: Can you give some specific examples which typify the employment of a vessel, but I can come back to that point
relationship between the owner and the manager? later.
JR: Certainly, although it’s not as simple as definitions might B0213
suggest. The relationship depends very much on the I: Let’s look at risk for a moment. Is ship management a
resources and needs of the owner in relation to the services risky business? Which party, manager or owner, runs the
provided by the manager. Just to give a couple of examples greater risk in your opinion?
then. B0214
JR: As I said right at the start, ship management entails high
One example that we have is a situation in which the ship risks. As to which party runs the greater risk, well, that’s
owner elects to retain control over a number of critical debatable. Let’s take the ship owner first, since it’s often
functions in the management of his ships – such as the said that he is the prime risk taker. His primary objective and
selection of senior officers, safety auditing and the success is dependent upon his ability to find profitable
negotiation and management of dry docking – but will employment for the ship and/or to realise a profit from the
vessel’s resale for demolition or further trading. By contrast B0217
the ship manager’s aim is to provide a service or services to JM: Good afternoon. Your receptionist told me that you were
assist the ship owner in return for a fixed management fee. the best person to talk to. I’m calling from Australia. My
It would be unfair though to say that the ship manager runs name is Jack McCarthy of Queensland Maritime Services.
no risk. He might find himself in a situation whereby the Your company was recommended to me by a business
owner has run into financial difficulties and is unable to pay, associate.
or whereby there is a risk to his reputation due to problems B0218
caused by insufficient funding. What I mean by this is that BJ: Well, let’s hope we can live up to the recommendation,
the risk is not borne entirely by one party. Mr McCarthy. What can I do for you?
B0201 B0219
I: Well, it sounds like a fascinating field to work in. Jack JM: I’m looking for a vessel to transport cargo.
Roberts, thank you for agreeing to speak to us. B0220
BJ: You’ve come to the right place. We can arrange for the
Antwerpia Shipping shipment of bulk, liner, reefer or project cargo, you name it.
For a company such as Antwerpia Shipping n.v. it is vital to What type of cargo did you have in mind?
be able to anticipate trends on the shipping markets. B0221
Antwerpia Shipping n.v. was established in 1965 and offers JM: Grain. 50,000 tonnes to be precise.
services related to the chartering of motor vessels, B0222
otherwise known as ship chartering. It serves as an efficient BJ: That won’t be a problem, but I’ll need to take more
link for commerce from or through Antwerp to various details from you of course. Can you let me have the present
worldwide destinations. Antwerpia Shipping acts as ship location of the grain, and the port of destination?
agents, brokers, ship charterers and bunkering agents B0223
operating from a centrally located office in the city of JM: Well, I’m looking to ship the grain from the Port of
Antwerp, Belgium. Antwerpia Shipping specialises in tramp Gladstone to Tallin in Estonia.
traffic, namely vessels which do not operate under regular B0224
schedules, and can arrange movements of cargoes within BJ: OK, Gladstone – that’s in Queensland, isn’t it? Yes, I’m
the Mediterranean, U.K. and the North continent to various familiar with Gladstone, although we normally ship coal from
destinations. It arranges charters for a wide range of vessels that region.
including refrigerated cargo vessels (reefers), VLCCs, B0225
RoRos, dry bulk carriers and general cargo ships. Antwerpia JM: That would be right. Gladstone’s the fourth largest coal
Shipping offers a monthly conventional and container export port in the world. This time it’s grain though, and my
service from Antwerp to Helsinki and, in addition, operates a timing’s pretty tight. I have a contract to get the grain to
twice monthly conventional service from Tallin and Helsinki Tallin within the month.
to Antwerp. Transhipment is catered for by companies in the B0226
stevedore business. BJ: OK, I’m just having a look at my screen here. Yes, I
thought so. We have a Panamax dry bulk carrier presently
Chartering a ship – definitions sailing from the Gulf to deliver grain in Japan. It’s due to
A Shipper is an individual or company with cargo to arrive in Japan in three days time. That means that it will be
transport. A charterer is the individual or company who hires ‘open’ in four days time and then due to return to Antwerp. It
a ship. A charter-party is the contract setting out the terms will be looking for a cargo such as yours to reposition into
under which the shipper contracts for the transportation of the North Atlantic area; I’ll just have to check if it ties in with
his cargo or the charterer contracts for the hire of a ship. On our service from Antwerp to Helsinki and on to Tallin. It
a voyage charter, a ship earns freight per ton of cargo should do though. That would suit your requirements,
transported on terms set out in the charter-party which wouldn’t it?
specifies the precise nature and volume of the cargo, the B0227
part(s) of loading and discharge and the laytime and JM: Yes, indeed. Sounds just like what we need. Can you
demurrage. All costs are paid by the shipowner. A just run over the ship’s characteristics to check that it fulfils
consecutive voyage charter is where the vessel is hired to our requirements? I’m thinking about its speed, cargo
perform a series of consecutive voyages between A and B. capacity, dimensions, handling gear and so on.
A contract of Affreightment (COA) is signed when a B0228
shipowner undertakes to carry quantities of a specific cargo BJ: Certainly. As I said, it’s a Panamax bulk carrier, 69,100
on a particular route or routes over a given period of time dwt., built in Japan in 1994. I’m sure you’re familiar with the
using ships of his choice with specific restrictions. The term vessel type, but basically it has a framework for the carriage
‘Period charter’ is used when the vessel is hired for a of dry solids in bulk without packaging. Grain, for example. It
specified period of time for payment of a daily, monthly or has a capacity of 70,000 metric tonnes and sails at an
annual fee. There are three types of period charter, time average speed of 14 knots; that’s an economical speed I’m
charter, trip charter and consecutive voyage charter. A time talking about. You can visit our website for further
charter is where a ship earns hire monthly or semi-monthly. information about the ship’s characteristics.
The shipowner retains possession and mans and operates B0229
the ship under instructions from the charterer who pays the JM: OK, but can I just run over a couple of points with you?
voyage costs. A trip charter is fixed on a time charter basis I’m sure I don’t have to tell you that grain is a free running
for the period of a specific voyage and for the carriage of a cargo. It’s prone to shift in heavy weather and if the ship’s
specific cargo. The shipowner earns 'hire' per day for the not up to it this could threaten the safety of the ship herself.
period determined by the voyage. With a bare boat charter Heavy cargoes like these have to be loaded and discharged
the owner of the ship contracts (for a fee, usually long-term) in a certain sequence, otherwise we’re talking about serious
to another party for its operation. The ship is then operated stress to the structure of the ship. When loading grain, care
by the second party as if he owned it. has to be taken with the sequence of filling the hatches and
Adapted from © PONL with permission the cargo distribution, so that no undue stress is put on the
vessel while loading or later when moving in a seaway.
Chartering a ship - A telephone conversation Large waves can be a deadly hazard, you know.
B0216 B0230
BJ: Antwerpia Shipping. Bert Janssens speaking.
• Exhaust gas emissions of vessels discharging sulphur and The incident highlights recent concerns over sub-standards
nitrogen oxides into the air along with carbon dioxide, ships and serves as a reminder that ship owners and
carbon monoxide, particles and hydrocarbons. operators need to be familiar with requirements on safety
• Cooling agents, extinguishers and volatile organic and pollution protection in order to prepare themselves for
compounds discharged into the air during the loading and PSC which is becoming increasingly widespread at
unloading of tankers. international level. A spokesman for the International
Association of Classification Societies (IACS) said that it is
Water emissions: in the interest of owners and managers to be fully prepared
• Oil and chemical emissions discharged into the sea, for these inspections. He added that IACS checklists
accidentally or intentionally. identifying the top 50 most common causes of ship
• Escape of solid and liquid ship waste into the water. detention are now available
Other environmental problems: The boxship in question was insured by Britannia Steamship
• Spread of organisms to new areas, threatening the for cargo losses and classed by DNV. Hull cover is likely to
balance of the original biotype. These organisms are be with Hyundai Marine & Fire Insurance, but a great part of
transported in ballast water or when they attach themselves the risk will be reinsured out to London and other
to the bottoms of vessels. international markets. The container cargo of a ship of this
• Increased surge formation may increase erosion to size would typically be worth $150m, indicating that the loss
sensitive littorals. could outstrip damage to the hull.
• Growth in noise pollution.
• Safety risks caused by increasing vessel speeds. Interpreting the shipping markets
B02
Sub-standard ships At the beginning of the year freight rates generally were at
B0244 an all-time high. Younger members of the industry were told
A recent incident has highlighted problems with sub- by older, wiser colleagues how lucky they were to
standard ships. It has been revealed that a boxship which experience such high levels, usually seen only once in a
sank off the coast of Yemen following a huge fire had lifetime. In the Spring, however, the market plummeted
recently failed a port state control inspection. At the time of displaying all the hallmarks of a classic shipping “spike”. By
the incident the vessel was reportedly travelling from Korea mid-year rates had experienced the biggest ever fall in the
to Rotterdam. shipping market with average Capesize rates collapsing by
almost $60,000 on a daily basis from the January peaks.
The fire on the vessel blazed in the aft accommodation and
cargo area for at least six hours and plumes of black smoke No-one had reckoned with China, however, which single-
were sent billowing into the sky 130 nautical miles off Aden. handedly reversed the market and launched it on a further
Explosions were still being heard from the ship the following upward trajectory. Imports of iron ore into China surged in a
day. period of one month, rising 5 Mt between June and July,
B0245 from 13 Mt to 18 Mt. This was the biggest ever increase in
A Dutch navy frigate sent speedboats to take 27 crew from demand by one country in a single month, and proved just
the vessel, and a helicopter removed one injured crewman. the tonic that was needed for Capesize owners who had
His condition on board the navy ship was reported to be feared the boom was short-lived. The sharp upturn had an
stable. A ten mile exclusion zone was established around immediate effect on smaller sizes with both Panamax and
the boxship, which lost a number of containers overboard. A Handymax rates responding positively and immediately
UK navy vessel was also in attendance and tugs were moving upwards. The rise continued steeply until the
summoned to the scene shortly after the vessel had caught beginning of December setting another record peak second
fire. only to February’s first.
It was reported that the blaze had been caused by a Few owners can be dissatisfied with this year’s average
technical fault. As recently as 2001 the boxship had been rates. Everything considered it was a good twelve months
detained following a port state control inspection (PSC). The for the record books, with another promising year just round
incident is now under investigation. the corner.
B0246
CARGO HANDLING
Antwerp Container port trade A successful containerised cargo shipment depends on four
basic fundamentals.
Text One 1. Matching the cargo to the correct type of container that is
Container trade best suited for the forthcoming voyage.
B0301This year the volume of containerised goods came to 2. Ensuring that the container is in good condition prior to
74.6 million tonnes, or 6.5 million TEU. Over the last 10 loading the cargo and that it is carried and handled correctly
years container tonnage has risen by 42.5 million tonnes or throughout the voyage.
164.7%.At present, 78% of all general cargo is 3. Ensuring that the cargo is loaded correctly into the
containerised. Last year the nine principal ports of the Le container and is properly secured against movement during
Havre-Hamburg range jointly handled 28.4 million TEU, or a the voyage.
total tonnage of 298 million tonnes. In terms of tonnage as 4. Ensuring that all the relevant cargo information is
well as of TEU Antwerp is the third largest container port in communicated to all appropriate parties to ensure that the
the range, after Rotterdam and Hamburg, and has a market container and its contents will arrive at the consignee in the
share of 21.3%. expected condition.
© PONL 2005
Text Two
Container trade by geographical region in 2005 Text Cargo Handling – Bill of Lading definitions
based on table © Antwerp Port Authority In order to understand a Bill of Lading, it is important to be
B0302 familiar with certain definitions.
Container trade with Europe was 19.7% of the total of 74.6
million tonnes. The Near East was slightly more, 20.3%. 'Carrier' Means the party named in the Signature Box on the
Trade with the Mid and Far East was slightly less than that face of this document.
with Europe, 19.2%. Trade with North and Central America
was 0.8% under 25% at 24.2%. Trade with South America 'Merchant' Includes any Person who at any time has been or
and Africa lagged behind at 5.7% and 9.2% becomes the Shipper, Holder, Consignee, Receiver of the
respectively.Other regions made up the remaining 1.7% Goods, any Person who owns or is entitled to the
trade. possession of the Goods or of this Bill of Lading and any
Person acting on behalf of any such Person.
Text Three
B0303 'Holder' Means any Person for the time being in possession
Port of Antwerp — Container traffic in 2005 (in tonnes) – of (or entitled to the possession of) this Bill of Lading.
Full containers
The number of full containers unloaded from Europe was 'Person' Includes an individual, group, company or other
5,210,121. entity.
The number of full containers loaded for Europe was
9,545,549. 'Sub-Contractor' Includes (but is not limited to) owners and
giving a total of 14,755,670. operators of any vessels (other than the Carrier),
The number of full containers unloaded from the Near East stevedores, terminal and groupage operators, road, rail and
was 5,451,874. air transport operators and any independent contractor
The number of full containers loaded for the Near East was employed by the Carrier in performance of the Carriage and
9,431,519 any sub-sub-contractors thereof.
giving a total of 14,883,393
The number of full containers unloaded from the Middle & 'Indemnify' Includes defend, indemnify and hold harmless
Far East was 5,147,976. whether or not the obligation to indemnify arises out of
The number of full containers loaded for the Middle & Far negligent or non-negligent acts or omissions of the Carrier,
East was 9,075,391 his servants, agents or Sub-Contractors.
The number of full containers unloaded from North & 'Goods' Means the whole or any part of the cargo received
Central America was 8,010,124 from the Shipper and includes the packing and any
The number of full containers loaded for North & Central equipment or Container not supplied by or on behalf of the
America was 8,250,502 Carrier.
The number of full containers unloaded from South America 'Container' Includes any container, trailer, transportable
was 2,184,113 tank, flat or pallet, or any similar article used to consolidate
The number of full containers loaded for South America was goods and any ancillary equipment.
2,384,074
giving a total of 4,568,187 'Carriage' Means the whole or any part of the operations
The number of full containers unloaded from Africa was and services undertaken by the Carrier in respect of the
2,833,753 Goods covered by this Bill of Lading.
The number of full containers loaded for Africa was
3,869,554 'Port of Loading' Means any port at which the Goods are
giving a total of 6,703,307 loaded on board any Vessel (which may not necessarily be
The number of full containers unloaded from other the Vessel named elsewhere in this document) for Carriage
destinations was 153,634 under this Bill of Lading
The number of full containers loaded for other destinations
was 557,419 'Port of Discharge' Means any port at which the Goods are
giving a total of 711,053 discharged from any Vessel (which may not necessarily be
Text © Port of Antwerp the Vessel named elsewhere in this document) after
Carriage under this Bill of Lading.
Introduction to cargo care
'Vessel' Means any waterborne craft used in the Carriage developed extensive knowledge and expertise in the
under this Bill of Lading which may be a feeder vessel or an carriage of world-wide temperature controlled cargoes. They
ocean vessel. transport their customer’s cargoes efficiently and effectively
from the point of loading all the way through to the final
'Combined Transport' Arises if the Place of Receipt and/or destination, ensuring the cargo arrives in pristine condition
the Place of Delivery are indicated on the face of this for the final customer.
document in the relevant spaces.
Engine problems aboard a container ship
'Port to Port' Arises if the Carriage is not Combined Report from Arnie Spencer, Captain of a container ship
Transport. which trades from the Far East to the west coast of the USA
'Shipped on Board' Relates only to the Container into which “Hi, I’m Arnie Spencer. Since my last dispatch, we have
the Goods are manifested. been to the port of Long Beach for our full discharge and
load. Whilst in the harbour, we performed our regular three-
'Freight' Includes all charges payable to the Carrier in monthly test of the lifeboat, lowering it into the water and
accordance with the applicable Tariff and this Bill of Lading. taking it for a spin around the harbour, which was most
enjoyable. The engineering department took the opportunity
'Hague Rules' Means the provisions of the International of our time in harbour to open up an engine cylinder and
Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules relating to check the piston rings. If there is any wear, the piston rings
Bills of Lading signed at Brussels on 25th August, 1924 and are changed and the piston crown is cleaned up and
includes the amendments by the Protocol signed at replaced. This means that on departure the new pistons
Brussels on 23rd February, 1968, but only if such must be run in, meaning that we have to very gradually
amendments are compulsorily applicable to this Bill of increase our speed over a 12-hour period in order not to
Lading. (It is expressly provided that nothing in this Bill of cause any damage to the new pistons.
Lading shall be construed as contractually applying said
Rules as amended by said Protocol). On our way across the Pacific, we encountered an engine
problem, which meant that all engineers had to take turns
Refrigerated cargo on sea watch, much to their annoyance. On today's modern
Most vessels are nowadays involved in the carriage of vessels, the engine room is unmanned at night with one
refrigerated cargoes all over the world, travelling through engineer covering alarms over each 24-hour period.
climates as hot as the torrid summers of the Persian Gulf Therefore, taking part in watches throughout the night is a
and as cold as the frigid winters of the Antarctic Ocean. The shock to the system compared to the usual 8-5 daytime
combination of the cargo temperature requirements and the shift. Hopefully, the problem will be fixed shortly and we will
climatic variations means correct temperature control of the be back to normal after our second call to Singapore”.
refrigeration unit is essential, ensuring the cargo reaches its © The Marine Society
final destination in the desired condition. Shippers have
VESSEL TYPES
BULK CARRIERS these new vessels. Along the way they were able to put into
Bulk carriers, or just bulkers, are ships especially designed practice the yard’s considerable experience in the field.
to carry loose goods in bulk. The cargo transported in bulk
commonly includes wood, coal, ore, grain, coke, fertilisers, The delivery ceremony was held on 20th August 2005,
cement, light minerals, sugar and sand. exactly nine months after the commencement of steel
cutting. The second ship, the “Thames Highway”, exactly
Bulkers usually have one deck, with the engine room in the replicating the design of the prototype, was completed by
stern and a deckhouse above it. Holds are constructed with the end of 2005
longitudinal and cross walls, called bulkheads. Cargo in bulk .
is easily stowed in between them. Bulk cargo ships are not The largest car carriers of today can handle over 6000 units.
equipped with any handling gear, except for handy size The “Elbe Highway”, with her overall length (LOA) of 143 m
ones, up to 30,000 tons of deadweight. All loading and and breadth (B) of 25 m, can carry up to 2100 units, so the
unloading is done by means of shore devices like grabs or total car deck capacity is comparatively small. In fact, she
suction pipes. Some of them make use of flexible ductings can be classified as the only vessel ever designed and built
and fans, which simply blow light cargo into holds. Port expressly for carrying vehicles. The intention was to follow
devices may include special conveyors that drop cargo the innovative approach to world car transport. The crucial
inside. When one hold is full, loading is continued into the idea is to lower the cost of the port stay by means of
next one. employing smaller cargo ships, operating as feeders.
Bulk carriers have large upper and lower ballast tanks to The vessel is constructed with two hydraulically-operated
provide enough draught. Some bulk carriers are designed to external stern ramps. One is a straight stern ramp, another
function also as tankers. Such vessels are called Ore Bulk one is a quarter stern ramp. Each of them has a safe
Oil (OBO) carriers. working load of 70 tons and a 6-metre long driveway. All
vehicles ranging from passenger cars to heavy movable
CABLE-LAYING SHIPS machinery can be loaded and discharged through these two
Cable-laying vessels, also called cable layers, are specially ramps.
designed for laying and repairing telegraph and telephone
cables across vast water areas like channels, seas and For PCTC carriers, a stern quarter ramp offers considerable
oceans. Modern cable layers are as efficient in repair and advantages for cargo access and handling. Its main benefit
maintenance operations as in long-haul cable laying. is that it allows the vessel to berth in the normal manner,
The internet boom together with the extraordinary expansion that is alongside the quay, without the need for special
of telecommunication has led to the growing demand for shore facilities. The motor vehicles carried by the “Elbe
vessels specialising in laying sub-sea optical fibre networks. Highway”, and later on by her three sisters, can be handled
at any port in the world, not only at Ro-Ro terminals with
“The Cable Innovator” seems to be the largest vessel trailer quays.
operating in this market. The ship was built by Kvaerner
Masa Yards in Finland. All cable-laying operations The carrier is built with eight cargo decks in total. Two of
arevcarried over the stern, so the vessel can maintain a high them are liftable car decks. They enhance greatly the
speed and is not slowed down during cable work. Moreover, operational flexibility of the vessel. Unlike hoistable car
it can operate successfully in extreme weather conditions. It decks, they have no integral lifting mechanism, but are
has been designed to deploy a remotely operated vehicle deployed by a mobile deck lift. Thus, the maintenance
(ROV). The vehicle is connected to the ship via requirements of each of the panels forming the movable
communication tether. decks are limited.
The most important cable handling equipment aboard “The The arrangement of internal ramps and fixed car decks
Cable Innovator” is the electrically operated cable laying follows the main design concept to shorten the time in port.
drum with various tension devices. The drum diameter is 4m Namely, deck supporting pillars have been designed off the
long and has fixed-angle fleeting rings and blades for ship centre line, making the construction not symmetrical,
controlling the cable work. It is equipped with a special A- but allowing for better cargo access.
frame for handling the plough used for
cable burial in the seabed. The “Elbe Highway” has been classified by DNV as ICE-1A
as the hull is strengthened in her underwater and bow
Furthermore, “The Cable Innovator” is equipped with an sections. The navigating bridge is fully glass-shielded to
echo sounder and devices for measuring the length of the improve the navigation visibility on icy waters. The prototype
cable laid out. While laying cables, all main data are carrier has already joined the growing fleet of high-quality
monitored, logged and printed out as a quality control. The car carriers of high manoeuvrability and efficiency that are
control system can also display all data accounting for the operating on short routes in the Baltic
tension of the plough tow cable when the vessel operates and North Sea regions.
and can activate the alarm in case the cable tension gets
too high. The vessel automatically reduces its speed. When CONTAINERSHIPS
buried safely beneath the sea bed, the fibre optic These ships carry cargo in containers. Goods are locked
communication cables constitute a vital part of our global and sealed in huge boxes of standard size. Containerships
telecommunication network. carry containers both in holds and on the main deck. In the
holds, there is a special cellular structure of guide rails
CAR CARRIERS where containers are stowed one on the top of another.
The “Elbe Highway” is the first of the series of four That is why they can be also called cellular vessels. These
innovative PCTC (Pure Car and Truck Carrier) Ro-Ro car ships usually have one deck, with the machinery spaces
carriers built in Gdynia Shipyard S.A., Poland, for long-term located towards the aft end. Additional containers are
charter for Kawasaki Europe. The shipyard design office stowed on open deck and anchored in place by wire ropes.
team initiated and accomplished all the concept work on
Containerships have produced a revolution in water
transport. The higher speed of around 26 knots is their main
advantage over other cargo ships. In addition, the loading
and unloading work with the use of shore based moving
gantry cranes is extremely fast. The primary advantage of
the use of containers is the possibility of transporting cargo
directly from customer to customer, not only from port to
port. Container vessels have grown in capacity up to 8000
TEU. Large container vessels usually do not have their own
loading gear. However, small, or medium-sized ones, called
container feeders, are often quipped with cargo gear. Also,
some multipurpose ships can operate as container feeders.
THE “ESTONIA” FERRY

The “Estonia” ferry was delivered in 1980 to operate on
routes in the heavy traffic between Finland and Sweden.
The ship was, at the time of delivery, the second largest
ferry working in the Baltic Sea region. It was built with one
bow ramp on the car deck, enclosed by a hinged bow visor
that opened upwards, and two stern ramps. Passenger
entrance doors were arranged on decks 4 and 5 and the
pilot and bunkering doors located on the car deck.
The design of both the visor and ramp were very popular at
the time. The installation included a bow visor and a loading
ramp. The ramp was hinged at car deck level and was
closed when in a raised position. In a closed position, the
upper end of the ramp was extended into a box-like housing
on the forecastle deck. The only reason for such a
construction was to make space for the ramp when the visor
was in its closed position.
The ramp was placed behind the bow visor. Thus, as
THE ENGINE ROOM
PART 1 The machinery driving a vessel which is underway is usually
MARINE ENGINEER operated 24 hours a day. All running machinery must be
Anybody who wants to be a Marine Engineer must be ready controlled continuously in order to prevent any failure of the
and prepared to spend a long period in training. Practical equipment. The majority of control systems on modern ships
training is of crucial importance because the sea are automatic. A ship may operate for agreed periods with
environment is very demanding. Sea training is not easy, unmanned machinery, called UMS, which stands for
although it only takes place when a candidate has sufficient Unattended Machinery Spaces.
knowledge already. A cadet engineer has to learn new skills The standard system of watches adopted on board is
and put them into practice. For instance, he learns how to usually a four-hour period on duty followed by eight-hour
do machine repairs like opening up different bearings, tube rest. The word “watch” means both the period and the crew
sleeves, and rusty items like nuts and bolts, as well as working at that time. The three watches in any 12 hour
cleaning valves and changing filters. period are usually: 12 to 4, 4 to 8, 8 to 12. Thus, for
instance, an engineer on duty for the 8 to 12 watch works
The successful candidate may be awarded a diploma and from 8 a.m. to 12 noon and from 8 p.m. to 12 midnight
will then be able to work on ships as a qualified Marine
Engineer class four. Then after some time spent working on A watch is usually made up of an engineer in charge with an
ships, he can sit for competency certificates as a class-two assistant engineer and a rating. Their duties include
Marine Engineer. Again, after some time at sea, he can sit inspecting the main propulsion plant, auxiliary machinery
for the class-one certificate of competency, which qualifies and steering gear spaces. They should note any
him to take up the job of the Chief Engineer on board a ship. malfunctions and breakdowns, report and correct them.
A marine engineer can be called a ship mechanic, a ship Time at sea is expressed using the 24-hour system, as
machinist, a ship engine operator, or a ship engine room opposed to the 12-hour system commonly used on land.
attendant.
Internal Combustion Engines
THE ENGINE DEPARTMENT Internal-combustion engines are machines that convert heat
The Chief Engineer, or Chief Engineering Officer, is in into mechanical energy. In internal-combustion engines,
charge of the Engine Department. He is responsible for all burning of the fuel inside a tightly closed cylinder results in
technical operations of the vessel, including engineering, expansion of gases. The pressure created on top of a piston
electrical and mechanical units. In particular, he is makes it move. The back-and-forth motion of a piston is
responsible for all the propulsion machinery, power known as the reciprocating motion (straight-line motion).
generating equipment and auxiliaries. He has to keep This motion must be changed to rotating (turning) motion to
documents on the machinery working as well as all the perform a useful function, such as propelling a ship or
repairs carried out on the vessel. He also logs fuel oil driving a generator to produce electricity.
consumption. A varying number of officers, petty officers
and ratings assist the chief engineer. The engine officers’ All internal-combustion engines rely on three things: fuel, air
hierarchy goes as follows: and ignition. Fuel contains energy for engine operation, air
contains oxygen necessary for combustion, and ignition
1) The First Engineer. He is responsible for maintenance starts the process of combustion.
and operations of the engineering and technical units.
2) The Second Engineer. His responsibilities usually include All internal-combustion engines consist of one or more
the maintenance of lubricating systems, engine room cylinders that are closed off at one end and have a piston
auxiliaries, and electrical equipment. driving up the other end. Cylinders may be arranged either
3) The Third Engineer. He is usually responsible for fuel and in a straight line (in-line) or in a V shape. When a piston
water systems. He also supervises tanks soundings and slides downward as a consequence of the pressure of
monitors the boiler room equipment. expanding gases inside a cylinder, the upper end of the
4) The Fourth Engineer. His responsibilities may include, for connecting rod moves downward together with the piston.
instance, the operation and maintenance of engine room The lower end of the connecting rod moves down in a
auxiliaries. circular motion. This makes the crankshaft rotate. There are
5) The Motorman – His duties are defined by the head of the different kinds of internal-combustion engines. The most
engine department and can include, for example, the daily commonly used nowadays are diesel and petrol engines.
maintenance and cleaning of specific engine parts. Diesel engines are extensively used in ship propulsion, and
petrol engines in the automotive industry.
The propulsion plant department can also include some
petty officers, such as the donkey man and the storekeeper FOUR-STROKE CYCLE
and, if the ship is a tanker, there may also be the pump The four-stroke engine was first introduced by Nikolaus Otto
man. The first one mentioned attends a donkey, auxiliary at the end of 19th century and since then it has also been
boiler, especially when the ship is in port. A storekeeper is in known as the Otto cycle. The commonly used term,
charge of all the spare parts and equipment stored for the however, is “four-stroke”. It takes its name from the four
engine room. The last one, a pump man, is employed to strokes of the piston needed to complete the processes of
maintain and operate cargo pumps. converting fuel energy into work. The four strokes of the
piston are known as the suction (intake or induction) stroke,
The engine room ratings, e.g. fire-fighters, greasers are the compression stroke, the power stroke and the exhaust
usually employed on watches to assist the engineer in stroke.
charge. They are responsible for daily cleanliness of the
engine room and for routine oiling, greasing and machinery SUCTION . During this stroke, the crankshaft rotates
servicing. clockwise and the piston moves down the cylinder. The inlet
valve is open and a fresh air charge is drawn into the
WATCH KEEPING cylinder.
COMPRESSION. The inlet valve closes and the air charge head that enables the release of exhaust gases. The
is compressed by the piston moving up. Its pressure and crankshaft is supported within the engine bedplate by the
temperature increase. By the time the piston approaches main bearings. A-frames are mounted on the bedplate and
the cylinder top, known as Top Dead Centre (TDC), the house guides in which the crosshead travels up and down.
pressure is over 100 bar.
POWER. Just before TDC, fuel is injected into the cylinder Some of the engine power is used to drive a blower that
by the fuel injector. The fuel is atomised into tiny droplets. forces the air charge into the cylinder under pressure.
They are very small so they heat up very quickly and then Additionally, because of a much shorter period the intake
start to burn. The expanding gases force the piston down ports are open (as compared to a four-stroke cycle), a
the cylinder, thus turning the crankshaft. During this stroke smaller amount of air is admitted.
work is put into engine.
EXHAUST. When the piston approaches the bottom of the The main difference between the two engines is the power
cylinder, known as Bottom Dead Centre (BDC), the exhaust developed. The two-stroke engine, theoretically, develops
valve starts to open and the hot gases are expelled from the twice as much power as the four- stroke one. Inefficient
cylinder. scavenging, however, reduces the power advantage.
TWO – STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE TYPES

This operation cycle is so called because it takes two A diesel engine operates with a fixed sequence of events
strokes of the piston, or one revolution of the crankshaft, to which are achieved either during four or two strokes. A
complete the process needed to produce power. In this stroke is defined as the distance the piston travels between
cycle, each event is accomplished in a very short time. its top and bottom points.
Moreover, the engine requires some special arrangements.
First, the fresh air is forced in under pressure. The incoming Various engine designs can also reflect the way the piston
air is used to clean out, or scavenge, the exhaust gases and acts. According to this, diesel engines may be classified as
then fill the space with fresh air charge. Instead of valves, single acting, when one side of the piston and one end of
there are special holes, called ports, which are opened and the cylinder are used to develop power, and double acting, if
closed by piston sides as it moves up and down. both piston sides and both cylinder ends are used to
produce power.
So the piston is at the top of its stroke after fuel injection and
combustion have taken place. The piston is then forced Considering the way the piston is attached to the upper end
down on its working stroke with the valves in the cylinder of the connecting rod we can distinguish two types: a trunk-
head opening the exhaust port. The burnt gases then begin piston engine (if the piston is directly connected with it) and
to be expelled and the piston continues down until it opens the crosshead engines (if indirectly connected).
the inlet or scavenge port. Next pressurised air enters and
drives out the remaining burnt gases. The piston closes Diesel engines usually have three general speeds ranges, in
these ports as it returns. The air is then compressed as the which they are classified: low -speed diesels – 50 – 300
piston moves to the top of its stroke. This is the explanation rpm, medium-speed diesels – 300 – 1000 rpm, and high -
for the name “two stroke”, with a downward power stroke speed diesels – above 1000 rpm.
and an upward compression stroke. A two-cycle engine, According to their drive, engines may be classified as direct-
therefore, has two power strokes for every one of a four- coupled engines, i.e. coupled directly to the propeller shaft
cycle engine. (also called direct drive engines) and geared engines, i.e.
coupled to a reduction gear mechanism (indirect drive
FOUR – STROKE DIESEL ENGINE engines). If engines can rotate in both clockwise and
The engine is made up of a piston that moves up and down anticlockwise direction, they are known as reversible
in a cylinder liner which is sealed from the top by a cylinder engines. When they cannot run in the opposite direction,
head. The fuel injector, through which fuel enters, is located they are called non-reversible.
in the cylinder head. The inlet and exhaust valves are also
housed in the cylinder head and held shut by springs. The DIESEL ENGINE PARAMETERS
piston is joined to the connecting rod by a piston pin. The In general, diesel engine parameters are defined in terms of
bottom end, or big end, of the connecting rod is joined to the the following characteristics:
crankpin, which forms part of the crankshaft.
• Cylinder Bore. This is measured in millimetres (mm) or in
The crankshaft is arranged to drive the camshaft through centimetres (cm) and is used to identify the inner (inside)
gears. The camshaft either directly or through pushrods diameter of the cylinder.
operates rocker arms which open the valves at the correct • Stroke or the Length of the Stroke. This is the distance a
point in the cycle. piston travels between top and bottom dead centers (TDC
and BDC); measured in mm or in cm.
The crankshaft is surrounded by the crankcase and the • Piston Speed. This is measured in revolutions per minute
engine block that supports the cylinders and houses the (rpm). It is the speed at which the crankshaft rotates. Since
crankshaft bearings. The cylinder and the cylinder head are the piston is connected to the shaft, the rpm, along with the
arranged with water-cooling passages around them.The length of the stroke, determine the piston speed.
four-stroke has certain advantages over a two-stroke, which • Mean Piston Speed. This describes the average speed of
include higher piston speeds, wider variations in speed and the piston during one rotation of the crankshaft. It is
load, cooler pistons, no fuel lost through exhaust and lower measured in metres per second (m/s).
fuel consumption. It also consumes less lubricating oil. • Mean Effective Pressure (MEP). This is the average
pressure exerted on the piston during each power stroke
TWO – STROKE ENGINE and is usually defined as force per area unit, e.g. in pounds
This engine is made up of a piston that is solidly connected per square inch (psi), or bars.
to a piston rod. The piston rod is attached to a crosshead • Horsepower (hp). This is the power developed within a
bearing at the other end. The top end of the connecting rod cylinder and can be calculated by measuring the MEP and
is also joined to the crosshead bearing. Ports are arranged the engine speed. It is normally defined in kilowatts.
in the cylinder liner for air inlet and for a valve in the cylinder
• Stroke-to-Bore Ratio. This is the length of the stroke pressure fuel then opens the fuel valve (the injector) and
divided by the cylinder bore. If the result is about 1, we can fuel is sprayed into the engine cylinder.
classify the engine as a square one.
• Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR). This is the designed Different engine manufacturers use different methods to
maximum power which a diesel engine is capable of change fuel injection timing when an engine operates under
delivering continuously, at nominal maximum speed, in the
period between two consecutive overhauls.
• Fuel Consumption. This depends upon the power
developed by the engine. The rate of fuel consumption is
the amount of fuel used in a unit of time, e.g. tons/day.
DUAL FUEL SYSTEMS

There are engines that can run on either natural gas or fuel
oil. They are called dual-fuel engines. For example, the
Wartsila 32DF and Wartsila 50DF, both four-stroke engines,
are designed to be fuel-flexible. Changing from one fuel to
the other can be done under all operating conditions.
They operate on the lean-burn principle, where the mixture

of air and gas in the cylinder has more air than is needed for
complete combustion. Lean combustion reduces peak
temperatures and consequently NOx emissions. It is started
by injectingcsmall amount of LFO (called pilot fuel) into the
cylinder. The pilot fuel is ignited in a conventional diesel
process. Each cylinder is individually controlled to ensure
the desired air-fuel ratio together with the necessary amount
and timing of pilot fuel injection.
The fuel system of the Wartsila 50DF has been divided into
two subsystems: one for gas and the other one for diesel oil.
The engine is started in diesel mode using both main diesel
and pilot fuel. At about 300 rpm, the main diesel injection is
disabled and the engine is transferred to gas mode.
Natural gas is supplied to the engine through the valve

station. The gas is first filtered to ensure a clean supply. The
gas pressure is controlled by a valve located near the
engine driving end. Its pressure depends on the engine
load. The system includes the necessary shut-off and
venting valves to ensure safe and trouble-free gas supply.
On the engine, the gas is supplied through large common-

rail pipes running along the engine. Each cylinder then has
an individual feed pipe to the gas admission valve on the
cylinder head.
The fuel oil supply system has been divided into two parts:
one for the pilot fuel and the other for backup fuel. The pilot
fuel is elevated to the required pressure by a pump unit.
This includes filters, the pressure regulator and an engine-
driven piston-type pump. The high-pressure pilot fuel is then
distributed through a common-rail pipe to the injection
valves at each cylinder. The pilot fuel is injected at
approximately 900-bar pressure.
The back-up fuel is fed to a normal camshaft-driven injection

pump. From the injection pump, the high-pressure fuel goes
to a spring-loaded injection valve of standard diesel design.
JERK PUMP INJECTON

In the jerk pump injection system, there is a separate
injector pump for each cylinder. The injector pump is usually
operated once every cycle by a cam on a camshaft. The
barrel (cylinder) and plunger (a spring-loaded ram) of the
injector pump are designed to suit the engine fuel
requirements. Ports (holes) in the barrel and slots in the
plunger serve to regulate the fuel delivery. The pump
elements (cylinder and plunger) are built into the injection
pump body. As the cam rotates, it operates a spring-loaded
ram (the plunger), which moves up and down in a barrel . As
the plunger moves up the barrel, the pressure of the fuel in
the barrel above the plunger rises very quickly. The high-
• mount Engine Room Platforms
• open Around the main engine, there are several decks in the form
• overhaul of galleries to provide access to all machinery. The decks
• place are made of steel plates and gratings and must allow clear
• position observation of the spaces below and above.
• raise
• reduce Main Engine
• relieve This is a slow-speed, two-stroke, reversible engine
• remove manufactured by MAN B&W (under licence from H.
• replace Cegielski). The type is the 7S 60 MC-C series. The engine
• screw drives a fixed pitch propeller.
• shut off
• start Vacuum Priming Unit for Ballast Pumps
• switch off This device is designed to remove the air from the working
• switch on space of the ballast pumps in order to start their operation.
• take out
• tighten Starting Air Compressor
• uninstall
• unscrew Compressed air has many uses on board a ship, ranging
from starting diesel engines to cleaning machinery during
FUEL OIL SUPPLY SYSTEM maintenance procedures. The air can be compressed in a
The design of the supply, also called external, fuel system multi-stage process.
varies from ship to ship, but every system should provide
well-cleaned fuel with the correct temperature and pressure Starting Air Compressors
to each engine. The arrangement of the system usually The majority of engine room machinery must be doubled for
allows for the use of both diesel and heavy fuel oil. emergency backup.
First, the oil is pumped from the bunker tanks or normal fuel ENGINE ROOM PLATFORM TWO
tanks. Both of them are used for the storage of fuel oil and
can be called storage tanks. Fuel Oil Separator (guess task)
The oil is pumped to an intermediate tank, also called a
settling tank. Sometimes the name “collecting tank” is used. Auxiliary Generating Sets
Then it is led through heaters and centrifuges for Auxiliary gen sets are designed for continuous operation.
purification. Centrifugal purifiers are used for purification of The gen sets consist of auxiliary engines connected to
both fuel and lubricating oil. generators in order to produce electricity on board. All the
sets are equipped with a complete instrument panel, alarm
After passing through centrifuges, cleaned and pre-heated sensors and shutdown equipment.
oil is transferred to the respective service tanks, also called
“day” or ‘daily’ tanks. They are used in alternation. When Fuel Oil Separator
one tank is in use, the other one is being filled . Next, an Marine residual fuel oil is the residue remaining after all
engine-driven pump (also called a booster, transfer or lighter fractions have been extracted from the crude oil
primary pump) forces the fuel, from the particular service during various processes at the oil refinery. It often contains
tank in operation, through the viscosity regulators, filters and catalyst fines which are extremely hard and erosive and can
flow meters to the internal (injection) fuel system. This is cause serious damage to the engine. The normal way of
done by means of circulating pumps. removing catalyst fines and other contaminants from marine
diesel oil is by centrifugal separation.
The system must include various safety devices such as
alarms and remotely operated tank outlet valves which can Auxiliary Gen Sets (guess task)
be closed in the event of fire.
Auxiliary Engines
Part 2, ENGINE ROOM LAYOUT
ENGINE ROOM PLATFORM ONE Auxiliary engines, together with alternators, are mounted on
a common bedplate and are installed on shock absorbers.
Starting Air Receiver
This is a kind of a storage vessel that resembles a bottle, Central Fresh Water Coolers
containing compressed air for starting the main propulsion The fresh water is reused continuously for engine cooling.
unit. Air is pressurised in air compressors and supplied to The water circulates throughout the engine cooling spaces.
the air receivers. There are always two separate air The water is then led to fresh water coolers, where its
receivers in the starting air system. temperature is reduced by sea (raw) water.
ME Emergency Control Station The hydrophore provides the non-stop supply of fresh water
This is designed to operate the main engine (ME) in the under required pressure into the sanitary water system.
event of automatic control system failure. Such a station can
be located either on the machine itself or close to it. It is Working Air Compressor and Fresh Water Cooling Pumps
normally used in case of emergency. This device is designed to provide air at a specific pressure
to the automatic control system of the engine room.
Main Engine
The name Main Engine (ME) currently refers to the prime Fresh Water Coolers (guess task)
source of power converting heat energy into mechanical
power needed mainly to rotate the propeller and, Fresh Water Generator
consequently, to drive a ship. This is also called an evaporator, as it changes sea water
into vapour. First, sea water enters a cylinder containing
coils. Next, steam passing through the coils causes the manoeuvring. Before START, the telegraph handle should
water to evaporate. be moved to the position corresponding to the order from
The water vapour is then condensed and used for various the bridge.
applications.
Engine Control Room
Fresh Water Cooling Pumps (guess task) Workstations with many computers, monitors and keyboards
Gen Sets Electric Generators are installed to enable the optimal control of the ship’s
systems and machinery. Correct maintenance of the
Exhaust Gas Collector condition of machinery enables maintenance schedules to
The Exhaust Gas Collector (or receiver) is an integral part of be planned in order to avoid breakdowns.
the main engine. Gaseous products of the combustion
process are collected in it to avoid pressure differences Cylinder Head with Exhaust Valve
resulting from rapid exhaust gas emission. Exhaust gases Combustion gases leave the engine through exhaust valves.
are the major source of waste heat and noxious emissions. Each cylinder is equipped with an exhaust valve which is
mounted in a central bore in the cylinder cover. The valve
Spare Cylinder Cover housing is held in place by means of four studs and nuts to
The cylinder cover, or cylinder head, is usually made of solid form a gas-tight seal.
steel with bored passages for cooling water, and the central
bore for the exhaust valve, and also separate bores for fuel THE ENGINE ROOM FLOOR
valves, the safety valve and the starting valve.
Stern Tube Sealing
ME Cylinder Heads (guess task) This special type of sealing is arranged to prevent the entry
of sea water and also the loss of lubricating oil from the
Exhaust Gas Boiler stern bearing.
Exhaust gas boilers on diesel-propelled ships generate
steam through the process of water evaporation, exploiting Shaft Line
the high temperature of exhaust gases. The boiler works as The main propulsion shaft line consists of shafting sections
the heat exchanger and raises steam temperature and connected by means of bolted flange couplings and
pressure in its own drum. supported by bearings that keep the shafting in the proper
alignment. When in service, the shafting can be checked for
Oil-fired Boiler Burner static and dynamic alignment. The static check can be done
A boiler is a closed vessel for boiling water to create steam. by clocks or strain gauges and the dynamic alignment by
The oil-fired boiler is of the water tube (or "water in tube") measuring the amplitude of axial vibrations at various
type. In a water tube boiler, water circulates through a series speeds when the ship is underway.
of drums and small-diameter tubes, while hot gases pass
around them. The function of the burner is to provide the Intermediate Shaft
fuel burning process inside the boiler automatically. The intermediate shaft has flanges at each end and is
supported by bearings. There may be one or more sections
Fuel Block and Hotwell of intermediate shafting between the crankshaft of the main
The hotwell is a steel chamber which stores the condensed engine and the tailshaft (the propeller shaft), depending
exhaust steam from the oil-fired boiler in an open feed upon the machinery space location.
system. The fuel block houses fuel pumps, filters, heaters,
viscometers and other equipment needed for proper fuel Shaft Line Connecting Flanges
preparation. Flanges are usually circular metal plates with a ring of bolt
holes to couple them together.
Exhaust Gas Boiler Water Circulation Pumps
The purposes of these pumps is to ensure the continuous Shaft Line Main Bearing
flow of water through the exhaust gas boiler. They are of the This bearing supports the intermediate shafting between the
centrifugal type. tailshaft and the main engine. It is designed to provide
Centrifugal pumps make use of kinetic energy to move the lubrication between the bearing itself and the rotating shaft.
liquid by means of an impeller and a circular pump casing.
The impeller produces the liquid velocity and the casing Main Lubricating Oil Pumps
forces it to discharge from the pump converting velocity to They deliver lubricating oil to the main engine in order to
pressure. minimise friction and wear between moving engine parts.
Pumps can raise liquids from a lower level to a higher one.
Oil-fired Boiler
Most oil-fired boilers are now supplied as as a set including Shaft Line
the oil burner, fuel pump, feed pumps and automatic All the shafting sections are manufactured from solid steel
controls for the whole unit. with integral flanged couplings. The shafting sections are
joined by fitted bolts made of solid steel.
Cylinder Covers (guess task)
Bilge System Pump and Oily Water Separator
Main Switchboard The bilge pump is usually of the piston type. A piston is
The Main Switchboard (MSB) ensures the non-stop used to build up pressure in a cylindrical chamber to force
distribution of electricity all over the ship. the liquid through the pump. Ships must have an emergency
bilge pump that can function properly in case of bilge space
Telegraph flooding.
The telegraph is a hand-operated device located in the
control stations of both the engine room and the bridge. It Lubricating Oil Filters
transmits changes in engine speed while Lubricating oil filters, always working in pairs, are used to
remove the smallest particles of dirt from oil before it enters
the moving elements of the machinery.
lubrication. The removal of contaminants from lub oil
Bilge Piston Pump reduces engine wear and possible machinery breakdowns.
The pump belongs to the group of displacement pumps
inside which the liquid is mechanically compressed by Lub Oil Duplex Filter
decreasing the volume of its chamber. It is designed with a This is an assembly unit of two parallel filters with special
metal piston to achieve the liquid compression. valving design for the selection of full flow through either of
the filters. Generally used in lubricating oil lines to allow for
Oily Water Separator changeover without the stopping the flow.
Oily water separators are used to prevent discharging oil
when ships pump out bilges outboard. Such units make use Lubricating Oil Separator
of the gravity force system together with some multi-stage The use of a centrifuge speeds up the separation process. A
filters. centrifuge separating two liquids is known as a "purifier". A
centrifuge separating small amounts of water and impurities
Oily Water Separator is known as "clarifier". As the device rotates at high speeds,
There is an automatically controlled valve which releases it should be perfectly balanced and all its parts handled with
the separated oil to a drain tank. The nearly oil-free water special care.
leaves the separator. The water that still contains oil goes
through the separating process again. ENGINE ROOM, PART 3
Sewage Treatment Plant Interview with Peter Lund from Wärtsilä Land and Sea
International legislation bans the discharge of untreated Academy
sewage outboard. Marine treatment plants can employ
either chemical or biological methods. The biological system Part 1
breaks down the sewage completely so the remaining Well, I came originally from Australia. I’m an Australian
substance can be freely discharged into any waters. citizen, a permanent resident in Finland. I’ve been here for 7
years, living in Turku, and I work for Wärtsilä, or “Wartsila”
Sewage Treatment Plant, Oily Water Separator, Piston Bilge as they say in English because we say as it…as it is written.
Pump (guess task) And I’m involved in at the present time in the training
Sea Chest (Kingston Filter) business. We have a global training infrastructure called
A sea chest is a special built-in sea water filter located Wärtsilä Land and Sea Academy, and I work as a solutions
below the waterline. The sea water that enters the ship is development manager, and have done for the last two
filtered inside the sea chest. The sea water is used for years.
cooling and firefighting purposes.
The Land and Sea Academy is a Wärtsilä, it’s part of the
Ballast Pumps service business. Wärtsilä is mainly divided into 3 sectors or
Ballast pumps are usually electric-driven units mounted business sectors which is Marine, Power and Service
vertically. The liquid enters the centre of the rotating impeller business, and Training is part of the Service business.
enclosed within a casing and flows radially out through the
vanes. The ballast system is to ensure that water can be The training…we, we have full scope or have developed into
drawn from any tank or the sea and discharged to any tank providing a full scope of training needs for our customers,
or the sea as required for trimming and heeling the ship. which not only includes our product. It started off with the
training switch in mainly providing product training for
A-frame of ME and Torsional Vibration Damper internally and for customers and then, because we have this
The A-frame is usually mounted on the bedplate of a two- global infrastructure we have a global advantage over
stroke engine. It is a part of an engine construction in the individual training institutions which are resident in one
shape of the letter A. A torsional vibration damper is country.
designed to absorb, or dampen, torsional vibrations that are
always present during the engine operation. Part 2
In the following audio clip Peter Lund talks first about his
Bilge/Fire Pumps and Sea Water Cooling Pumps least favourite tasks as an engineer and then about what he
All the pumps produce a flow of fluid under pressure. The finds is most important.
piping systems are often interconnected and most pumps
installed appear in pairs. Pump failures can prove disastrous I guess it would probably be finding the tools and equipment
in case of emergency on board. that had dropped down into the bilge. I’d say that would
probably be the worst.
ME Lubricating Oil Cooler
Coolers on board ships are heat exchangers where a hot Well, I think these days the regulations and the people
liquid is cooled by sea water. However, fresh water cooling management, if you can do this properly, and allocation of
is sometimes used to avoid corrosion problems. The plate- resources is probably the major thing. You can always, it’s
type cooler consists of a number of sealed titanium plates good to have technical knowledge on everything but
screwed together into a frame. The plates are extensively sometimes it’s very difficult because machinery changes so
corrugated to improve the heat transfer process. much, electronics change so much and you can always, if
you need to know, you can always find this information, but
Ballast Pumps and Sea Chest (guess) it’s very hard to, on the spur of the moment, find managing
skills and find knowledge to satisfy
Main engine lub oil cooler (guess) regulatory bodies like survey authorities and everything so I
guess the administration is probably the Chief Engineer’s
Lub Oil Filters and Separators biggest task now.
The centrifugal separator is used to separate oil and water,
or a liquid and solids in the contaminated oil. The separation I would say, the major thing, it’s very good, the life at sea.
of impurities and water from oil is essential for good As far as growing the mind, there’s nothing like travel for
broadening the mind and I still believe this but in this day
and age I’d say the biggest advice I could have to any Footnote
young person is to be aware. If bacterial contamination of fuel and fuel tanks is suspected,
take samples and have them tested as soon as possible.
Fuel Bacteria Results in Grounding Cleaning fuel storage tanks and using biocides will
overcome the problem and prevent a recurrence. It is a
Narrative good idea to eliminate all water from fuel tanks by regularly
When due for her annual overhaul, one of the Skye based draining them to remove condensation and any water
inter-island ferries Loch Striven was to be replaced by delivered with bunkers.
another vessel from the Clyde. The two vessels met at Kyle
of Lochalsh, where the crews changed over. Apart from the Source: Safety Digest – Lessons from Marine Accident
motorman who remained onboard, the delivery crew was Reports 2/2000. Department of the Environment, Transport
now manning the southbound ferry. The voyage south was and the Regions, the United Kingdom. Marine Accident
to be made in stages, dependent on weather conditions, Investigation Branch.
with overnight stops as required. The chargehand in
command was experienced and qualified, and had regularly A maintenance procedure
undertaken delivery voyages in this area.
Injection Valve
The first leg of the voyage passed without any problem and The liquid fuel injection system e.g. of a diesel engine,
she spent the night in Oban. The forecast on the following consists of injection pump, high pressure pipe and injection
day was for wind strength 4 to 6 increasing to force 7 in the valve. The injection valve injects fuel into the cylinder of the
evening. It was decided she could reach Campbeltown by engine. It is important that the distribution of the fuel spray is
nightfall and before the weather deteriorated. Loch Striven as even as possible. Checking the distribution is a standard
sailed from Oban at 0730 for the Clyde. By the time she maintenance procedure of an engine.
cleared the shelter of the Kintyre peninsula the wind had
increased to force 6. At1755, the forward main engine Checking the spray distribution
stopped due to choked fuel filters. These were cleaned, the The symmetrical distribution of spray can be evaluated
engine restarted, and the vessel resumed her voyage. As when having the opening pressure adjusted to 50-100 bar.
she rounded the Mull of Kintyre and turned north, the wind The needle stroke using a hand test pump is close to
increased further. While lining up the leading lights for entry nominal at this low opening pressure.
into Campbeltown Loch at 2110, the aft main engine
stopped. Soon afterwards she grounded on Macringan's ENGINE-ROOM FIRE ALONGSIDE OIL BERTH
Point under the influence of beam seas and the wind. Again Narrative
the cause of the engine stoppage was found to be choked An oil tanker of 2,979 deadweight tonnes was using a cargo
fuel filters. These were cleaned and the engine restarted. pump to discharge ballast to shore facilities. The pump was
With both main engines now operating and the hull only driven by an auxiliary engine located in the engine-room. A
slightly damaged, the vessel came off the ground and made connecting rod punctured the engine entablature which
her way safely into harbour under her own power where she caused a fire to start. As soon as the engine-room smoke
tied up at 2140. detection alarm was activated the general alarm was
sounded and the port emergency plan was initiated. The fire
The subsequent investigation found that the fuel tank was was eventually extinguished by the shore fire brigade using
contaminated with bacteria, which had formed black high expansion foam. There were no resultant injuries to
deposits on the internal tank structure. The deposits had personnel.
broken away during the rough weather and had entered the Observations
fuel systems. These built up in the fuel filters and eventually
led to fuel starvation. The frequency of choked filters had 1. The connecting rod of the auxiliary engine probably
been recorded while in service and the question of fuel tank became detached due to a fractured rocker arm, preventing
cleaning was to be investigated during the overhaul. the opening of the exhaust valve, and subsequent
overloading on the respective piston.
The owners later established that the "blocked fuel filter" 2. The cause of the fire is deduced to have been an ignition
problem, although known to the motorman, had not been of crankcase oil vapour by the hot white metal of the bottom
identified on the handover notes. This potential problem was end bearing.
not therefore known to the chargehand in command. The 3. Operation of the remote pull-wire arrangement failed to
choking of the fuel filters, although of the duplex type initiate the gang release of the fixed CO2 fire extinguishing
allowing for quick changeover, only became known when system. A local attempt to release it was aborted when the
the main engine revolutions started to drop. On the CO2 bottle room had to be evacuated due to leakage from a
approach to Campbeltown, both motormen were in the joint on the pressure alarm sensor fitted to the gas manifold.
accommodation, and by the time they became aware that 4. The minimal forward draught of the vessel prohibited an
there was a problem, the engine had stopped. intake of water from the sea to the emergency fire pump. An
alternative intake from the forepeak was unavailable
The Lessons because the tank was empty.
1. If fuel filters become blocked, find out why! 5. The auxiliary engine could not be stopped because the
2. Make sure that whoever is in command is made aware of bridge remote stop arrangement, although installed, was not
the problem, the estimated time it should take to fix, and connected. The fuel tank quick-closing valves were shut but,
whether it was an intermittent or regular feature. because the fuel in the common fuel line to the multi-engine
3. If fuel starvation is a possibility, someone should be installation was of sufficient capacity, the auxiliary engine
closed up in the engine room while negotiating narrow or continued to run for a prolonged period.
dangerous waters. 6. The engine-room ventilation trunking had years of
4. When changing crews or personnel, the handover accumulated oil internally and thick coats of paint externally
procedure MUST include any known defects, details of all which contributed to the intensity of the fire. The engine-
known machinery problems, and an indication of difficulties room had been in a dirty condition.
likely to be experienced. 7. A crew member had to be rescued from his cabin after
failing to respond to the sound of the general alarm. A
number of false alarms had occurred in the past and he 5. Confirm the effectiveness of the remote control wire for
assumed that this was another one. the CO2 release;
6. Maintain a log of fire alarm initiations in order to ascertain
Comment the frequency of false alarms;
The management company has been advised to: 7. Give an assurance that the emergency fire pump will
1. Clean the engine-room and engine-room ventilation always be available to maintain pressure on the fire main;
trunking; 8. Issue standing orders for crew members to respond
2. Ensure that auxiliary engines can be shut down by the promptly to any emergency alarm.
intended remote means;
3. Pressure-test the CO2 manifold and fittings to the working Source: Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) –
pressure; Safety Digest 03/1996
4. Conduct periodic checks to ensure the security of the
CO2 pressure alarm sensor;
CARGO SPACE
B0601 in the number of cars it can take on car decks so the length
Cargo space, as the name implies, is the space available for of lanes is also given.
cargo to be carried on board different types of ship. It can be
expressed as the grain capacity or bale capacity of the ship Cargo space can be filled with different types of cargo. It
and can be found in the holds, in the ‘tween decks, in the can usually be divided into space for general cargo which is
tanks and deep tanks, in refrigerated compartments and packed and bulk cargo, both liquid and dry, which is loose.
cooling chambers and in case of certain cargoes such as Different liquids and chemicals can evaporate from their
timber or cargoes carried in containers, even on deck. receptacles and tanks and in such cases the unfilled space
is called ullage.
Bale capacity is the cubic capacity of any space available B0603
for cargo such as bales of wool measured from the ceiling of General cargo can be divided into containersed cargo, non-
the hold to the underside of the deck beams (the depth), containerised cargo and refrigerated cargo. General cargo
between the inside of the cargo battens (the breadth) and may cause many stowage problems because the goods can
between the inside of the bulkheads or sparring where fitted be packed in different cases, bags, boxes, bundles, crates
(the length). It is measured in cubic metres or cubic feet. and drums and some pieces of machinery or heavy lifts can
be loaded without any packaging at all. In such cases the
Grain capacity is the cubic capacity of any space available broken stowage is very high.
for cargo such as grain which fills the hold entirely. It is the
total capacity in the hold with an allowance for the volume Containerised cargo prevails nowadays and causes least
occupied by frames and beams. It is measured in cubic problems in sea transport because containers are of
metres or cubic feet. It is greater than the bale capacity of standard shape and dimensions. Perishable cargo is loaded
the vessel. into refrigerated containers or refrigerated holds and carried
B0602 in reefer ships, which are specially built for that purpose.
Broken stowage is the space between packages not taken Perishable cargo includes meat, fish , dairy produce and
up by the cargo, the space which remains unfilled for to a fruit. Cars can be carried on board the PCC which stands for
variety of reasons such as the shape of the hold, the type of Pure Car Carriers and cargo space in those ships is
cargo, special kinds of packing, irregularly-sized items of expressed in the length of lanes and the number of cars
machinery etc. It is expressed as percentage which is they can carry.
usually greater when large cases have to be stowed in the B0604
hold. Bulk cargo can be divided into liquid cargo and dry cargo.
Cargo space on board container vessels is usually Liquid cargo such as crude oil and its products can be
measured and expressed in TEU which stands for Twenty- carried in tankers. Dry bulk cargo is usually carried by
Foot Equivalent Unit. bulkers or bulk cargo vessels. OBO vessels carry both types
Cargo space on board Ro-Ro ships is expressed in the of bulk cargo. OBO stands for Oil/Bulk/Ore.
length of lanes and is measured in metres. It can also be B0605
expressed as bale capacity and measured in cubic metres LPG and LNG vessels carry liquefied petroleum gas and
or cubic feet. liquefied natural gas in specially constructed steel spheres
Cargo space on board Con-Ro vessels is expressed both in under pressure and at low temperatures. Chemicals such as
TEU for the number of containers the vessel can carry and molten sulphur are carried in special tanks by chemical
carriers.
PORT STATE CONTROL
Port State Control is based on the Paris Memorandum of at least one month has elapsed since the last inspection
Understanding (Paris MOU). It consists of 22 participating carried out in the Paris MOU region.
Maritime Administrations and covers the waters of the
European coastal States and the North Atlantic basin from Overriding Priority Inspections are held on board:
North America to Europe. Other agreements have also been - ships reported by pilots or port authorities as presenting a
signed in different regions of the world e.g. the Tokyo, danger to the safety or the environment
Caribbean, Viña del Mar, Black Sea and Abudja - ships carrying dangerous or polluting goods, which have
Memoranda. Some countries such as Canada and the failed to report all relevant information to the competent
Russian Federation are party to more than one agreement. authorities
- ships which have been the subject of a report or
The Paris Memorandum aims to eliminate the operation of notification44.32133(e)-5.524389(n)4-4.79686(d)-4.32.-4.32214(n)9.018
sub-standard ships through a harmonised system of Port
State Control. Ships can expect PSC boarding in almost
every country. It is important that ship’s officers and crew
members understand the reasons for PSC and prepare for
these inspections.
The inspections take place on board foreign ships in the

Paris MOU ports, ensuring that these ships meet
international safety, security and environmental standards,
and that crew members have adequate living and working
conditions.
It is clearly understood that the responsibility for ensuring
that ships comply with the provisions of the relevant
instruments rests upon the owners, masters and the flag
states.
Unfortunately, certain flag states, for various reasons, fail to

fulfill their commitments contained in internationally agreed
legal instruments and as a result some ships sail the seas
and oceans in an unsafe condition, threatening the lives of
all those on board as well as the marine environment.
The Port State control is carried out by properly qualified

Port State Control Officers, acting under the responsibility of
the maritime authority.
A Port State Control visit on board will normally start with
verification of certificates and documents such as the
International Tonnage Certificate, Passenger Ship Safety
Certificate, Cargo Ship Safety Certificate, Dangerous Goods
List or Manifest, Oil Record Book, Cargo Record Book
Minimum Safe Manning Document and other certificates.
Documentation of crew members has to comply with

international and flag state standards. When serious
deficiencies are found the ship should be detained. The
captain is instructed to rectify the deficiencies before
departure. When the ship is not complying with the
regulations, a more detailed inspection is carried out.
Flag States which are not a party to conventions shall

receive no more favourable treatment. Every year the Paris
Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control
Committee publishes Black and Grey and White lists of
vessels which have undergone the inspections. Port State
Control is an international initiative and requires both
regional and international co-operation of all parties
involved.
Mandatory Expanded Inspections are compulsory and are

held on board at intervals of no more than 12 months on
board
- oil tankers with a Gross Tonnage of more than 3000 metric
tonnes and older than 15 years of age
- bulk carriers older than 12 years of age
- passenger ships older than 15 years of age
- gas and chemical tankers older than 10 years of age
Mandatory Inspections are held on board any ship not

subject to an Expanded Inspection provided that a period of
- control of pressure of inert gas and oxygen system - cargo tank monitoring and safety devices relating to
- inspection of ballast tanks from tank manhole temperature, pressure and ullage
- verification that the following documents are on board: - cabin escape sets giving suitable respiratory and eye
a) reports of structural surveys protection for every person on board
b) condition evaluation reports - checking that the product being carried is listed in the
c) thickness measurement reports International Certificate of Fitness or Certificate of Fitness
for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk or
Bulk carriers are inspected for possible corrosion of deck Liquefied Gases in Bulk - the fixed fire-fighting installations
and machinery foundation. on deck whether they be foam or dry chemical or others
- possible deformation and corrosion of hatch covers
- possible cracks or local corrosion in transverse bulkheads Passenger ships:
- access to cargo holds - testing of fire detection and alarm systems;
- verification that the following documents are on board: - testing of proper closing of fire doors;
a) reports of structural surveys - test of Public Address system;
b) condition evaluation reports - fire drill where, as a minimum, all sets of fireman’s outfits
c) thickness measurements reports must be demonstrated and part of the catering crew take
part;
Gas and chemical tankers: - demonstration that key crew members are acquainted with
the damage control plan.
VESSEL TRAFFIC SERVICES (VTS)
Welcome to study Maritime English: Vessel Traffic Services. This text has been adapted from the following sources:
This module is divided into two parts. The first one is called IMO Assembly Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.1.1
VTS in theory. It explains the statutory background of VTS Master’s Guide. Gulf of Finland. Finnish Maritime
Vessel Traffic Services. In this part the exercises Administration, Helsinki. Available at: http://www.fma.fi
concentrate on words and phrases which are typical of
statutory texts. The other part is called VTS in practice. It VTS, Text 3
consists of dialogues and exercises based on these What are the services provided?
dialogues. The benefits of implementing a VTS are summarised in IMO
Resolution A.857(20). VTS allows identification and
It must be noted that the dialogues are imaginary although monitoring of vessels, strategic planning of vessel
real ship names and photos are used in the exercises. The movements and provision of navigational information and
traffic situations described in the dialogues have been assistance. It can also assist in prevention of pollution and
created for the purposes of the MarEng Project. co-ordination of pollution response.
VTS, Text 1 IMO Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.1.2 says that “a

What are vessel traffic services? clear distinction may need to be made between a Port and
Growth in international commerce and tourism as well as Harbour VTS and a Coastal VTS. A Port VTS is mainly
technical development has resulted in high traffic density in concerned with vessel traffic to and from a port or harbour
many sea areas. Moreover, vessels are bigger and faster. or harbours, while a Coastal VTS is mainly concerned with
The approaches to pilot boarding stations, ports and river vessel traffic passing through the area. A VTS could also be
waterways are all areas of potential traffic congestion and a combination of both types. The type and level of service or
complexity. To reduce the risk of collision in busy port services rendered could differ between both types of VTS; in
waters as well as in more open coastal waterways vessel a Port or Harbour VTS a navigational assistance service
traffic services (VTS) have been implemented. Vessel traffic and/or a traffic organi[s]ation service is usually provided for,
services are shore-side information processing systems while in a Coastal VTS usually only an information service is
which range from the provision of simple information rendered.”
messages to ships, to extensive management of traffic
within a port or waterway. Information messages can Source: IMO Assembly Resolution A.857(20) paragraph
include position of other traffic, defects in aids to navigation 2.1.2
or meteorological hazard warnings.
VTS, Text 4
As stated in the IMO Resolution A.857(20), the efficiency of How do vessel traffic services function?
a VTS will depend on the reliability and continuity of The main tool of a VTS operator is a traffic image. It is a
communications and on the ability to provide good and comprehensive overview of the traffic in the area combined
unambiguous information. Furthermore, the quality of with all traffic influencing factors. Technically, a traffic image
accident-prevention measures will depend on the system’s is a combination of information from different sources. First,
capability of detecting a developing dangerous situation and the ships’ movements are monitored by radar. Then, the
on the ability to give timely warning of such dangers. computer combines the radar image with an electronic
navigational chart which displays the fairway, its aids to
This text has been adapted from the following sources: navigation and the depth information. The VTS operators
IMO Assembly Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.1.3 monitor vessel traffic on screens where ships’ radar echoes
IMO Internet page: www.imo.org/Safety are identified and put under surveillance. The operators can
monitor ships’ movements online, study their previous
VTS, Text 2 passage and predict their future path on the basis of the
What is the purpose of vessel traffic services? course and speed they hold.
As stated in IMO Resolution A.857(20) the purpose of
vessel traffic services is threefold: firstly, to improve the A VTS operator has specialised knowledge of the waterway
safety and efficiency of vessel traffic, secondly, to improve and has, therefore, responsibility for managing the traffic in
the safety of life at sea and, thirdly, to protect the marine the area. The master of a vessel has knowledge of the
environment and the adjacent shore area, worksites and behaviour of the vessel. Therefore, responsibility for safe
offshore installations from possible adverse effects of navigation lies with the ship’s master at all times. Neither a
maritime traffic. For example, in the event of pollution VTS passage plan, nor requested or agreed changes to the
resulting from a collision or grounding, VTS helps to limit the passage plan, can supersede the decisions of the master
effects by working with other shore-based agencies and concerning the actual navigation and manoeuvring of the
directing other vessels to avoid the area. Also, a VTS has a vessel. Any instruction from a VTS to a vessel should be
valuable role in helping to identify the source of the “result oriented” only, leaving the details of execution to the
pollution. master, officer of the watch or pilot on board the vessel.
Vessel traffic services apply to all merchant and government VTS, text 5
vessels navigating in an area where these services are Automatic Identification System (AIS)
provided. Depending upon governing rules and regulations, The implementation of the Automatic Identification System
participation in a VTS may be mandatory or voluntary. (AIS) has considerably enhanced safety at sea. AIS is an
Participation by leisure craft is voluntary, but they, too, aid to monitoring vessel traffic. The system makes it
should follow the instructions given by the VTS Centre. possible to get information about ships and their movements
at intervals of a few seconds. Today, all ships of 300 gross
One important feature in the legal position of the VTS is the tonnage and upwards are required to be fitted with
possibility of giving instructions to vessels when the shipborne automatic identification systems. This
provision of information has not lead to the desired result. requirement is met by installing a shipborne VHF transceiver
This might happen if a vessel is not acting in accordance which operates globally on two dedicated VHF channels.
with the agreed procedures in an area covered by a VTS. The shipborne AIS continuously and automatically transmits
fixed, dynamic and voyage-related information and receives A service of VTS to ensure that essential information
corresponding information from other ships. AIS can provide becomes available in time for on-board navigational
the following information for vessels within the radio range decision-making (IMO Res. A.857(20) paragraph 1.1.9.1)
and for automatic display in the VTS Centre:
1) Position According to the definition given in IMO Resolution
2) Call sign and Name A.857(20) the aim of information service is to ensure that
3) IMO and MMSI number essential information becomes available in time for on-board
4) Type of ship navigational decision-making. The VTS Centre receives and
5) Length and beam provides information about conditions and events important
6) Navigational status (Underway, at anchor, etc.) to shipping and safety at sea. Priority is given to information
7) Speed over ground (SOG) that is of immediate concern to the vessels in the area. Also
8) Course over ground (COG) vessels in the VTS area are obliged to report to the VTS
9) Heading Centre any observations that could affect safety at sea.
10) Rate of turn (ROT)
The information service is provided by broadcasting
The available voyage related information includes: information at fixed times and intervals or when deemed
1) Type of cargo necessary by the VTS centre. Information can also be given
2) Ship’s draught to a particular vessel in conjunction with the vessel’s
3) Destination position report, on request or whenever circumstances so
4) Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) require. Information may include, for example, reports on
the position, identity and intentions of other traffic, waterway
There is also a capability for shore to ship, ship to shore and conditions, weather, hazards, or any other factors that may
inter-ship transmission of text messages. For VTS, the influence the vessel’s transit.
Automatic Identification System substantially improves
monitoring of vessel traffic compared with traditional radar This text has been adapted from the following sources:
systems. All transponder targets within VHF radio range are IMO Assembly Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 1.1.9.1
automatically displayed and identified on digital charts. The IMO Assembly Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.3.1
influence of bad weather and target swapping experienced VTS Master’s Guide, Gulf of Finland. Finnish Maritime
in radar echoes does not exist with the AIS technology. Administration, Helsinki. Page 21, 25.
Source: Automatic Identication System (AIS). Available at VTS, Text 8

the Finnish Maritime Administration web-page: fi Navigational Assistance Service
http://www.fma.fi/e/functions/trafficmanagement
navigational assistance service
VTS, Text 6 a service of VTS to assist on-board navigational decision-
TRAFFIC REPORT making and to monitor its effects (IMO Res. A.857(20)
According to IMO Resolution A.857(20) vessels should paragraph 1.1.9.2)
make all required reports, including reporting of deficiencies,
prior to entering a VTS area. The VTS Authority operating According to the IMO Resolution A.857(20) the aim of
the VTS is responsible for providing mariners with navigational assistance service is to assist on-board
information about the times and geographical positions for navigational decision-making and to monitor its effects. This
submitting reports, radio frequencies to be used for service is provided only on specified occasions and under
reporting and the form and content of the reports. clearly defined circumstances. The navigational assistance
service is especially important in difficult navigational or
Vessels heading for the ports of Kotka, Hamina or Loviisa in meteorological circumstances or in case of defects or
the eastern Gulf of Finland must give a traffic report to the deficiencies. This service is normally rendered at the
Kotka VTS Centre via VHF when entering the Kotka VTS request of a vessel or when deemed necessary by the VTS
area. This applies to vessels with length of over 24 metres. Centre. When navigational assistance service is provided
When a ship contacts the VTS Centre, it should give its the beginning and end of navigational assistance should be
name, location, the planned route and planned anchoring clearly stated and acknowledged.
(who, where, destination). The VTS Centre will confirm that
it has received the report and will provide the vessel with the Not all VTS centres, though, are authorised to provide
necessary information and instructions. navigational assistance service. For example, Helsinki VTS
or Kotka VTS do not provide vessels with any direct
A vessel must also give a traffic report after anchoring or navigational instructions.
after it has been made fast to the quay. A vessel
manoeuvring irregularly must always give a traffic report. A This text has been adapted from the following sources:
report must also be given whenever circumstances so IMO Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 1.1.9.2
require. IMO Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.3.2
This text has been adapted from the following sources: VTS, Text 9
IMO Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.6.3 Traffic Organisation Service
VTS Master’s Guide, Gulf of Finland. Finnish Maritime
Administration, Helsinki. Pages 24–25. Available at: traffic organisation service
http://www.fma.fi a service of VTS to prevent the development of dangerous
maritime traffic situations and to provide for the safe and
VTS, Text 7 efficient movement of vessel traffic within the VTS Area
Information Service (IMO Res. A.857(20) paragraph 1.1.9.3)
information service According to the IMO Resolution A.857(20) the aim of traffic
organisation service is to prevent the development of
dangerous maritime traffic situations and to provide for the
safe and efficient movement of vessel traffic within the VTS informs Marina that the pilot is boarding at the Orrengrund
area. The traffic organization service concerns the pilot boarding position, 1.5 SSW of Orrengrund. Now Marina
operational management of traffic and the forward planning is proceeding towards Tainio racon.
of vessel movements to prevent congestion and dangerous
situations. Operational management of traffic includes • VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS.
allocation of space, mandatory reporting of movements in • Ship: Kotka VTS, Marina.
the VTS area, routes to be followed, speed limits to be • VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS. Information: The fairway
observed or other appropriate measures which are is on the west side of Tainio racon.
considered necessary by the VTS authority. The service is • Ship: Yes. I will alter course to port.
particularly relevant in times of high traffic density or when • The ship is proceeding towards Tainio racon.
the movement of special transport may affect the flow of • VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS. Warning: You are running
other traffic. into danger. The fairway is on the west side of
Tainio racon.
When necessary VTS gives instructions on the speed of • Ship: Okay, I will leave it on my starboard side.
vessels, prohibits vessels from overtaking other ships in the
• VTS: Information: One outbound vessel, name
VTS area or specifies the right-of-way in narrow channels.
Finnmill, passing Orrengrund after ten minutes.
The service may also include establishing and operating a
• Ship: Understood, Finnmill is coming out. I can see
system of traffic clearances or VTS sailing plans or both. A
her on my radar screen.
sailing plan is a mutually agreed plan between a VTS
Authority and the master of a vessel and concerns the • VTS: Information: There is a yacht race on the west
movement of the vessel in a VTS area. side of Kotka lighthouse. The yachts are heading
north-west.
This text has been adapted from the following sources: • Ship: Well understood.
IMO Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 1.1.9.3
IMO Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.3.3 VTS, Dialogue 3
VTS Master’s Guide, Gulf of Finland. Finnish Maritime Navigational Assistance Service
Administration, Helsinki. Pages 21–22, 25.
• Situation description:
VTS, Dialogue 1 • The M/S MSC Marianna is in the Hightower VTS
Entering report area. Suddenly the mate notices that only one
radar is working. Visibility is 500 metres. He
Situation description: decides to request navigational assistance. The
The M/S Marina is entering the Kotka VTS area and gives a Hightower VTS starts navigational assistance and
traffic report on VHF channel 67. The Kotka VTS centre informs other vessels in the area.
confirms that it has received the report and provides the M/S • Ship: Hightower VTS, this is MSC Marianna.
Marina with necessary information and instructions. • VTS: MSC Marianna, Hightower VTS.
B0901 • Ship: Information: We have problems with
• Ship: Kotka VTS, this is Marina. electricity on the bridge. Only one radar is working.
• VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS. I require navigational assistance.
• Ship: We are passing the reporting point number • VTS: Understood. You have problems with
10. My ETA at pilot station is 1300 hours local time. electricity. Question: What is your position?
• VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS. You are in the Kotka VTS • Ship: Answer: My position is bearing 035 degrees,
area. Proceed to Orrengrund Pilot Station. distance 5.5 miles from Landfall lighthouse.
Information: Rig the pilot ladder on starboard side, • VTS: Bearing 035 degrees, distance 5.5 miles from
one metre above the water. Make a boarding Landfall lighthouse. I have located you on my radar
speed of six knots. screen. All information is based on VTS equipment.
• Ship: Pilot ladder starboard side, one metre above Stand by on channel 10. If you do not hear from
the water. Boarding speed six knots. Is pilot ready me in one minute time, navigational assistance is
for me? ended. In that case go back to channel 71 and call
• VTS: Yes, pilot on arrival. Traffic information: One Hightower VTS. Navigational assistance starts at
outbound vessel, name Annegrecht, now passing 0920 local time.
Tainio light. • Ship: Okay. Navigational assistance is starting and
• Ship: Okay, traffic information received. is provided on channel 10. If I do not hear from you
• VTS: Information: There are cable operations in at one minute intervals, navigational assistance is
position 277 degrees from the southern point of ended and I will call Hightower VTS on channel 71.
Kaunissaari island distance 4 miles. Wide berth • VTS: All ships, Hightower VTS. Traffic information:
requested. Container vessel MSC Marianna, just passed buoy
• Ship: Cable operations in vicinity of Kaunissaari. number four, is receiving navigational assistance
Wide berth requested. Well received. on channel 10 and is not monitoring any other VTS
working channel.
VTS, Dialogue 2 • …
Information Service • VTS: You are on the centre of the fairway,
tendency to north. Bearing to the next buoy is 120
Situation description: degrees, distance 2.2 miles.
The M/S Marina has entered the Kotka VTS area and is • Ship: Thank you. Information: My next waypoint is
heading for Kotka, the port of destination. The Kotka VTS in position 240 degrees and 0.2 miles from buoy
centre notices that Marina is proceeding to deep water number six. After that I will commence the turn to
fairway pilot boarding position which is west of Kotka the next course which is 090.
lighthouse. However, deep water pilot boarding position is • VTS: Next waypoint in position 240 degrees and
for vessels with the draught of 10 metres or more. Marina’s 0.2 miles from buoy number six. Understood.
present draught is 7.5 metres. The Kotka VTS centre • …
• VTS: You are on the northern buoy-line of the • Ship: Well received. No permission to depart. I will
fairway, tendency to north. Bearing to the next remain alongside.
waypoint is 140 degrees, distance 1.8 miles.
• Ship: Understood. I am on the northern buoy-line. VTS, Dialogue 5
Bearing to the next waypoint 140 degrees. I will Engine problem
alter my course to south. B0902
• … • Ship: Kotka VTS, this is Marina.
• Ship: I am passing buoy number two and my • VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS.
navigational equipment is working now. I no longer • Ship: Kotka VTS, Marina. We have engine
require navigational assistance. Thank you. problems and I am manoeuvring with difficulty.
• VTS: MSC Marianna, Hightower VTS. Information • VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS. Do you need assistance?
received. Navigational assistance ends at 0945 • Ship: Negative, no assistance needed.
local time. • VTS: Understood. Keep me updated about your
situation.
VTS, Dialogue 4 • --
Traffic Organisation Service • Ship: Kotka VTS, this is Nordic Star.
• VTS: Nordic Star, Kotka VTS.
In the Helsinki or Kotka VTS area a vessel has to obtain • Ship: Intention: Nordic Star is ready to depart from
permission from the VTS Centre to depart not more than berth number C5 to sea. Can I have clearance
five minutes before casting off from the quay or leaving the now?
anchorage and must report its planned route. After checking • VTS: Negative. Do not proceed. Traffic information:
the traffic situation, the VTS Centre will notify the vessel of Tanker Paula is just departing from oil terminal.
other ships in the area and, if necessary, will specify the Call VTS again after Paula has passed you.
order of departure. A ship must notify the VTS Centre of any
• Ship: Well understood. We do not have permission
inability to keep to the planned departure time. If necessary,
to depart. We will stay alongside. I will call you
the VTS Centre will recommend an alternative route to the
again when tanker Paula has passed me.
vessel.
• --
Situation description: • VTS: Friedrich Russ, Kotka VTS.
The following happens in the Kotka VTS area. The M/S • Ship: Kotka VTS, this is Friedrich Russ.
Janra gives a traffic report stating that she has left Halla lo- • VTS: Information: Outbound vessel Marina in the
lo berth bound for Orrengrund pilot station and will be in the vicinity of buoy number 10 has engine problems
Strait of Ruotsinsalmi after 10 minutes. The M/S Greta is and she is manoeuvring with difficulty. Advice:
leaving Sunila quay bound for Halla via the Strait of Keep minimum passing distance of 5 cables when
Ruotsinsalmi. passing her.
• Ship: Well understood. I will keep clear of Marina.
• Ship: Kotka VTS this is Janra. •
• VTS: Janra, Kotka VTS. B0903
• Ship: Kotka VTS, Marina.
• Ship: Information: I am ready to depart from Halla • VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS.
and I am bound for Orrengrund. • Ship: My engines are working now and I can make
• VTS: Traffic clearance. Janra has permission to a speed of 5 knots. I am still manoeuvring with
depart from Halla to Orrengrund at 0900 local time. difficulty.
• VTS: Understood. Traffic information: Outbound
• Ship: We have permission to depart. vessel Friedrich Russ has just passed buoy
• VTS: Traffic information: One outbound vessel number 8.
Ladoga-53 has just passed buoy number 2 and • Ship: Friedrich Russ has passed buoy number 8
tanker Berg is anchored in position one mile south outbound. Okay. I will keep to the east side of the
from Vehkaluoto. fairway.
• Ship: Okay, thank you for your information. I can • VTS: Friedrich Russ, Kotka VTS.
see Ladoga-53. • Ship: Kotka VTS, Friedrich Russ. I heard that
• -- Marina is keeping to the east side of the fairway. I
• Ship: Kotka VTS, Janra. We have 10 minutes to am passing Marina on her west side maintaining
the Strait of Ruotsinsalmi. the minimum passing distance of 5 cables.
• VTS: Janra, Kotka VTS. You have 10 minutes to • VTS: Friedrich Russ, Kotka VTS. Thank you.
the Strait of Ruotsinsalmi. There is no other • --
reported traffic in the strait. • Ship: Kotka VTS, Marina.
• VTS: Marina, Kotka VTS.
• Ship: Well received. • Ship: I still have problems with engines. Question:
Where can I anchor?
• -- • VTS: Question: What is your maximum draught?
• Ship: Kotka VTS, this is Greta. I request clearance • Ship: Answer: My maximum draught is 6.5 metres.
to depart from Sunila bound for Halla. I am just • VTS: Information: You must anchor in position 1.5
shifting berth. miles south from Tainio racon.
• VTS: Greta, Kotka VTS. Negative. Do not proceed. • Ship: Okay, I will anchor at given position.
Traffic information: Container vessel Janra has two • VTS: Call Kotka VTS after you have anchored.
minutes to the Strait of Ruotsinsalmi. I will contact • Ship: Okay, I will call Kotka VTS after I have
you when she has passed the strait and the fairway anchored.
is free.
ICE NAVIGATION
Welcome to study Maritime English: Ice Navigation. This caused by the availability of icebreaker services. The traffic
module is divided into two parts. The first one is called Ice restrictions are based on Ice Class Rules.
navigation in theory. It explains the main aspects of ice
navigation in short texts based on research reports. In this In the Baltic Sea area ice conditions are monitored on a
part the exercises mainly test comprehension of the texts. daily basis. The Finnish Ice Service of the Institute of Marine
The other part is called Ice navigation inpractice. It consists Research issues ice charts and ice reports and produces ice
of dialogues and exercises on these dialogues. drift forecasts. The daily ice chart and ice report include a
description of current ice conditions and information about
It must be noted that the dialogues are imaginary although the icebreakers’ operational areas.
real ship names and photos are used in the exercises. The
traffic situations described in the dialogues have been Ice navigation, Unit 2
created for the purposes of the MarEng Project. Captain’s checklist before entering ice-covered waters
B1001
Ice navigation, Unit 1 It is always important to plan the voyage carefully for the
The Baltic Sea freezes annually safety and efficiency of navigation. Preplanning is especially
The two most heavily marine operated areas in the world important in winter time. The following checklist helps you to
where seasonal sea ice plays an important role in navigation prepare properly for the voyage through ice-covered waters:
are the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada and the Baltic Sea in
Europe. In the Baltic Sea approximately 40 percent of the 1. Start listening to the daily ice reports well in advance,
total amount of cargo turnover, about 700 million tons, and, if possible, order an ice chart.
occurs during winter months. The Baltic Sea freezes 2. Check that your VHF radio is operative, and find out the
annually and in some parts the ice season lasts up to 7 channel used by the icebreaker operating in the area.
months, from November to May. For example, in the Gulf of 3. Drain all water from the pipes on deck and empty
Finland the average length of the ice season is 120 days containers of any liquids in case there is a danger of
outside St. Petersburg, and 30 days at the entrance of the freezing.
gulf. 4. Pump out all water from ballast tanks above the water-
line if they are filled to the top in order to avoid freezing.
The ice conditions are mostly affected by two factors: the B1002
number of sub-zero days (frost sum) and the prevailing 5. Protect the anchor windlass and the mooring hawser
winds. The sum of sub-zero degree-days controls the ice reels with a suitable tarpaulin before entering freezing
growth and the amount of ice. The prevailing winds control conditions.
the drifting and ridging of an ice field. 6. Keep the pilot ladder in a sheltered place so that it is not
covered by ice when needed.
Forming of an ice cover 7. Test the searchlights.
An ice cover starts to form on water when the surface 8. Move the anchors astern or place them onto deck so that
temperature reaches freezing point. Fresh water freezes at they may not come into contact with the icebreaker’s towing
0°C and in sea water the freezing point decreases w ith notch. This has to be done in advance to prevent delays in
increasing salinity. Thus freezing point in ocean water is assistance.
about -1.8°C, but in the brackish water of the Balti c Sea it is 9. Check that the propeller and the rudder blade are deep
about -0.4°C. enough below the waterline to ensure efficient operations in
ice and to avoid air leaks to the propeller or the rudder. If air
In the Gulf of Finland ice thickness is greatest in the eastern is drawn either to the propeller or the rudder their efficiency
parts of the gulf and is about 50 cm in an average winter. will suffer considerably. Also, if the rudder and the propeller
The biggest obstacles to winter navigation are ridges which are too close to the waterline they will be much more
are normally thicker than the level ice and are difficult to vulnerable in icy conditions.
penetrate. Channels with thick side ridges and thick brash 10. Check that main engine cooling water is available.
ice in the middle are formed when the ice cover in the This text has been adapted from the following sources:
fairway is repeatedly broken and refrozen. The side ridges
make passing of other vessels very difficult. The keel Ice navigation, Unit 3
heights of the ridges are normally a lot bigger than the sail Instructions to be followed in ice infested areas
heights. The side ridges may grow several metres thick and
the brash ice layer in between may become up to one meter - Avoid splitting thick and hard larger floes if you can go
thick. Ridges also form when winds push ice together. around them.
- Work with the ice and not against it.
Why are ice classes needed? - Respect the ice but do not be afraid of it.
The Ship Classification Societies’ “ice class” has a - Do not rush - think first.
fundamental basis on the safety of the ship hull and the - Stay in open water within the natural leads and try to find
essential propulsion machinery. The class defines sufficient the route of least resistance.
installed power for safe operation in ice covered waters. The - Keep away from ridged ice.
classification also defines certain hull structure against - Keep the ship moving however slowly.
certain level ice, which in the Baltic Sea conditions is - Reverse the engine wisely and always set the rudder
defined using the first-year ice definition. The classification amidships when reversing.
also defines the requirements for the propeller shaft as
minimum power for maintaining ship speed in a re-frozen Ice navigation, Unit 4
(covered by e.g. brash ice) fairway navigation channel. Convoy
When the ice conditions become difficult, traffic restrictions When a vessel proceeds in a convoy, a careful watch shall
are imposed. The restrictions pertain to the availability of be kept for signals coming from the icebreaker or another
icebreaker assistance. Some of the restrictions are about vessel in the convoy. During hours of darkness, icebreakers
safety independent of assistance standards; some are use a fixed blue all-around light at the top of the mast. If the
icebreaker stops or slows speed unexpectedly, two rotating Hoisting the towing cable and attaching it to the bollards of
red warning lights, installed one upon the other, are lit. The the assisted vessel should be carried out with the
master of the vessel assisted shall take all possible assistance of three persons. One person controls the
measures to stop his vessel as quickly as possible. anchor winch and two other persons work with the capstans
hoisting the strop to level with the bollards. At least one of
A vessel in convoy shall inform the icebreaker without delay these persons should have enough experience on such
if she stops or slows her speed substantially. If the vessel attachment procedures. Heaving lines are needed on the
stops due to the ice condition, the searchlight must be assisted vessel to lift the messenger wires attached to the
switched off for as long as the vessel remains stationary. tow strop to hoist this up to the nocks. Both ends are lifted at
the same time. The messenger wires should be guided by
Ice navigation, Unit 5 the bollard tops so that the strop can easily be pulled over to
Towing the bollard.
Notch towing The icebreaker is in command during the towing operation.

In difficult ice conditions, towing may be necessary. Three This means that the icebreaker gives all the commands and
different towing methods are in use. Firstly, the vessel the vessel to be towed has to follow them without any delay.
assisted by an icebreaker may be attached to the towing The crew on the assisted vessel should be ready to make
notch. This method called notch towing is the one normally fast or cast off the towing cable at any time. The propulsion
used. The vessel’s bow is brought into the towing notch of machinery should be ready for rapid manoeuvres at all time
the icebreaker. The icebreaker hands over two steel-ropes according to instructions from the icebreaker. Also, it is the
which are fastened to the merchant vessel’s bitts. (The bitts icebreaker who decides when the towing will be finished.
have been designed to withstand the stresses of towing.)
Letting go the tow
When notch towing is applied the hull of the towed vessel is Letting go the tow is normally carried out by three men in
acting as an active rudder of the icebreaker. When the opposite manner to that of making fast the tow. The
proceeding straight ahead the vessel should keep her masts strop must not be let go in any circumstances, since it may
in line with the icebreaker’s masts. well severely hit and damage the deck of the icebreaker
when it slides through a bend. There are normally at least
When changing course, the helm has to be turned in a two persons on the deck of the icebreaker. Additionally, it is
direction opposite to the one used normally, as the vessel’s normal that the ice-breaker has to be manoeuvred during
hull is acting as the rudder of the whole combination. this process. There is a danger of getting the wires into the
propellers of the ice-breaker.
Towing a ship attached to the towing notch of the icebreaker The icebreaker slacks the cable so that the block connecting
is relatively safe. In the event that the icebreaker collides the cable to the strop is hanging straight down. The
with packed ice and loses speed, the ship in tow does not messenger wires or ropes are set on the winching drums of
damage the icebreaker, as it remains attached to the notch. the windlass and the strop eyes pulled loose from the
The downside of this towing method is that the steering bollards. When this has been completed the wires are
capabilities of the combination are poor. slowly lowered to the deck of the icebreaker. Note that the
messengers are lowered using the heaving lines.
Towing at a distance
Secondly, the vessel might be slightly distanced from the Ice navigation, Unit 7
notch. The distance is so small that the stem of the assisted Icing
ship is able to move between the edges of the notch
allowing small drift angles to develop when the icebreaker Icing is quite a common phenomenon near the ice edge
turns its rudders. This increases the turning capability of the during low temperatures and rough sea. Icing takes place
tow. Sometimes a method where the stem is just outside the when the air temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius but the
notch edges is used. sea is not covered by ice. Icing is caused by the lifting of
spray into the relative wind by the ship bow. The spray is
Thirdly, the vessel might be towed by means of a long then super-cooled and carried over the ship superstructure
cable. This method is used in open leads and also in order to freeze on bulkheads, decks, and rigging. The water
to save the very expensive protection “cushions” inside the splashing on the deck freezes to the superstructures of the
notch. The heavier the vessel in tow the more likely it is that ship. The weight of accumulated ice can be significant. It
the cushions will be damaged. can raise the centre of the gravity of the ship and deteriorate
the ship’s stability. Consequently, the ship may even
The towing distance depends on the ship size, form of the capsize, if ice is not removed.
fore head and the situation. Small vessels can normally be
attached directly against the notch, while large ships are In case of ice build up on the deck structures appropriate
regularly towed with a distance of some tens of metres from tools should be available. Detaching the ice cover is a hard
the icebreaker. job. Hammers, even sledge hammers and hardwood clubs
can be used but wisely. When hitting with a sledge hammer
When towing a ship at a small distance from the towing on a thick layer of ice the load on the metal sheet spreads
notch or with a long cable, the icebreaker must make sure rather evenly into the surrounding surface. In case the ice
that it can proceed at a steady speed. These two towing layer is thin the blow concentrates onto a very small area
methods are only used in channels through fast ice, never in and may force a dent into the plating. In such cases it is
hard packed ice fields out in the sea. The advantage of better to use heavy wooden clubs or even better leave it as
these towing methods is preserving the capability of both it is.
the icebreaker and the vessel being towed to steer their
course where required. Ice navigation, Unit 8
What’s the damage?
Ice navigation, Unit 6 B1003
On the vessel to be towed The ice season brings with it characteristic accident types.
Ice can cause different kinds of damage. They vary from
main engine malfunction due to heavy ice conditions to paint • Kontio: Marina, Kontio. We are close to Helsinki
finish degradation due to abrasion by ice pieces. In most lighthouse. We are going westward with three other
cases the damage is small and limited to shell plating westbound ships towards south of Porkkala. After
damage between a few frames at most. that we are coming to assist you. Stand by on
channel 08. Proceed to the position 10 miles south
There are a few typical situations which can cause damage of Helsinki lighthouse and wait for further
to vessels navigating through ice or in an ice channel. The instructions.
vessel may not be able to give way due to ice and may • Marina: Kontio, Marina. Well understood. You are
collide with another vessel. Also, vessels navigating in a close to Helsinki lighthouse, going west with 3
compressive ice field might get stuck and sustain ice ships towards south of Porkkala. After that you are
damage to the hull. Compressive ice induces high local coming to assist us. I will stand by on channel 08.
loads that exceed the strength requirements of plating and
framing. A vessel stuck in the ice may also drift with the The icebreaker Kontio finishes assisting the three
moving ice field and may eventually run aground. westbound vessels, leaves them in the fairway south of
B1004 Porkkala, makes a turn and starts heading back eastwards
When ships are moving in an ice channel in succession with to assist the Marina. After about 3 hours Kontio calls Marina
a short lead, the first ship may get stuck in the ice and the on channel 08.
next one may collide with it. Reversing in ice may damage
aft ship areas, especially the rudder and the propeller. In • Kontio: Marina, Marina, Marina this is icebreaker
order to avoid getting stuck in ice, it is important that the Kontio, Kontio, Kontio on channel 08. Good
propeller maintains its rotation. Usually the propeller ice evening, again.
loads are quite short-term and the so-called ice torque does • Marina: Kontio, Marina. Good evening.
not stop the propeller. • Kontio: Marina, Kontio. We are about one mile
behind you here. We are going to pass you on your
Ice navigation, Dialogue 1 port side. Keep your heading and keep full ahead
In a convoy all the time.
• Marina: Kontio, Marina. Okay, you are one mile
Situation description: behind me, you will pass me on my port side. We
The M/S Marina is in the Gulf of Finland making her way will keep full ahead on our current heading.
towards Kotka, her port of destination. She has reached the • Kontio passes Marina and turns ahead of her.
longitude of Hanko (023 degrees East) and calls Helsinki
• Kontio: Marina, this is Kontio.
VTS (Vessel Traffic Service). She wants to know the name
• Marina: Kontio, Marina.
of the coordinating icebreaker. According to the instructions
given in the daily ice report, vessels bound for Finnish ports • Kontio: Marina, Kontio. Please follow us now. Keep
and requiring icebreaker assistance shall contact the full ahead all the time. We will take care of the
icebreaker well in advance before entering ice-covered distance.
waters. The operator at the VTS centre saves the • Marina: Kontio, Marina. Okay, we will keep full
information given by the Marina to the knowledge base. The ahead all the time and you will take care of the
icebreakers in the Gulf of Finland can get the information distance.
from the knowledge base and can follow the passage of the
vessel. When the Marina is closer to the nearest icebreaker, Marina is following the icebreaker Kontio in an ice channel.
the navigating Deck Officer of the icebreaker gives her a While they proceed towards Lighthouse Helsinki Kontio
Way Point and starts her way to meet the Marina. The takes two other ships in convoy. Five miles before meeting
icebreaker will take care of the Marina and assist her if the first of these two vessels, Kontio calls her on the VHF
needed. channel 08. The icebreaker organizes the convoy, informs
the vessels in the convoy about her plans and the voyage
• Marina: Helsinki VTS, Helsinki VTS, Helsinki VTS, ahead. She also instructs the vessels to keep continuous
this is Marina, Marina, Marina, call sign MWYA3. listening watch on the working channel.
• VTS: Marina, Helsinki VTS.
• Kontio: Aila, Aila, Aila this is Kontio, Kontio, Kontio.
• Marina: Helsinki VTS, Marina. We are passing
Hanko, bound for Kotka. What is the first • Aila: Kontio, Aila.
icebreaker? • Kontio: Aila, Kontio. We are five miles west of you
• VTS: Marina, Helsinki VTS. The first icebreaker is assisting Marina eastwards and we are going to
Kontio. At the moment she is close to Helsinki take you with the convoy. Ship called Marina
lighthouse. Kontio’s working VHF channel is 08. already behind us is number one and you will be
number 2 in the convoy. We are going to pass you
• Marina: Okay. Thank you. The first icebreaker is
on the starboard side. After passing you, follow
Kontio, close to Helsinki lighthouse, working
Marina.
channel 08.
• Aila: Kontio, Aila. Okay, well received. You are five
Marina gets closer to the icebreaker Kontio and calls her on miles west of me assisting Marina, passing on
channel 08. starboard. We will join the convoy after Marina.
B1005 • Kontio: Laura, Laura, Laura this is Kontio, Kontio,
• Marina: Ice-breaker Kontio, Kontio, Kontio, this is Kontio.
Marina, Marina, Marina, call sign MWYA3. • Laura: Kontio, Laura.
• Kontio: Marina, this is Kontio, good evening. • Kontio: Laura, Kontio. We are 4 miles southwest of
• Marina: Kontio, Marina. My position is latitude 59 you. We are assisting Marina. We are going to take
degrees and 49 minutes North, longitude 024 Aila with the convoy. After that we will take you
degrees and 18 minutes East and we are bound for with the convoy. Marina is number one and Aila is
Kotka. Is the ice situation very bad there? Are you number two. Your place in the convoy is number
going to assist us? three. We will pass you on your port side. After we
have passed you, follow Aila.
• Laura: Kontio, Laura. Well understood. You are 4 starboard and portside bollards on her forecastle head. An
miles southwest of me assisting Marina. You will A.B. shows with his hands that the lines are made well fast.
pass me on my port side. I will be number three in
the convoy. I will join the convoy after Aila. • Marina: Apu, Marina. Towing lines are made fast.
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Towing lines fast. Ask your crew
Ice navigation, Dialogue 2 out of the forecastle. We are starting to move.
Towing Make half ahead. Steer with us and keep our
masts in the same line.
Situation description: • Marina: Apu, Marina. Crew is clear of the
The M/S Marina is in the Gulf of Finland making her way forecastle. We are starting to move. We will make
towards Kotka, her port of destination. The edge of the ice half ahead and steer with you. We keep our masts
cover reaches as far as Porkkala. The icebreaker Kontio in the same line as yours.
has escorted the Marina to waypoint 10. After that the B1009
Marina has proceeded in an ice channel without icebreaker • Apu: Marina, this is Apu.
assistance. While Marina proceeds in the traffic separation • Marina: Apu, Marina.
scheme the ice cover gets thicker. The wind is getting • Apu: Marina, Apu. We will finish towing in about 20
stronger as well. At 1830 Marina gets stuck in position minutes.
latitude 59 degrees and 56 minutes North, longitude 025 • Marina: Apu, Marina. Okay. Towing will be finished
degrees and 36 minutes East. According to the instructions in 20 minutes.
a vessel stuck in the ice must notify the icebreaker of her • Apu: Marina, Apu.
position without any delay. Marina calls the icebreaker Apu
• Marina: Apu, Marina.
on the VHF channel 08.
• Apu: Marina, Apu. We will finish assistance in
B1006
about 10 minutes. You must proceed
• Marina: Icebreaker Apu, Apu, Apu. This is Marina,
northeastwards alone. Are you ready to get the
Marina , Marina.
waypoints?
• Apu: Marina, Apu replies.
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Understood. Assistance will
• Marina: Apu, Marina. We are ice-bound in position be finished in 10 minutes. We are ready to take the
latitude 59 degrees and 56 minutes North, waypoints.
longitude 025 degrees and 36 minutes East. B1010
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Understood. Please prepare for • Apu: Marina, Apu. Dead slow ahead.
towing. We are going to tow you in about 20
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Dead slow ahead.
minutes.
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Keep slow ahead and keep our
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Okay. We will prepare for
masts in the same line. Let go towing lines now.
towing. You are going to tow us in about 20
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Slow ahead, masts in the
minutes.
line. We are letting go towing lines.
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Keep full ahead while preparing;
• Marina: Apu, Marina. We have let go towing lines
we will tell you when to slow down.
now, the bow is clear.
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Well received. We will keep
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Keep full ahead and follow us
full ahead.
about 9 miles more.
B1007
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Full ahead. We will follow you
• Marina: Apu, this is Marina.
about 9 miles more.
• Apu: Marina, Apu.
• Marina: Apu, Marina. I am ready for towing. My Apu gives now several waypoints to Marina.
crew is on the forecastle head. We are ready to
receive the towing lines.
• Apu: Marina, Apu. I will now give the waypoints to
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Okay. Stop your speed. you. The next waypoint is 59 degrees 59 minutes
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Okay. We will stop our speed North 026 degrees 00 minutes East. We will leave
immediately. you in that position and you must proceed via
• Marina: Apu, Marina. waypoints on your own. Next icebreaker outside
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Orrengrund is “Voima”.
• Marina: Apu, Marina. I have stopped now. I am not • Her working channel is 06.
moving. • Marina: Apu, Marina. The next waypoint is 59
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Okay. You are not moving. degrees 59 minutes North 026 degrees 00 minutes
• East. You will leave us in that position and I will
Apu reverses in front of Marina’s bow. continue alone via waypoints. Next Ib is Voima and
B1008 if we need help again I will call Voima on channel
• Apu: Marina, Apu. 06.
• Marina: Apu, Marina. • Apu: Marina, Apu. I am finishing assistance now. I
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Keep slow ahead. am turning hard to starboard.
• Marina: Apu, Marina. Slow ahead. • Marina: Apu, Marina. Okay. You are finishing
• Apu: Marina, Apu. We are going to give you two assistance now and turning to starboard.
lines. • Marina: Apu, Marina. Thank you very much for your
• Marina: Apu, Marina. You are going to give us two assistance. Have a good watch.
lines. Do we need a heaving line? • Apu: Marina, Apu. Thank you Marina and good
• Apu: Marina, Apu. Yes, you need a heaving line. voyage.
One of Marina’s Able Body seamen casts a heaving line and

Marina gets two lines. They are fastened to Marina’s
WEATHER
The weather is the state of the atmosphere with - the height of a wave, that is the vertical distance from
reference to wind, temperature, state of the sea, trough to crest.
cloudiness, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, - the period of a wave, that is the time between the
humidity, mist, fog and ice conditions. It is important for passages of two successive wave crests or troughs
seamen to understand all the phenomena connected past a fixed point.
with the weather and to be able to read weather maps - the velocity of a wave, that is the rate at which the
and listen to the weather forecast and report weather crest travels.
conditions at sea such as the visibility and the direction B1105
of wind and its force according to the Beaufort Wind VISIBILITY
Scale. Visibility at sea may be affected by various weather
conditions in different parts of the world. In the north it
WINDS may be affected by rain, sleet, snow, hail and blizzards
B1101 or snowstorms. In the south it may be affected by
Winds are mainly caused by a difference of torrential rains, drizzle or showers as well as by sand
temperature which in turn is sometimes responsible for storms. Mist, haze and fog may appear in all areas of
the differences of barometric pressure. The strength the world at different times of the year. The passage of
and speed of wind at any given time depend on the very cold air over much warmer water causes arctic sea
gradient of atmospheric pressure that is the rate at smoke, frost smoke or steam fog. It is formed when the
which pressure changes with distance. lowest layers of the cold air heated by contact with the
warm sea tend to rise and are chilled to their dew point
Speed of movement of pressure systems on meeting colder air than themselves.
Slowly: Moving at less than 15 knots B1106
Steadily: Moving at 15 to 25 knots CLOUDS AND WEATHER SYMBOLS
Rather quickly: Moving at 25 to 35 knots Clouds consist of minute drops of water or ice crystals
Rapidly: Moving at 35 to 45 knots formed by the condensation of water vapour and held in
Very rapidly: Moving at more than 45 knots suspension in the atmosphere. There are two main
B1102 types of clouds: stratiform or layer cloud, resembling
Timing of gale warnings fog but not resting on the ground, and cumuliform or
Imminent: Within 6 hours of time of issue white cotton-wool cloud with much greater vertical
Soon: Within 6 – 12 hours of time of issue development than horizontal extent. There are also
Later: More than 12 hours from time of issue combinations of these types depending on the height of
Terms referring to wind occurrence and then we speak about cirrus clouds and
Backing; Indicates the changing of wind in the cirro-cumulus, and cirro-stratus, which are high clouds;
anticlockwise direction, i.e. from W to SW alto-cumulus, alto-stratus and nimbo-stratus, which are
Becoming cyclonic: Indicates that there will be medium height clouds and strato-cumulus, stratus,
considerable changes in wind direction across the path cumulus and cumulo-nimbus, which are low clouds.
of a depression within the forecast area Clouds usually help in forecasting the weather.
Wind direction: Indicates the direction from which the Generally speaking, soft round clouds mean fine dry
wind is blowing weather with some wind but not very strong. Harsh and
Veering: Indicates the changing of the wind in a jagged clouds mean strong winds. Black clouds mean
clockwise direction, i.e. from SW to W rain squalls. High clouds moving in a different direction
Variable: Indicates the wind constantly changing the from lower ones foretell a change of the wind.
direction from which it blows B1107
A sailor’s experience is also important in foretelling the
WAVES weather but nowadays seamen rely on weather reports
B1103 received in a form of facsimile or weather forecasts
Waves are primarily caused by the wind and its action which are broadcast daily by various stations.
on the surface of the water. Their height depends on
how long the wind has been blowing and also on the In the northern regions and in the Antarctic knowledge
strength of the wind. of ice terminology is important.
Waves formed by the wind blowing locally are termed
“sea”. Waves formed by the wind blowing at a distance NAVTEX
from the place of observation are termed “swell”. B1108
Some waves result from earthquakes or underwater Navtex is used for passing navigational warnings and
seaquakes and on approaching shallow water they meteorological information to ships within the range of
become abnormally high and begin to break with great 400 Nautical miles off shore. The messages are sent
violence causing enormous devastation and loss of life. automatically and the information is updated and
They are termed “tsunami” and we will all remember the corrected all the time. Every Navtex message is
tragic waves caused by a seaquake near Sumatra on preceded by a four-letter heading. The first letter
Dec. 26th, 2004, which claimed the lives of nearly characterizes the transmitting station, the second refers
300,000 people in South – East Asia. to the class of the message, the third and the fourth
B1104 show the number of received messages in succession.
The following terms are frequently used in connection The messages are transmitted on the frequency of 518
with waves: kHz. Below is an example of a message transmitted by
- the length of a wave , that is the horizontal distance Navtex.
from crest to crest or trough to trough. If the distances
between the crests of waves are far apart, the sea is HIGH SEAS FORECAST
termed “a long sea”. When the crests are close together NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE WASHINGTON
the sea is termed “a short sea”, like for example in the DC/TPC MIAMI FLORIDA
Baltic Sea.
MARINE PREDICTION CENTRE/MFB 1700 UTC JAN FORECAST ASSOCIATED COLD FRONT THROUGH
7 2002 55N 150W AND 46N 146W.
SUPERSEDED BY NEXT ISSUANCE IN 6 HOURS FORECAST WINDS 40 TO 55 KT AND SEAS 18 TO
SECURITE 28 FT WITHIN 300 NM E OF THE FRONT.
PACIFIC NORTH OF 30N AND E OF A LINE FROM GALE 42N 142W 986 MB WILL MOVE NE 30 KT.
BEARING STRAIT TO 50N 160E. WINDS 30 TO 45 KT AND SEAS 15 TO 25 FT WITHIN
SYNOPSIS VALID 1200 UTC JAN 7. FORECAST 720 NM SE SEMICIRCLE AND 480 NM W
VALID 0000 UTC JAN 9. QUADRANT. FORECAST DISSIPATED INLAND.
WARNINGS FORECAST CONDITIONS AS DESCRIBED ABOVE.
STORM 45N 175W 953MB WILL MOVE NE 25KT. AREAS OF MODERATE TO HEAVY FREEZING
WINDS 45 TO 60KT SEAS 25 TO 40 FT ELSEWHERE SPRAY OVER THE BEARING SEA N OF 55N W OF
WITHIN 660NM S AND 240NM N SEMICIRCLES. 160W. FORECAST AREAS OF MODERATE TO
ALSO WINDS 30 TO 45 KT SEAS 15 TO 25 FT FREEZING SPRAY IN BEARING SEA N OF 52N W OF
ELSEWHERE FROM 30N TO 54N… BETWEEN 155W 162W.
AND 160E. FORECAST COMPLEX STORM 54N SYNOPISIS AND FORECAST
156W 957MB. FORECAST S WINDS 20 TO 30 KT FROM 35 KT TO
45 KT BETWEEN 160E TO 162E.
buzon4061@hotmail.com

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1 MarEng Segunda Parte

THE “ESTONIA” FERRY

The ramp was placed behind the bow visor. Thus, as

TWO – STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE TYPES

DUAL FUEL SYSTEMS

They operate on the lean-burn principle, where the mixture

Natural gas is supplied to the engine through the valve

On the engine, the gas is supplied through large common-

The back-up fuel is fed to a normal camshaft-driven injection

JERK PUMP INJECTON

The inspections take place on board foreign ships in the

Unfortunately, certain flag states, for various reasons, fail to

The Port State control is carried out by properly qualified

Documentation of crew members has to comply with

Flag States which are not a party to conventions shall

Mandatory Expanded Inspections are compulsory and are

Mandatory Inspections are held on board any ship not

VTS, Text 1 IMO Resolution A.857(20) paragraph 2.1.2 says that “a

Source: Automatic Identication System (AIS). Available at VTS, Text 8

Notch towing The icebreaker is in command during the towing operation.

One of Marina’s Able Body seamen casts a heaving line and

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