Heat Transfer Vtu PDF

Heat and Mass Transfer
VI Sem B.E. Mechanical Engineering

As per V.T.U syllabus
Dr.A.M.Nagaraj
M-Tech(HPE), Ph.D.,MISTE.,MIE.,MCI.
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology
Davangere, Karnataka
&
Davangere
ã All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by amy means, electronic or mechanical, including photo copying, recording or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Pages :
First Edition 2008
IMPORTANT
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readers for the improvement of the book and pointing out the errors and
printing mistakes, if any
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Preface to the
First Edition
This text book is designed for undergraduate students of B.E Mechanical Engineering. First edition
deals with basic topics such as conduction, convection, and radiation, their application to heat exchangers,
and numerical solutions to heat conduction problems. Time and again, we have observed that the
engineering student has difficulty in applying the calculus that he/she has learned in a calculus course to
situations in engineering disciplines. Consequently, every attempt has been made to incorporate the
methodology of calculus learned in a typical calculus course in dealing with the equations related to the heat
transfer-phenomena.
Chapter 1 gives an introduction to the general topic of heat transfer. Chapter 2 presents an in-depth
discussion of one-dimensional heat conduction (including cylindrical and spherical systems). Systems
without heat sources and variable thermal conductivity are also presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 contains
material on transient heat conduction with emphasis on lumped parameter systems and chart solutions.
In Chapter 5, Concept and basic relations in boundary layer discussed and presented the topic are
in line with the syllabus related to Mechanical Engineering students. . A section on dimensional analysis is
included in the Chapter 6. Natural convection is discussed in this chapter. Every effort has been made to
present the correlations for the Nusselt number.
Chapter 7 is devoted to Forced Convection and selected topics from fluid flow, in evaluating heat transfer
coefficient. Analysis of heat exchanger and double pipe heat exchangers are also been discussed in detail in
Chapter 8. The logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMD) method and the number of transfer units
(NTU) technique are discussed at length.
Condensation and pool boiling have been discussed in Chapter 9. Nusselt's theories for laminar
condensation on a vertical flat surface, use of correlations for condensation on vertical flat surfaces are
discussed. Related topics of regimes of boiling and numerical problems are also appended.
In Chapter 10 we have made significant effort for presenting theory of thermal radiation with
numerical problems. Systematic effort has been made present the solution to examination papers.
Numerous analytical solutions are made available in each chapter and also about a dozen examination
question papers of Kuvempu University and V.T.U problems are available in every chapter.
Dr. A.M.Nagaraj
CONTENTS
Pre face
Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts and Definitions:

1-1 Introductory Concepts and Definitions 1
1-2 Basic Modes of Heat Transfer 1
1-3 Conduction Heat Transfer 1
1-4 Convection Heat Transfer 2
1-5 Radiation Heat Transfer 3
1-6 Boundary Conditions Of 1st, 2nd and 3rd Kind 8
1-7 Combined Heat Transfer Mechanism 11
Review Questions 12
Chapter 2 Conduction:
2-1 General Three Dimensional Conduction
Equation In Cartesian Coordinate 13
2-2 One Dimensional Basic Equation for Unsteady
State with Heat Generation 14
2-3 General Three Dimensional Conduction Equation 15
2-3-1 General Three Dimensional Conduction Equation
in Cartesin co-ordiante 15
Cylindrical Coordinate system. 16
Spherical Coordinate system 16
2-4 One Dimensional Conduction in Rectangular
Coordinate for Plane Wall 17
2-5 One Dimensional Conduction Equation for
Hallow Cylinder 18
2-6 One Dimensional Conduction Equation for
Hallow Sphere 19
2-7 Composite Wall 20
2-8 Composite Cylinder 21
2-9 Composite sphere 22
2-10 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 23
2-11 Thermal Contact Resistance 24
Review Questions 35
Chapter 3 Variable Thermal Conductivity and Fins

3-1 Variable Thermal Conductivity for Slab 37
3-2 Critical Thickness of Insulation 39
3-3 Thermal Resistance concept and Its Importance 41
3-4 Finned surfaces 42
3-5 Heat Transfer Through Rectangular Fin 42
3-5-1 Heat Dissipation from an infinitely long fin 45
3-5-2 Fin with Convection at the Tip 46
3-5-3 Heat dissipation from a Fin Insulated at the Tip 46
3-5-4 Heat dissipation from a Fin having Finite Length or long Fin 47
3-6 Effectiveness of Fin 47
3-7 Fin Efficiency 48
3-8 Fin Connected Between Two Sources 48
Review Questions 57
Chapter 4 Transient Conduction and Use of Temperature Charts

4-1 Introduction 59
4-2 Lumped System Analysis 59
4-3 Mixed Boundary Condition 61
4-4 Use of Transient Temperature Charts (Heisler Charts) 64
4-4-1 Transient Heat Conduction in Slabs 64
4-4-2 Transient Heat Conduction in long cylinder 68
4-4-3 Transient Heat Conduction in sphere 70
4-5 Use of Transient Temperature Charts for Semi-Infinite Solids 84
4-5-1 Introduction 84
4-5-2 Transient Heat Conduction in a Semi-Infinite Solids
Exposed to Temperature 84
Exposed to a Constant Heat Flux 87
with Convection at the Surface 88
Review Questions 90
Chapter 5 Concepts and Basics Relation in Boundary Layers

5-1 Introduction 92
5-2 Flow Over a Body 92
5-2-1 Velocity Boundary Layer 92
5-2-2 Critical Reynolds Number 93
5-3 Drag Coefficient and Drag Force 94
5-4 Thermal Boundary Layer 95
5-5 Heat Transfer Coefficient 96
5-6 Flow Inside Duct 97
5-6-1 Velocity Boundary Layer 97
5-7 Hydrodynamic and Thermal Entry Length 98
5-8 Thermally Developing,
Hydrodynamically Developing Laminar Flow 101
Review Questions 106
Chapter 6 Free or Natural Convection 107

6-1 Evaluation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient 107
6-2 Methods of Estimation of Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient 107
6-3 Dimensional Analysis 108
6-4 Application of Dimensional Analysis for
Natural or Free Convection 111
6-5 Significance of Grashof Number 116
Chapter 7 Forced Convection 125
7-1 Introduction 125
7-2 Application of Dimensional Analysis for Forced Convection 125
7-3 Physical Significance of Dimension less Numbers 128
Chapter 8 Heat Exchangers 140

8-2 Classification of Heat Exchangers 140
8-3 Over all Heat Transfer Coefficient 144
8-4 Fouling Factor 145
8-5 Analysis of Heat Exchangers 146
8-6 Effective ness (N.T.U Method) 151
Chapter 9 Condensation and Boiling 175

9-2 Nusselt Theory for Laminar Condensation on Vertical Plate 176
9-3 Pool Boiling Regimes 181
9-4 Pool Boiling Correlations 183
9-5 Mass Transfer 196
9-5-1 Introduction 196
9-5-2 Classification of Mass Transfer Process 196
9-5-3 Concentration, Velocities and Fluxes 197
9-5-4 Fick’s Law of Diffusion Mass Transfer 198
Chapter 10 Radiation Heat Transfer 200

10-2 Basic Theory of Radiation Heat Transfer 200
10-3 Radiation Properties of Surfaces 201
10-4 Black Body and Monochromatic Radiation 202
10-5 Stefan Boltzmann Equation and Black Body Emissive Power 203
10-6 Kirchoff’s Law of Radiation 205
10-7 Planck Law of Radiation 205
10-8 Wien’s Displacement Laws 206
10-9 Gray Body and Emissive Power of Gray Body 207
10-10 Solid Angle and Intensity of Radiation 207
10-11 Lamberts Cosine Law 209
10-12 Radiation Heat Exchange
Between Two Infinite Black Surfaces 211
10-13 Radiation Heat Exchange
Between Two Infinite Parallel Gray Surfaces 212
10-14 Radiation Shields 215
10-15 Some Special Properties of the Shape Factor 216
10-16 Shape Factors for Different Configuration 218
SYLLABUS
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Subject Code :06ME65 IA Marks :25

No. of Lecture Hrs./ Week :04 Exam Hours :03
Total No. of Lecture Hrs. :52 Exam Marks :100
PART - A
UNIT - 1
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS: Modes of heat transfer: Basic laws governing
conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer; Thermal conductivity; convective heat transfer
coefficient; radiation heat transfer ; combined heat transfer mechanism. Boundry conditions of 1st, 2nd and
3rd Kind
CONDUCTION: Derivation of general three dimensional conduction equation in Cartesian coordinate,

special cases, discussion on 3-D conduction in cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems (No derivation).
One dimensional conduction equations in rectangular, cylindrical and spherical coordinates for plane and
composite walls. Overall heat transfer coefficient. Thermal contact resistance. 7 Hours
UNIT - 2
VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: Derivation for heat flow and temperature distribution in
plane wall. Critical thickness of insulation without heat generation, Thermal resistance concept & its
importance. Heat transfer in extended surfaces of uniform cross-section without heat generation, Long fin,
short fin with insulated tip and without insulated tip and fin connected between two heat sources. Fin
efficiency and effectiveness. Numerical problems. 6 Hours
UNIT-3
ONE-DIMENSIONAL TRANSIENT CONDUCTION: Conduction in solids with negligible internal

temperature gradient (Lumped system analysis), Use of Transient temperature charts (Heisler's charts) for
transient conduction in slab, long cylinder and sphere; use of transient temperature charts for transient
conduction in semi-infinite solids. Numerical Problems. 6 Hours
UNIT - 4
CONCEPTS AND BASIC RELATIONS IN BOUNDARY LAYERS: Flow over a body velocity
boundary layer; critical Reynolds number; general expressions for drag coefficient and drag force; thermal
boundary layer; general expression for local heat transfer coefficient; Average heat transfercoefficient;
Nusselt number. Flow inside a duct- velocity boundary layer, hydrodynamic entrance length and hydro
dynamically developed flow; flow through tubes (internal flow)(discussion only). Numericals based on
empirical relation given in data handbook. 4 hours
FREE OR NATURAL CONVECTION: Application of dimensional analysis for free convection- physical
significance of Grashoff number; use of correlations of free convection in vertical, horizontal and inclined
flat plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders and spheres, Numerical problems. 3 hours
PART -B
UNIT - 5
FORCED CONVECTIONS: Applications of dimensional analysis for forced convection. Physical

significance of Reynolds, Prandtl, Nusselt and Stanton numbers. Use of various correlations for hydro
dynamically and thermally developed flows inside a duct, use of correlations for flow over a flat plate, over a
cylinder and sphere. Numerical problems. 6 Hours
UNIT-6
HEAT EXCHANGERS: Classification of heat exchangers; overall heat transfer coefficient, fouling and
fouling factor; LMTD, Effectiveness-NTU methods of analysis of heat exchangers. Numerical problems.
6 Hours
UNIT-7
CONDENSATION AND BOILING: Types of condensation (discussion only) Nusselt's theory for laminar
condensation on a vertical flat surface; use of correlations for condensation on vertical flat surfaces,
horizontal tube and horizontal tube banks; Reynolds number for condensate flow; regimes of pool boiling,
pool boiling correlations. Numerical problems. Mass transfer definition and terms used in mass transfer
analysis, Picks First law of diffusion (no numericals). 7 Hours
UNIT-8
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: Thermal radiation; definitions of various terms used in radiation heat
transfer; Stefan-Boltzman law, Kirchoff s law, Planck’s law and Wein's displacement law. Radiation heat
exchange between two parallel infinite black surfaces, between two parallel infinite gray surfaces; effect of
radiation shield; intensity of radiation and solid angle; Lambert's law; radiation heat exchange between two
finite surfaces-configuration factor or view factor. Numerical problems. 7 Hours
Text Books:
1. Heat and Mass Transfer, Tirumaleswar, Parson education 2006

2. Heat Transfer- A basic approach, Ozisik, Tata Mc Graw Hill 2002
Reference Books:
1. Heat transfer, a practical approach, Yunus A- Cengel Tata Mc Graw Hill

2. Principals of Heat Transfer, kreith Thomas learning 2001
3. Fundamental of heat and mass transfer, frenk P. Incropera and David P. Dewitt, John Wiley and
sons
4. Heat transfer, P.K.Nag, Tata Mc Graw Hill 2002.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Quantity S.I.Units
A Area m2
Ac Cross Sectional Area m2
Am Log mean area m2
As Surface area m2
Bi Biot Number
C Molar Concentration K-mol/m3
Cd Drag Coefficient
Cf Friction Coefficient
Cp Specific Heat at Constant Pressure J/kg K
Cv Specific Heat at Constant Volume J/kg K
D,d Diameter m
DAB Diffusion Coefficient m2/s
Dh Hydraulic Diameter m
Fd Drag Force N
Fo Fourier Number
F Friction Factor
Gr Grashhoff Number
G Irradiation W/m2
g Gravitational Acceleration m/s2h
h Convective Heat Transfer W/m2 K
hfg Latent Heat of evaporation kJ/kg
hm Convective mass transfer coefficient m/s
I Intensity of Radiation W/m2-sr
K Thermal Conductivity W/m K
L Characteristic Length m
m Mass kg
Nu Nusselt Number
NTU Number of Transfer Unit
P Perimeter m
Pr Prandtl Number
p Pressure N/m2
Q Heat Transfer Rate Watts, W
q Heat Flux W/m2
q& Rate of Heat Generation per unit volume W/m3
R Universal Gas Constant kJ/kg-mole K
Ra Rayleigh Number
Re Reynolds Number
Rc Convective Resistance k/W
Rf Fouling Factor m2-K/W
r,f,q Spherical Coordinates
Sc Schmidt Number
Sh Sherwood Number
St Stanton Number
o
T Temperature C, K
t Time s
U Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient W/m2 K
V Volume m3
x,y,z Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinates
Greek Letters
a Thermal Diffusivity m2/s
b Volumetric Thermal Expansion K-1
Î Emissivity, Heat Exchanger Effectiveness
dh Hydraulic boundary layer thickness m
dt Thermal Boundary Layer Thickness m
q Temperature
m Viscosity kg/m-s
n Kinematic Viscosity m2/s
s Stefan Boltzmann Constant W/m2K4
r Mass Density kg/m3
t Shear Stress N/m2
t Transmissivity
w Solid Angle Sr
m
(SI Units)
1 Introductory concept and definitions
1
1.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS:
The study of heat transfer mechanism is very important for the engineers who are in the fields of design,
construction, testing and operation of heat exchanger equipments.
Mechanical engineers deals with problems of heat transfer in the field of IC engines, steam generation
and its usage in refrigeration and air conditioning etc. Chemical engineers are concerned with the
evaporation, condensation, melting and cooking of fluid. Civil engineers deal with the heat transfer during
the construction of dam, structures and buildings. Electrical engineers apply their knowledge of heat transfer
for the design of cooling system for motors, generators, transformers etc.
A detailed heat transfer analysis is necessary to estimate the cost, feasibility and size of the equipment
necessary to transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time. The dimension of many heat exchanger
equipments such as boilers, heaters, refrigerators and heat exchangers depends not only on the amount of
heat to be transmitted but on the rate of heat to be transferred under given condition. The successful operation
of components such as gas turbine blades, walls of the gas turbine combustion chambers and IC engine
combustion chambers depends on the possibility of cooling certain metal parts by removing heat
continuously at a rapid rate from the surface.
These examples shows that in almost every branch of engineering, heat transfer problems are
encountered which cannot be solved by thermodynamics reasoning alone but require an analysis based on the
science of heat transfer.
1.2 Basic Modes of Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer can be defined as the transfer of energy from one region to another as a result of temperature
difference between them. The phenomena of heat transfer is as universal as those associated with
gravitational attraction since the difference in temperature exists all over the universe.
There are three different modes of heat transfers-Conduction, Convection and Radiation. All the three
modes of heat transfer have in common that a temperature difference must exists and that heat is always
transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature gradient.
1.3 Conduction Heat Transfer:
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer due to temperature difference within a body or between bodies,
in thermal contact, without the involvement of mass flow or mixing. This is the mode of heat transfer through
solid barrier and is extensively encountered in heat transfer equipment design as well as in heating and
cooling of various methods.
The law which govern the phenomenon of conduction is named after r a French mathematician Joseph
Fourier and is popularly known as Fourier law of conduction.
The “Fourier law of conduction state that the rate of heat flow by conduction in a given direction is
proportional to the area perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer and the temperature gradient in that
direction”.and is given by,
dT
Q = - kA (1 - 1)
dx
Where Q = Rate of heat transfer in Watts
dT/dx = Temperature gradient in ‘x’ direction
k = Thermal conductivity of the material in W/mK
Introductory concept and definitions 2
In the above equation the negative sign indicates that temperature decreases along the positive
direction. The thermal conductivity of the material can be expressed as.
q (1-2)
k=
- (dT dx )
q = Heat transfer per unit area W/m 2
Thermal conductivity has the highest value for highly conducting pure metals and has the lowest value
for gases and vapor except evacuated insulating systems. Thermal conduction of non metallic solids and
liquids lie in between them. However, metallic crystals like copper have high thermal conductivity. Thermal
conductivity also varies with temperature. The value is negligible in some materials over certain temperature
ranges but in many cases it varies significantly.
Thermal conductivity of various engineering materials are shown in Fig.1.1.
Silver
Copper
1000
Solid metals
Sodium
metals
100
Liquid
Oxides
Non metallic solids
k, W/mK
Steel Water
10 Fiber He, H
Hg 2
Non metallic
Non metallic
Insulating
materials
Evaporated
liquids
1.0
insulating
materials
gases
0.1
Plastics Oils Foams Co
Wood 2
0.01
Fig.1-1 Ranges of thermal conductivity of various materials
1.4 Convection Heat Transfer:

In convection heat transfer energy exchange takes place between the high temperature region to the low
temperature region due to molecular motion and macroscopic motion of the fluid particles.
Convection heat transfer is further classified as free or natural convection and forced convection. If the
mixing motion takes place due to density difference caused by temperature gradient, then the process of heat
transfer is known as heat transfer by free or natural convection.
If the mixing motion is induced by some external means such as a pump or a blower then the process is
know as heat transfer by forced convection. The effective transport of energy by this mode is merely
dependent on the nature of mixing the fluid. Therefore, the knowledge of the characteristics of the fluid flow
is necessary to study the heat transfer phenomenon by convection.
Let us consider a hot plate at a surface temperature of T w and a fluid temperature T ¥ flowing parallel to the
plate. As a result of viscous force the velocity of the fluid will be zero at the wall and will increase to U ¥ as
shown in Fig. 1.2.
As the velocity of the fluid layer will be zero at the wall, the heat is transferred only by conduction at the
wall. The rate of heat transfer at the wall can be calculated by using the Eq (1.3).
u¥ Velocity profile T¥ Temperature profile
Flow
Fluid flow
q Hot plate
Tw
Tw
Fig.1-2 Velocity and Temperature profile for convection

heat transfer from a hated surface
The concept of heat transfer by convection was introduced by Newton in 1701. He recommended the
following equation to take into account the heat flow from a solid surface to a fluid.
Q = Ah (Tw - T¥ ) (1 - 3)
o
Where Tw = Temperature of the wall, C
o
T¥ = Temperature of the fluid, C
It has proved to be really a definition of ‘h’ rather than a law.
Under steady heat from flow condition,
Heat conducted çx=L = Heat convected from solid boundary to adjacent fluid
æ dT ö
Q = - kA ç ÷ = Ah (Tw - T¥ )
è dx ø x = L
æ dT ö
ç ÷
è dx ø x = L
h=-k (1 - 4)
(Tw - T¥ )
It is seen from Eq (1.4) that for a system in which the wall temperature Tw, the fluid temperature T¥
and thermal conductivity k are constants, any change in ‘h’ means a change in (dT/dx)x=L. In other words heat
transfer co-efficient can be considered fundamentally as a measure of the slope of the temperature
distribution in the fluid at the right surface.
1.5 Radiation Heat Transfer:

Radiation is a process by which heat flows from a high temperature body to a body at low
temperature when these bodies are separated in space, even when vacuum exits between them.
It is difficult to provide a simple physical picture of something which is quite invisible and travels with
infinite ease through empty space. The term radiation is generally applied to all kinds of electromagnetic
wave phenomena, but in heat transfer only those phenomena which are the results of temperature. The energy
transmitted in this manner is termed as radiation heat.
All bodies continuously emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves because of their temperature
and the energy thus emitted is called thermal radiation. The radiation energy emitted by a body is transmitted
in the space in the form of electromagnetic waves as per MaxaWell’s electromagnetic wave theory or in the
form of discrete photons as per Planck’s hypothesis.
Thermodynamic consideration shows that an ideal thermal radiator or black body will emit energy at a
rate proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body and directly proportional to its
surface area. This is known as Stefan Boltzman law of radiation and it applies to only black bodies. The
maximum energy emitted by a black body at temperature T is given by,
Eb = s T 4 W / m 2 (1 - 5)
Where T = Absolute temperature, K
Eb = Black body emissive power
s = Stefan Boltzman constant
= 5.6697 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
The radiation emitted by a real body is always less than that of a black body and is given by
q = Î E b =Îs T 4
Where Î=Emissivity which lies between zero and unity. For all real bodies its is always less than one.
Heat exchange between two bodies takes place by radiation only when there exists temperature difference. As
a result of this heat exchange the hot body cools and the cold body gains heat. If these two bodies exists at
temperatures of T1 and T2, then the net radiation heat loss will be,
Q = s (T14 - T24 ) For black bodies (1.5a)

Q =s Î( T14 - T24 ) For real bodies (1.5b)
Examples:
2
1.1 Determine the heat transfer h across 4m area of a material of thickness 6 cm when a temperature
o o
difference of 100 C is applied across it. The thermal conductivity of the material is 0.08 W/m C.
Solution:
Given: A = 4 m2, dx = 6 cm, dT=(T1 - T2)=100oC, k=0.08W/moC
æ dT ö
Q = - kA ç ÷
è dx ø
0.08 æ 100 ö
Q= x 4ç ÷ x3600
1000 è 6/100 ø
= 1920 kJ/h Ans
1.2 Determine the thermal conductivity of a material ( say asbestos) of 4 cm thick when the temperature
difference of 35 oC exists between its inner and outer surface and heat flow rate is 100 W/m2.
Solution:
Given: A = 1 m2, dx = 4 cm, dT=(T1 - T2)=35oC, Q = 100 W/m2.
Q æ dx ö - Q æ dx ö
k =- ç ÷= ç ÷
A è dT ø A è - dT ø
100 æ 4 / 100 ö
k= ç ÷
1 è 35 ø
= 0.114 W/m o C Ans
1.3 The hot surface of a material of 55cm thick and thermal conductivity 20 W/moC exsits at a temperature
of 200oC. It the heat flow across the surface is 300 w/m2. Find the temperature of the cold surface.
Solution:
Given: k = 300w/m oC, A = 1 m2, dx = 55 cm, Q = 300 W/m2, (T1 - T2)=?,

æ dT ö
Q = -kAç ÷
è dx ø
Q
dT = dx
kA
300 æ 55 ö
(T1 - T2 ) = ç ÷
200 x 1 è 100 ø
= 8 .25 T2
= 200 - 8 .25
= 191.75 o C
1.4 Determine the heat flow across a plane wall of 10 cm thickness with a thermal conductivity of 9 W/m K,
when the surface temperatures are steady at 100 oC and 25 oC,. the wall area is 4 m2. Find also the
temperature gradient in the flow direction.
Solution:
Given: dx =10cm, k = 9 W/m2, T1= 100 oC T2=25 oC, A = 4 m2, dT/dx =?, Q = ?
æ dT ö
Q = - kA ç ÷
è dx ø
( 100 - 25 )
=9 x4 T1=100 oC
10 / 100
= 27000 W Q
dT æQö
and = -ç ÷
dx è kA ø T1=25oC
27000
=- = 750 o C/m
9 x4
OR
dT ( 100-25 )
=- = 750 o C/m L=10 cm
dx 10 / 100
1.5 Determine the heat transfer per m2 of the plate when water at a mean temperature of 30oC flow over it at
80oC. The heat transfer co-efficient is 250W/m2 oC.
Solution:
Given: A = 1 m2, T¥ =30oC Tw=80oC, h = 100 W/m2 oC, Q=?.
Q = hA (Tw - T¥ )
= 250 x 1( 80 - 30 )
= 12500 W
1.6 Heavy water flows inside a 6cm diameter 2m long pipe with its surface temperature maintained at 150 oC.
Determine the heat transfer rate from the tube to the water if the heat transfer co-efficient between the water
and the tube is 2500 W/m2 oC and water temperature is 40oC.
Solution: Given: D = 6cm , L =2 m, T¥ =40oC, Tw=150oC, h = 2500 W/m2 oC, Q=? .
Q = hπ d L(Tw -T¥ )
6
= 2500 π 2 ( 150 - 40 )
100
=103620 W
1.7 A surface with an area of 2m has a temperature of 200oC. It exchanges heat with another surcace at 30oC
2
by radiation. Determine the heat exchange assuming that the surfaces are black bodies. Also find the
value of thermal resistance and equivalent convection co-efficient.
Solution:
Given: s = 5.6697 x 10-8, T1 =200oC, T2 =30oC, A = 2 m2. Q=? , hr = ?
Q = sA( T14 - T24 )
= 5.679 x10 -8 x 2 ( 473 4 - 303 4 )
= 4720.113W
DT
Q= Where R = Re sistace
R
DT 200 - 30
R= =
Q 4720.113
= 0.036 o C / W
Re sis tan ce is also given by
1
R=
hr A
1 1
hr = =
RA 0.036 x 2
= 13.88W / m 2 K
1.8 A hot plate made of stainless steel of size 600mm x 750mm and thickness 20mm is maintained at 250oC.
Atmospheric air at 27oC blows over this plate. Calculate the heat transfer and inside plate temperature if
300W is lost from the surface of the plate by radiation. Assume convective heat transfer co-efficient of
30 W/m2K and thermal conductivity of the plate as 4500W/moC.
Solution:
Given: A = 600 mm x 750 mm, x=20mm, T¥ =27oC, Tw= 250oC, Q=300W h = 30 W/m2K, k=4500W/moC,
T1=?, T2=? Q = hA (Tw - T¥ )
Convective heat transfer is,
= 30( 0.6 x 0.75 ) ( 250 - 27 )
= 3010.5 W
Q cond = Q conv + Q Rad
Total heat conducted by the plate surface is, dT
- kA = 3010.5 + 300
dx
20 1 x (3010.5 + 300)
- dT =
1000 (0.6 x 0.75) x 0.45
= 3.269 o C
(T1 - T2 ) = -3.269 o C
T2 = 250 + 3.269
= 253.27o C
1.9 A long copper pipe of 100mm diameter with its surface temperature of 70m oC is passing through a room
which is maintained at a temperature of 25 oC. Calculate the heat lost by the pipe per unit length
assuming the heat transfer co-efficient of air as 7 W/m2 oC and emissivity of the pipe surface as 0.75.
Solution:
o o 2 -8
Given: T¥ = 25 C Tw= 70 C, h = 7 W/m K, L=1m, D=100mm, Î= 0.75, s=5.6697x 10 , Qconv = ?, Qrad =?,
Qtotal=?
The total heat lost by the pipe surface is by combined mechanism of convection and radiation.
Qconv = hA (Tw - T¥ ) = hpDL ( Tw - T¥ )

100
= 7p x 1 x( 70 - 25 )
1000
= 98 .91 W/m
Qrad =Î sA (T14 - T24 )
100 éæ 70 + 273 ö 4 æ 25 + 273 ö 4 ù
= 0 .75 x 5.6697 π x 1êç ÷ -ç ÷ ú
1000 êëè 100 ø è 100 ø úû
= 79 .515 W/m
Qtotal = 98 .81 + 79 .515
= 178 .325 W/m
1.10 A stone wall 100mm thick with an average value of thermal conductivity of 0.2 W/mK is exposed
on one side to heat flux of 2000 W/m2
(i) Determine the temperature drop in the wall under steady condition.
(ii) If the other side of the wall is exposed to convection to air at 27oC with a convection
co-efficient of 70 W/m2K. determine the wall surface temperature.
(iii) If the surface is exposed on the other side to convection and radiation, determine the wall
surface temperature.
Solution:
Given:T¥ =25oC Tw= 70oC, h = 7, W/m2K, L=1m, D=100mm,Î= 0.75, s=5.6697x 10 , Qconv= ?, Qrad =?,
-8
Qtotal=? T1
kA
Q = (T1 - T2 )
L
0.2x1
2000 = (T - T2 )
100 1
Q=2000W/m2
1000
(T1 - T2 ) = 1000 o C T2
This is the temperature drop through the wall,. K=0.2W/mK
Q conv = hA(T2 - T¥ )
100mm
Q cond = Q conv
2000 = 70x1(T2 - 27)
T1
\ T2 = 55.57 o C
and T1 = 1000 + 55.57 2
h=70W/m2K
Q=2000W/m
= 1055.57 o C
T2
Heat conducted =Heat radiated,
K=0.2W/mK T¥ =27oC
Qcond = Qrad
2000 = σA(T24 - T¥4 ) 100mm
éæ T 4 4ù T1
ö æ 27 + 273 ö
= 5.6697 x1êçç 2 ÷÷ - ç ÷ ú Radiation
êè T¥ ø è 100 ø ú
ë û
T2
T2 = 456.36 K =183.36 o C Q=2000W/m2
\ T1 =1000 + 183.36
= 1183.36 o C
100mm
Heat conducted = Heat convected + Heat radiated
2000 = hA(T2 - T¥ ) x σA(T24 - T¥4 ) T1

4 4
éæ T ö æ 303 ö ù
2000 = 70x1(T2 - 303) + 5.6697x1êç 2 ÷ - ç ÷ ú Q=2000W/m2 Radiation
êëè 100 ø è 100 ø úû
21210 + 5.6697T24 T2
2000 = 70T2 - - 477.89
100 4
T2 = 338.4 o K = 65.398o C T¥
o
\ T1 = 934.6 C 100mm
1.6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 1st,2nd AND 3rd KIND
1.6.1 INTRODUCTION
Appropriate boundary and initial conditions are needed for the analysis of heat conduction
problems. The initial condition specifies the distribution of temperature at the origin of the time coordinate,
t=0. The boundary conditions specify the thermal condition at the boundary surfaces of the region. For
example, at a given boundary surface, the distribution of temperature may be prescribed, or the distribution of
the heat flux may be specified, or there may be heat transfer by convection into the ambient fluid at a specified
temperature with a known heat transfer coefficient.
Therefore, in the analysis of heat conduction problems, such physical boundary conditions should
be represented with appropriate mathematical expressions. We now discuss the mathematical representation
of three commonly used, different types of boundary conditions, namely, the prescribed temperature,
1.6.2 PRESCRIBED HEAT FLUX, AND CONVECTION BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
1.6.2(a) Prescribed Temperature Boundary Condition (B.C. First Kind)

There are numerous applications in which the temperature of the boundary surface is considered
known. For example, a boundary surface in contact with melting ice is said to be maintained at a uniform
temperature 0°C, or the distribution of temperature at the boundary surface may be known as a function of
time.
Consider a plate of thickness L as illustrated in Fig. 1-4. Suppose the boundary surface at x = 0 is
maintained at a uniform temperature T1 and that x = L at a uniform temperature T2. The plate is said to be
subjected to prescribed temperature boundary conditions at both surfaces and these boundary conditions
are written as.
T ( x, t ) x =0 º T (0, t ) = T1 (1.6a)
T ( x, t ) x = L º T ( L, t ) = T2 (1.6b)
In more general cases, the distribution of temperature at the boundary surface may be specified as a function
of position and time. When the value of temperature is prescribed at the boundary surface, the boundary
condition is said to be of the first kind. Similar considerations arc applicable for boundary conditions at the
surfaces of a cylinder and sphere
T ( x, t ) x = 0 = T1 T ( x, t ) x = L = T2
x
0 L
Figure 1-4 prescribed temperature at the boundary
(boundary condition of the first kind)
1.6.2(b) Prescribed Heat Flux Boundary Condition (B.C. Second Kind)
In some situations, the rate of heat supply to a boundary surface is considered known. For example,
on an electrically heated surface the rate of heat flow entering the solid is known. Such boundary conditions
are called prescribed heat flux boundary conditions.
Consider a plate of thickness L as illustrated in Fig. 1-5a. Suppose there is a heat supply into the
2
medium at a rate of q0 W/m through the boundary surface at x=0 and another heat supply into the medium at
2
a rate of qL W/m through ihe boundary surface at x=L. The mathematical representation of such boundary
conditions is now described as below.
Conduction
flux
dT
Heat supply Conduction +k r = r0 = q r0
dr
flux Heat supply
dT ri r0
-k x =0 = q0
dx
Heat supply Conduction
dT
+k x=L = q L
flux
dx dT
-k r = ri = q ri
Conduction Heat supply dr
flux
x
0 L
(a) Slab (b) Hallow cylinder or sphere
Figure.1-5 prescribed heat fllux at the boundary

(boundary condition of the second kind)
2
At the boundary surface x = 0, the external heat supply q0 W/m is equated to the conduction heat flux into the
solid:
dT (1-7a)
-k x =0 = q 0
dx
2
Similarly, at the boundary surface x = L. the external heat supply qL W/m is equated to the
conduction heat flux into the solid:
dT
+k x=L = q L
dx (1-7b)
Equations (1-7a) and (1-7b) arc the mathematical representation of prescribed heal flux boundary
conditions. In these equations a positive value for q0 and qL, implies heat supply into the medium.
Conversely, a negative value for q0 and qL, implies heat removal from the medium. When the heat flux is
prescribed at a boundary surface, the boundary condition is said to be of the second kind.
The results given by Eqs. (1-7a)and (1-7b) are developed with reference to a slab geometry. Similar
results are applicable at the boundary surfaces of a cylinder or sphere as illustrated in Fig.1-5b for a hollow
cylinder or sphere. For such cases the coordinate x is replaced by the radial variable r.
1.6.2 (c ) Convection Boundary Condition (B.C. Third Kind)
In most practical applications, heat transfer at the boundary surface is by convection with a known
heat transfer coefficient h into an ambient fluid at a prescribed temperature. We consider again a plate of
thickness L as illustrated in Fig. 1-6a. Suppose a fluid at a temperature T1, with a heat transfer coefficient h1,
flows over the surface of the plate at x = 0. The mathematical formulation of this convection boundary
condition is obtained by considering an energy balance at the surface x = 0 stated as.
æ Convection heat flux from the fluid at T1 ö æ Conduction heat flux from the surface ö
çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ (1-8)
è to the surfce at x = 0 ø è at x = 0 in to the plate ø
dT ( x, t ) (1-9)
h1[T1 - T ( x, t ) x =0 ] = -k x =0
dx
which is the convection boundary condition at the surface x = 0.
dT
Conduction Convection +k r = ro = h2 ( T2 - T r = ro )
dr
dT
Fluid flow +k x=L = h2 (T2 - T x=L ri r0
dx Fluid flow
T1, h1
T1, h1
Convection Conduction dT
h1 (T1 - T r = ri ) = -k r = ri Fluid flow
dr
dT To, ho
h1 (T1 - T x =0 ) = -k x =0 Fluid flow
dx
T2, h2
(a) Slab (b) Hallow cylinder or sphere

Figure.1-6 Convection at the boundary
(boundary condition of the second kind)
If a fluid at a temperature T2 with a heat transfer coefficient h2 flows over the surface at x = L, the energy
balance for this surface is stated as
dT( x ,t )
h 2 ( T 2 - T( x ,t ) x = L ) = + k x=L (1-10)
dx
which is the convection boundary condition at the surface x = L.
Similar expressions are applicable for convection boundary conditions at the surfaces of a hollow cylinder or
sphere, as illustrated in Fig. 1-6b . Such boundary, conditions are called of the third kind.
1-7 COMBINED HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM
Surrounding at Ts
Radiation from
surrounding
Convection to air
at T¥ and hc
Radiation from
surrounding at Ts
Plate area A, Emissivity e, at Tw
Figure.1-7. Simultaneous convection and radiation from a plate
In many practical situations heat transfer from a surface takes place simultaneously by convection to
'he ambient air and by radiation to the surroundings. Figure 1-7 illustrates a small plate of area A and
emissivity e that is maintained at Tw and exchanges energy by convection with a fluid at T¥ with a heat
transfer coefficient hc and by radiation with the surroundings at Ts The heat loss per unit area of the plate, by
the combined mechanism of convection and radiation, is given by
q w = hc ( Tw - T¥ ) + e s ( Tw4 - Ts4 ) (1-11)
If (Tw - Ts ) << Tw ,
The second term can be linerarized.
we get
q w = hc ( Tw - T¥ ) + hr ( Tw - Ts )
(1-12)
Where hr = 4 e s Tw3
Review Questions:
1.1 The surface of metal slab is 4.0 cm thick. A temperature difference of 200oC is maintained across the
surface of the slab. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit area across the slab for each of the
following cases.
a) Slab is made of Gold of k=400 W/mK.
b) Slab is made of Copper of k=385 W/mK.
c) Slab is made of Aluminum of k=200 W/mK.
d) Slab is made of Wood of k=0.05 W/mK.
Ans: a) 4x106 W/m2, b)3.85x106W/m2, cc) 2x106 W/m2, d)500 W/m2
1.2 Either side of the wall of a metallic slab of length 8m height 5m and thickness 0.6m and maintained at
temperature of 200oC and 110oC respectively. If thermal conductivity of the metallic slab is 260 W/mK.
Determine the heat transfer through the slab. Ans: 1560 kW
2
1.3 The rate of heat transfer through a brick wall (k = 0.69 W/m K) 35 cm thick is found to be 50 W/m .
Estimate the temperature drop in the wall in steady-state conditions Ans 24.4 OC
1.4 A furnace wall is to be insulated with asbestos cement (k = 0.74 W/m K) such that the temperature drop
across the insulation is 700°C when the heat flux is 2 kW/m2. Determine the thickness of insulation.
Ans 0.26m
1.5 An ice box of 50 cm x 25 cm x 25 cm is insulated with 1 cm thick polystyrene foam (k = 0.028 W/m K).
the outer surface of the ice box is at 40°C, calculate the mass of ice that melts in 4 hours, if the latent heat
of fusion of water is 333.43 kJ/kg at 0°C. Ans: 3.02kg
1.6 A black body radiates to the surrounding black enclosure which is maintained at 300 K. Calculate the net
radiation heat transfer per unit area of the black body, if it is at 400 K, 600 K, 800 K and 1000 K.
Ans:0.992kW/m2, 6.889kW/m2,22.765kW/m2, 56.24kW/m2
1.7 Two large perfect black surfaces are separated by a distance of 10 cm and are held at 1200°C and 200°C,
respectively. Estimate the net rate of radiation energy transfer per unit area between the surfaces.
Ans:264.1kW/m
2
1.8 Two large perfect black surfaces separated by a distance of 20 cm are held at 800°C and 100°C,
respectively. Calculate the rate of radiation heat exchange between the surfaces. Calculate the percent
reduction in the rate of radiation heat transfer if another perfectly black plate is inserted in between the
surfaces which are maintained at 800°C and 100°C. At steady-state conditions what will be the
temperature of the centre plate? Ans:632.6OC
1.9 A 50 cm x 20 cm hot plate is maintained at a temperature of 300°C while air at 25°C is blown past the
plate. Under these conditions the convection heat transfer coefficient is 20 W/m2 K. Determine the rate
of heat transferred to the air from the hot plate. Ans: 550W
Conduction
13
2
CONDUCTION
2-1 General three Dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian co ordinate system
Consider an element having dimensions dx, dy and dz at a distance x,y and z as shown in Fig.2-1
is consider for the derivation of the general heat conduction equation.By considering the energy balance
equation for the volume element. From the first law of thermodynamics.
y
(Net heat conducted in x, y and z direction per unit time) +
(Heat generated internally in the volume element) = dy
(Increase of internal energy in the volume element) (2.0) qx+dx
qx
Considering unit area through which heat is flowing along dz
x- direction in time dt. Where dt is consider as small time.Considere. dx x
é ¶T ù
q x = ê- k x dt (2-1)
ë ¶x úû z
é ¶T ¶ æ ¶T ö ù Fig.2-1 Cartesian co-ordinate system
q x + dx = ê- k x + ç - kx ÷ dx ú dt
ë ¶x ¶x è ¶x ø û
(2-2)
Heat stored in time dt per unit area due to conduction of heat in x-direation.
¶ æ ¶T ö
q x - q x + dx = ç k x ÷ dxdt (2-3)
¶x è ¶x ø
As the area of heat stored along x direction is dy, dz so that total heat stored in time dt
¶ æ ¶T ö
q x - q x + dx = ç kx ÷dx dy dz dt (2-4)
¶x è ¶x ø
Similarly the heat stored due to the heat flow along y and z direction in time dt are
¶ æ ¶T ö
q y - q y + dy = çç k y ÷ dx dy dz dt (2-5)
¶y è ¶y ÷ø
¶ æ ¶T ö
q z - q z + dz = ç kz ÷ dx dy dz dt (2-6)
¶z è ¶z ø
If the body is generating heat and q& is the heat generation rate per unit volume of the material per unit time
then the heat generated in the body in time dt
= q& dxdydydt
(2-7)
Total heat which is stored in the body will be utilized for increasing the temperature of the body.
= r (dxdydz ) c p dT (2-8)
Now substituting the Eqs. (2-4), (2-5), (2-6), (2-7) and (2-8) in to Eq (2-0)
¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö
ç kx ÷dx dy dz dt + çç k y ÷÷dx dy dz dt + ç k z ÷dxdydzdt + q& dxdydzdt
¶x è ¶x ø ¶y è ¶y ø ¶z è ¶z ø
= r (dx dy dz ) c p dt
14
For isotropic material i.e. kx =ky = kz = k above equation become
¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶T
ç kx ÷ + çky ÷ + ç kz ÷ + q& = r c p
¶x è ¶x ø ¶y çè ¶y ÷ø ¶z è ¶z ø dt
¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö q& r c p ¶T
ç ÷+ ç ÷+ ç ÷+ = As dt Þ 0 Then
¶x è ¶x ø ¶y çè ¶y ÷ø ¶z è ¶z ø k k dt
æ ¶ 2T ö æ ¶ 2T
ö æ ¶ 2T ö q& r c p ¶T
ç ÷+ç
÷+ç ÷+ =
ç ¶x 2 ÷ ç ¶y 2
÷ ç ¶z 2 ÷ k k ¶t
è ø è
ø è ø
2 2 2
¶ T ¶ T ¶ T q& 1 ¶T
2
+ 2 + 2 + = (2-9)
¶x ¶y ¶z k a ¶t
k Thermal conductivity m2
Where a =
= =
r cp Thermal capacity sec
Definition: Diffusivity is the ration of thermal conductivity to the thermal capacity. If the heat flow is steady
with out heat generation then the controlling general conduction equation will become
¶ 2T ¶ 2T ¶ 2T
+ =0 + Called laplace equation (2-10)
¶x 2 ¶y 2 ¶z 2
For steady state condition with heat generation and having uniform thermal conductivity then the controlling
differential equation becomes
.
¶ 2T ¶ 2T ¶ 2T
q q&
2
+ 2 + 2 + =0 Þ Ñ 2T + = 0 This equation called as poission equation (2-11)
¶x ¶y ¶z k k
In the absence of heat source ie without heat generation the controlling differential equation becomes
¶ 2T ¶ 2T ¶ 2T 1 ¶dT
2
+ 2
+ 2
= This equation is called Diffusion equation (2-12)
¶dx ¶dy ¶z a ¶t
If the temperature is varies only with x direction for steady state without heat generation. Then the controlling
differential equation for one dimensional steady state heat conduction become
d 2T ¶ 2T
=0 or =0 (2-13)
dx 2 ¶x 2
2.2 One dimensional Basic equation for unsteady state with heat generation
Consider one dimensional system as shown in Fig..2-2. If the system is in a steady
state i.e temperature does not change with time. We consider case where the
temperature may be changing with time is said to be unsteady and heat source
may present in the body. For elemental thickness ‘dx’. The energy balance
equation for system shown in Fig.2-2. q&Adx
(Net heat conducted in x, y and z direction per unit time) + (Heat generated
internally in the volume element) = (Increase of internal Qx Qx+dx
Energy in the volume element)
¶T
Qx + q& A dx = rc p A dx + Qx + dx
¶t
¶T ¶T ¶T d æ ¶T ö x
- Kx + q& A dx = rc p A dx - K x - ç - KA ÷ dx dx
¶x ¶t ¶x dx è ¶x ø
Fig.2-2. Slab with heat generation
15
¶ 2T q& r c p ¶T
2
+ =
¶x k k ¶t
¶ 2T q& 1 ¶T
2
+ = (2-14)
¶x k a ¶t
Eq (2-14) is the unsteady one dimensional heat conduction equation with heat generation
¶ 2T
=0 (2-15)
¶x 2
The Eq.(2-15) is the steady one dimensional heat conduction equation without heat generation
x2
2.3 General three Dimensional conduction equation
dx1 = h1
Coordinates for Cartesian coordinate system are: dx2 h2
dx2 = h2
dx3 = h3 h3 h1
x1
dx3 dx1
General equation for curvilinear coordinate system with a
gradient divergence and unit terms of x1, x2 and x3 are obtained as follows x3
Fig.2-3 Cartesian coordinate
x2
Let ‘T’ be the arbitrary scalar and ‘h’ is arbitrary vector with the x2
components in the direction x1, similarly for x2 and x3 i2 i1
1 ìï ¶ æ h2 h3 ¶T ö ¶ æ h1h3 ¶T ö ¶ æ h1h2 ¶T öüï
Ñ 2T = í ç ÷+ çç ÷÷ + ç ÷ý x1
h1h2 h3 ïî ¶x1 çè h1 ¶dx1 ÷ø ¶x2 ç ÷
è h2 ¶x2 ø ¶x3 è h3 ¶x3 øïþ (2-16)
x3 i3
x1
Eq.( 2-16) is the general three dimensional Cartesian coordinate equation
for arbitrary scalar ‘T’ and for arbitrary vector ‘h’ x3
Fig.2-4 Curvilinear coordinate
2.3-1 General three Dimensional conduction equation in Cartesian co-ordinate
x1 = x, hx = 1
The rectangular coordinates are x2 = y , hy = 1
x3 = z , hz = 1
1 ìï ¶ æ h2 h3 ¶T ö ¶ æ h1h3 ¶T ö ¶ æ h1h2 ¶T öüï

Ñ 2T = í ç ÷+ çç ÷÷ + ç ÷ý
From generalEq. (2-16) h1h2 h3 ïî ¶x1 çè h1 ¶dx1 ÷ø ¶x2 ç ÷
è h2 ¶x2 ø ¶x3 è h3 ¶x3 øïþ
Substituting the coordinates in to theEq. (2-16)
ìï ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T öü
Ñ 2T = í ç ÷+ ç ÷+ ç ÷
ïî ¶x ç ¶x ÷ ¶y çè ¶y ÷ø ¶z è ¶z øýþ
è ø
¶ 2T ¶ 2T ¶ 2T (2-17)
Ñ 2T = + + ¶2 ¶2 ¶2
¶x 2 ¶y 2 ¶z 2 Ñ2 = + +
Where ¶x 2 ¶y 2 ¶z 2
16
Eq. (2-17) is the general three dimensional heat conduction equation for steady state in Cartesian co ordinate
system.
2.3-2 General three Dimensional conduction equation in Cylindrical co-ordinate system.

x1 = r , h r1= 1 = h1
Coordinates for this system are
x2 = f , h f = r = h2
x3 = z , h z = 1 = h3 x2
1 ìï d æ h2 h3 dT ö d æ h1h3 dT ö d æ h1h2 dT öïü f

Ñ 2T = í ç ÷+ ç ÷+ ç ÷ý df r dr
h1h2 h3 ïî dx1 çè h1 dx1 ÷ø dx2 çè h2 dx2 ÷ø dx3 çè h3 dx3 ÷øïþ
dz
Substituting the coordinates in to the Eq. (2-16)
1 ì ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ 1 ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T öü
Ñ 2T = í çr ÷+ ç ÷+ çr ÷ý o x1
r î ¶r è ¶r ø ¶f çè r ¶f ÷ø ¶z è ¶z øþ
1 æ ¶T ¶ 2T 1 ¶ 2T ¶ 2T ö÷ x3
Ñ 2T = çç +r 2 + + r
r è ¶r ¶r r ¶f 2 ¶z 2 ÷ø Fig.2-5 Cylindrical coordinate system
2
æ ¶ T 1 ¶T 1 ¶ T ¶ T ö 2 2
Ñ 2T = çç 2 + + + ÷
(2-18)
è ¶r r ¶r r 2 ¶f 2 ¶z 2 ÷ø
Eq. (2-18) is the steady state three dimensional heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinate system
2.3-3 General three Dimensional conduction equation in spherical co-ordinate system.
Coordinates for spherical system are

x1 = r , hr = 1 = h1
x2 = f , hf = r = h2
Using general Eq. (2-16) x3 = f , hq = r sin q = h3
Substituting the coordinates in to the equation (2-16)

x2
1 ìï d æ h2 h3 dT ö d æ h1h3 dT ö d æ h1h2 dT öüï f

Ñ 2T = í ç ÷+ ç ÷+ ç ÷ý
h1h2 h3 ïî dx1 çè h1 dx1 ÷ø dx2 çè h2 dx2 ÷ø dx3 çè h3 dx3 ÷øïþ df
dr
1 ì¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ r sin q ¶T ö ¶ æ r ¶T öü q dq
Ñ 2T = í ç r.r sin q ÷+ çç ÷÷ + ç ÷ý r
r.r sin q î ¶r è ¶r ø ¶f è r ¶f ø ¶q è r sin q ¶q øþ
x1
o
After siplification
x3
2 ì ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ 1 ¶T ö ¶ æ 1 ¶T öü
Ñ T =í ç ÷+ çç 2 ÷÷ + ç 2 2
÷ý Fig.2-6 Spherical coordinate system
î ¶r è ¶r ø ¶f è r ¶f ø ¶q è r . sin q ¶q øþ
17
ì d æ dT ö d æ 1 dT ö d æ 1 dT ö ü
Ñ 2T = í ç ÷+ çç 2 ÷÷ + ç 2 ÷ý
î dr è dr ø d f è r d f ø d q è sin q dq ø þ
d æ 2 dT ö
Multiply on both side by r 2 and differenti ate the firest term i.e. çr ÷
dr è dr ø
d 2T dT dT 1 d 2T
Ñ 2T r 2 = r 2 + 2 r + +
dr 2 dr d f 2 sin 2 q d q 2
d 2T 2 dT 1 dT 1 d 2T
Ñ 2T = 2
+ + 2 2
+ 2
dr r dr r df r sin q d q 2
2 (2-19)
2 é 2
d T 2 dT 1 dT ù 1 d T
Ñ 2T = 2
+ + 2 êsin q 2 ú
+ 2
dr r dr r sin q ë d f û r sin q d q 2
2
ì ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ 1 ¶T ö ¶ æ 1 ¶T ö ü q& r c p ¶T
Ñ 2T = í ç ÷+ ç 2
ç ÷÷ + ç 2 2 ÷ý + =
î ¶r è ¶r ø ¶f è r ¶f ø ¶q è r .sin q ¶q ø þ k k ¶t
2.4 One dimensional conduction equation in rectangular coordinate for plane wall
Steady one dimensional heat conduction equation without heat generation
T1
Consider one dimension conduction equation. Controlling differential Q
equation becomes T2
d 2T
=0
dx 2
d 2T x=0 x=L
L
Integrating w.r.t ‘x’ ò dx 2
=0
R
dT Q
= C1
dx T1 T2
Fig.2-7 Slab of thickness L
Integrating once again above w.r.t ‘x’
T = C1 x + C 2 (2-20)
Using boundary conditions at x = 0 ; T = T1
x = L ; T = T2
Substituting the first B.C in to the above Eq.(2-20)
T1 = C1 0 + C 2
\ C 2 = T1
Substituting the second B.C T2 = C1 L + C 2

\ T2 = C1 L + T1
T2 - T1
\C1 =
L
Substituting C1 and C2 in the above equation
æ T -T ö
T = ç 2 1 ÷ x + T1
è L ø (2-21)
The above Eq.(2-21) is known as Temperature distribution equation for a slab of thickness 'L'
18
To find heat flow through the slab in 'x' direction, consider Fourier's law of thermal conduction
dT dT T -T
Qx = -k A where = C1 = 2 1
dx dx L
æ T2 - T1 ö kA
Qx = -kA ç ÷ = - (T2 - T )
è L ø L
Qx =
( T2 - T )
Where R =
L
R kA (2-22)
2.5 One dimensional heat conduction equation for hallow cylinder

Consider steady state one dimensional heat flow thorough hallow cylinder of uniform thermal
conductivity without heat generation. The Fig.2-8 shows the hallow cylinder radii r1 and r2. temperature T1
and T2. consider length of the cylinder as L. By considering one dimensional heat conduction for cylinder
L
Controlling differential equation is d 2T 1 dT
2
+ =0
dx r dr
d 2T dT
r. 2
+=0
dx dr
d æ dT ö
\ ç r. ÷=0
dr è dr ø
r2 r1 T1
Integrating the above equation twice respect 'r’
T = C1 ln r + C 2 (2-23) T2
Using the boundary conditon T = T1 at r = r1
T = T2 at r = r2
R
\ T1 = C1 ln r1 + C 2 Q
T1 T2
T2 = C1 ln r2 + C 2
Fig.2-8 Hollow cylinder
æ T -T ö
T1 - T2 = C1 ln r1 r2 Þ \ C1 = çç 1 2 ÷÷
è ln r1 r2 ø
æ T -T ö æ T -T ö
Similarly for C 2 , T1 = çç 1 2 ÷÷ ln r1 + C 2 Þ \ C 2 = T1 - çç 1 2 ÷÷ ln r1
è ln r1 r2 ø è ln r1 r2 ø
Substituting C1 and C2 in to the Eq.2-23
T1 ln r1 - T1 ln r2 - T1 ln r1 + T2 ln r2
C2 =
ln r1 - ln r2
T1 ln r2 - T2 ln r1
C2 =
ln r2 r1
æ T -T ö T ln r - T ln r
T = çç 2 1 ÷÷ ln r + 1 2 2 1 (2-24)
è ln r1 r2 ø ln r2 r1
19
Eq.2-24 is the temperature distribution for hollow cylinder.
To find the rate of heat transfer through hollow cylinder by Fourier law of thermal conduction equation.
dT dT C1 æ T1 - T2 ö 1
Q = -kA Þ = =ç ÷.
dx r = r1 dr r çè ln r1 r2 ÷ø r
æ T -T ö 1
Q = -kAçç 1 2 ÷÷. Where A = 2prl
è ln r1 r2 ø r
æ T -T ö1 æ T -T ö ln r2 r1
Q = -k 2prl çç 1 2 ÷÷. = k 2pl çç 1 2 ÷÷ Where R =
è ln r1 r2 ø r è ln r2 r1 ø 2p k l
æ T -T ö
Q=ç 1 2 ÷ (2-25)
è R ø
2.6 One dimensional Heat Conduction equation for hollow sphere
Steady one dimensional heat conduction through hollow sphere of radii r1 and r2 having temperature T1 and T2
at inside and outside respectively. Sphere having uniform thermal conductivity k without heat generation.
Consider 1-D steady state heat conduction equation for hollow cylinder.
d 2T 2 dT
2
+ =0
dr r dr r2 r1 T1
Multiply by r 2
d 2T dT T2
r2. 2
+ 2r .
=0
dr dr R
This can be written in the differenti al form as Q
d é 2 dT ù T1 T2
r =0
dr êë dr úû
Fig.2-9 Hollow sphere
dT C1
= 2
dr r
(2-26)
C
T = - 1 + C2
r
T = T1 , at r = r1
T = T2 , at r = r2
C
\ T1 = - 1 + C 2
r1
C é1 1ù æ T -T ö
T2 = - 1 + C 2 C1 ê - ú = T1 - T2 Þ\ C1 = çç 1 2 ÷÷
r2 ë r2 r1 û è 1 r2 - 1 r1 ø
Substituting C1 in the above Eq.(2-26)
C1
\ C 2 = T1 +
r1
1 é T1 - T2 ù
C 2 = T1 + .ê ú
r1 ë 1 r2 - 1 r1 û
20
Substituting C1 and C2 in to the Eq.2-26

æ T -T ö 1 æ T -T ö 1
T = - çç 1 2 ÷÷ + T1 + çç 1 2 ÷÷
è 1 r2 - 1 r1 ø r è 1 r2 - 1 r1 ø r1
æ T - T öì 1 1 ü
T = T1 - çç 1 2 ÷÷í - ý (2-27)
è 1 r2 - 1 r1 øî r r1 þ
Eq.2-27 is called temperature distribution equation
Heat flow through hollow sphere can be found by fourier’s law

dT
Q = -kA
dx r = r1
C1
Q = -k 4p r 2 . Where A = 4pr 2 surface area
r2
æ T -T ö 1
Q = -k 4p r 2 çç 1 2 ÷÷. 2
è 1 r2 - 1 r1 ø r
k 4p r1r2 ( T1 - T2 ) ( r2 - r1 ) 0 C
Q= Þ Where R =
( r2 - r1 ) K 4p r1r2 W
Q=
( T1 - T2 ) (2-28)
R
2-7 Composite Wall
Consider a composite slab of thickness L1, L2 and L3 having thermal conductivity K1, K2 and K3
respectively. Ti and To be the hot and cold gas temperature at inside and outside of the composite wall. A is the
surface area through which heat flows.By considering heat transfer coefficient on hot and cold side of the
surface at hi and ho.
Q
T1
T2
T3
T4
Fig.2-10 Composite slab
Tihi
T0h0
L1 L2 L3
R1 R2 R3
Q
T1 T2 T3 T4
By energy balance we get
Q = hi A(Ti - T1 ) =
k1 A
(T1 - T2 )= k 2 A (T2 - T3 )= k 3 A (T3 - T4 )= h0 A(T4 - T0 )
L1 L2 L3
21
Q
= (Ti - T1 )
hi A
Q
= (T1 - T2 )
k1 A
L1
Q
= (T2 - T3 )
k2 A
L2
Q
= (T3 - T4 )
k3 A
L3
Q
= (T4 - T0 )
h0 A
by adding the terms RHS and LHS,
Qé1 L L L 1ù
\ ê + 1 + 2 + 3 + ú = (Ti - T0 )
A ë hi k1 k 2 k 3 h0 û
q=
(Ti - T0 )
é 1 L1 L2 L3 1 ù
ê + + + + ú
ë hi k1 k 2 k 3 h0 û
For ' n' composit layer composit
\ q=
(Ti - T0 )
n=n
1 1 Ln
+ +
hi h0 n =1 k nå (2-29)
2.8 Composite Cylinder
Consider hallow composite cylinder as shown in Fig.2-11having radii r1, r2 and r3 with thermal
conductivity K1, and K2 respectively. Inside and outside properties of hot and cold gas are hi Ti and hoTo
respectively. A is the surface area through which heat flows. By considering heat transfer coefficient on hot
and cold side of the surface at hi and ho.
L
r3
r2
T1 T2 T3 Fig.2-11 Hollow composite cylinder
r1
Tihi k1
k2
R1 R2
Q
T1 T2T3
22
k1 2p L
Q = hi 2p r1 L( Ti - T1 ) = ( T1 - T2 )= k 2 2p L ( T2 - T3 )= h0 2p r3 L(T3 - T0 )
ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2
Q
= (Ti - T1 )
hi 2p r1 L
Q
= ( T1 - T2 )
k1 2p L
r
ln 2
r1
Q
= ( T2 - T3 )
k 2 2p L
r
ln 3
r2
Q
= ( T3 - T0 )
h0 2p r3 L
Adding all the above terms on LHS and RHS
Q é 1 ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2 1 ù
Þ ê + + + ú = (Ti - T0 )
2p L ë hi r1 k1 k2 h0 r3 û
2 p L (Ti - T0 )
Q=
é 1 ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2 1 ù
ê + + + ú
ë hi r1 k1 k2 h0 r3 û
2p L(Ti - T0 )
\ Q= n=n
1 1 ln rn +1 rn (2-30)
+ +
hi r1 h0 rn + 2 n =1å kn
2.9 Composite Sphere

Consider hallow composite sphere as shown in Fig.2-12 having radii r1, r2 and r3 with thermal
conductivity k1, and k2 respectively. Inside and outside properties of hot and cold gas are hi Ti and hoTo
respectively. A is the surface area through which heat flows. By considering heat transfer coefficient on hot
and cold side of the surface at hi and ho.
r2
T2
r1 T1 T3
Tihi Fig.2-12 Hollow composite sphere
k k r 1
2
1
T0h0
R1 R2
Q
T1 T2T3
23
Q = hi 4pri 2 (Ti - T1 ) =
4p k1 r1 r2
(T1 - T2 )= 4p k 2 r2 r3 (T2 - T3 )= h0 4pr3 2 (T3 - T0 )
r2 - r1 r3 - r2
Q
= (Ti - T1 )
hi 4pri 2
Q(r2 - r1 )
= (T1 - T2 )
4p k1 r1 r2
Q(r3 - r2 )
= (T2 - T3 )
4p k 2 r2 r3
Q
= (T3 - T0 )
h0 2pr3 L
Adding all the above terms on LHS and RHS Þ
Q é 1 (r - r ) (r - r ) 1 ù = (T - T )
+ 2 1 + 3 2 +
ê 2 ú i 0
4p ëê hi r1 k1 r1 r2 k 2 r2 r3 h0 r3 2 ûú
4p ( Ti - T0 )
Q=
é 1 (r - r ) (r - r ) 1 ù
+ 2 1 + 3 2 +
ê 2 ú
êë hi r1 k1 r1 r2 k 2 r2 r3 h0 r3 2 úû
4p (Ti - T0 )
\ Q= n=n (2-31)
1 1 1 rn - rn +1
+ +
hi r1 2 h0 r3 2 k n n =1 rn . rn +1
å
2-10 OVER ALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
Take a plane wall having thermal conductivity k and thickness L as shown in the Fig.2-13 the wall
separates hot fluid of temperature Ti and cold fluid of temperature To. Let us denote the surface temperature of
wall as T1 and T2. The temperature of the fluid and wall is changed in the direction ‘x’ axis only. Let the
coefficient of heat transfer of hot and cold sides are hi and ho respectively.
By considering the energy balance on both sides of the wall
Q
=
(Ti - T0 ) Þ q=
(Ti - T0 ) (2 - 32) T1
A 1 1 L 1 1 L
+ + + +
Hot fluid, Ti
hi h0 k hi h0 k
The rate of heat flow can be written as
A(Ti - T0 ) T2 Cold fluid, To
Q = UA(Ti - T0 ) = (2 - 33) K
1
U x
where U is known as overall heat transfer coefficient L
Equating Eqs.(2 - 32) and (2 - 33) , we get
Fig.2-13 Plane slab
1 1 1 L
= + +
U hi h0 k (2-34)
24
Where 1/U is known as total thermal resistance of the system, for ‘n’ composite wall. The overall heat
transfer coefficient will be
n=n
1 1 1 Ln
= + +
U hi ho n =1 k n å (2-35)
Similarly for ' n' number of cylinder the over all heat transfer coefficient
rn +1
n = n ln
1 1 1 rn (2-36)
= + +
U hi ri ho rn +1 n =1 k n å
and for ' n' composite layer for sphere
n=n
1 1 1 1 rn - rn +1
= + +
U hi ri 2 ho r 2 n + 2 k n å r .r
n =1 n n +1 (2-37)
2-11 THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

In real system when two different conducting surfaces are placed in contact with each other no
perfect contact between the adjacent layers is established. The contact surface touch only at discrete locations
due to the surface roughness, interspersed with void spaces which are usually filled with air. Obviously, there
is not a single place of contact. This implies that the area for heat at the interface will be small compared to the
geometric area of the face. Due to this apparent decrease in the heat flow area and also due to presence of air
voids, there occurs large resistance to flow of heat at the interface. This resistance is referred as 'Thermal
contact resistance’ and it causes temperature drop between two materials at the interface
'
Let T2 and T2 represents the temperature at the plane interface, obtained by considering the heat
flow in material and air void as shown in Fig.2.14.
Q
Q Ti T2
Ti T1
T1
T2 T21
T0
T0 T3
T3
L1 L2
L1 L2
kA k A k A
Q= ( T1 - T2 ) = a v ( T2 - T21 ) = 2 ( T21 - T3 )
L1 Lv L2
Q T2 - T21
=
A Rc T1
Where Rc = Lv k a T2
o
( T2 - T21 ) Temp. C
Rc =
Q A T21
( T2 - T21 ) T3
Rc = (2-34)
q
Fig.2-14.Thermal contact resistance Length, m
25
The value of metallic contact resistance depends on the materials involved, the surface roughness,
the contact pressure, temperature and the matter occupying void spaces. For all practical purposes the
temperature drop is usually small and the effect of contact resistance is generally ignored.
Example 2-1. A composite wall is made up of an external thickness of brick work 110 cm thick and inside
layer of fiber glass of 75 mm thick. The fiber glass is faced internally by an insulating board 25mm thick.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity for the three material are as follows.
Brick work = 1.15W/mK
Fiber Glass=0.04W/mK
Insulating board=0.06W/mK
The surface heat transfer coefficient of the inside wall is 25W/m2K while that of the outside wall is
3.1W/m2K. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall and using the same,
determine the heat lost per hour through such a wall of 4m high and 10m long. Take the inside wall
temperature as 27oC and external ambient temperature as 10oC.
Solution: Given data: The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by
1
U=
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
hi k1 k 2 k 3 ho
1
U=
1 0.110 0.075 0.025 1
+ + + +
2.5 1.15 0.04 0.06 3.1
1
=
3.115
= 0.32W / m 2 K
\ Q = UA(Ti - To )
= 0.32 ´ (10 ´ 4) ´ (27 - 10)
= 217.5 J / s
217.5 ´ 3600
Heat lost per hour = = 780kJ
1000
27
2
coefficient is 25 w/m °C. Neglecting heat transfer from the sides and ice-water mixture remains at 0°C.
How long will it take to completely melt the ice ? The density and latent heat of fusion of ice are 920
3
kg/m and 334 kJ/kg respectively. 1 0 Marks (July/Aug 1998)
Solutions: Given: A=300 mmx300 mm, T¥ =25 C, h=25 W/m °C, T¥ =0 C, hfg=334 kJ/kg , r=920 kg/m3 To= 0°C.
o 2 o
q = h A ΔT
q = 25 ´ ( 300 ´ 300 ) ´ 10 -6 ´ ( 25 - 0 )
q = 56.25 Watts or J/s
Heat to be transferred to the heat to melt it
Q = mh fg = volume ´ density ´ latent heat
= ( 300 ´ 300 ´ 10 -9 )´ 920 ´ 334 kJ
= 276.552kJ
Q 276.552 ´ 10 3
Time required for the ice to melt = = = 4916.48s = 1.366h
q 56.25
Example 2-4.A saturated refrigerant at -30°C flows through a copper pipe of 10 mm inside diameter and 2
mm wall thickness. A layer of 40 mm thick thermocole is provided on the outer surface of the pipe to
reduce the heat low. Determine the heat leakage into the refrigerant per meter length of the pipe if the
ambient temperature is 30°C. Assume the .internal and external heat transfer coefficients to be 500 and 5
2
w/m K respectively. k (copper) = 400 w/mk; k (thermocole) = 0.03 w/mk .Find the amount of refrigerant
vapourized per hour per meter length of pipe when the pipe covered and the pipe is bare. 12Marks
Solutions: Data given . (July/Aug1998)
T¥ = 30°C Ti = -30°C
hi = 500 W / mK ho = 5W / mK
k cu = 400 W / mK k ther = 400W / mK
r1 = 5mm r2 = 7 mm r3 = 47 mm
Rate of heat leakage with insulation

2p L(Ti - T¥ )
QI =
1 ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2 1
+ + +
hi r1 k1 k2 ho r3
2p ´ 1(-30 - 30)
QI = = -5.533Watts
1 ln 7 5 ln 47 5 1
+ + +
500 ´ 10 -3 400 0.03 5 ´ 47 ´ 10 -3
Rate of heat leakage without insulation
2p L(Ti - To )
QI =
1 ln r2 r1 1
+ +
hi r1 k1 ho r2
2p ´ 1(-30 - 30)
Qb = = 13.012Watts
1 ln 7 5 1
+ +
500 ´ 5 ´ 10 -3 400 5 ´ 47 ´ 10 -3
26
Example 2-2. A steel tube is covered with a layer of asbestos insulation material. This tube is used for
the flow of hot gases. The following data is given:
I.D. of steel tube = 75 mm.
O.D. of steel tube = 100 mm.
Thickness of asbestos layer = 30 mm.
Temperature of hot gas = 350°C.
Temperature of outside ambient air = 40°C.
ksteel = 50 W/mK
kAsbestos = 0.15 W/mK
Hstell tube inside wall-hot gas film= 300 W/m2K
hasbestos-ambient air film= 20 W/m2K
i) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area.

ii) Loss of heat per meter length of pipe,
iii) Temperature drop radially in steel and asbestos.
Solutions: Data given: r = 37.5 x10 -3 m hi = 300W / m 2 K (April/May 1995)

1
r = 50 x10 -3 m
2 h = 20W / m 2 K
o
r2
r3 = 80 x10 -3 m k1 = 50W / mK
r2
Ti = 350 0 C k 2 = 0.5W / mK T1 T2 T3
Tihi r
1
To = 40 0 C k1 T0h0
k2
(i) Over all heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area
R1 R2
1 r3 1 r r r3 r 1 Q
= + 3 ln 2 + ln 3 + T1 T2T3
U r1 hi k stell r1 k asbestos r2 h0
1 80 1 80 x10 -3 50 80 x10 -3 80 1
= + ln + ln +
U 37.5 300 50 37.5 0.15 50 20
1
= 0.30824
U
U = 3.244 W m 2 K
(ii) Q = 2 p r3 LU o (Ti - To ) = 2 p ´ 80 ´ 10 -3 ´ 1´ 3.244 ´ (350 - 40)
Q = 505.5 W / m
In steel tube
2p k1DT1 Q ln r2 r1 505.5 ´ ln 50 37.5
Q= \ DT1 = =
ln r2 r1 2p k1 2p ´ 50
\ DT1 = 0.46 0 C
In asbestos
2p k 2 DT2 Q ln r3 r2 505.5 ´ ln 80 50
Q= \ DT2 = =
ln r3 r2 2p k 2 2p ´ 0.15
\ DT2 = 252.10 C
Example2-3. A slab of ice in a thin walled container is 10 mm thick and 300 mm x 300 mm sides is placed
on a well-insulated pad. At its top surface, the ice is exposed to ambient air at 25°C and the convection
28
R-21) Take latent heat of evaporation at -30oC=266.75kJ/Kg

Heat leakage per hour =qi x3600/100 =19.91kJ/hr
Therefore refrigerant vaporized per hour = Heat leakage per hour/latent heat of vaporization
= -199.9/266.75 = - 0.076 kg/hr
Similarly for bare pipe heat leakage per hour=qb x3600/100= -13.021 x3600/1000= - 46.82 kJ/hr
Therefore refrigerant vaporized per hour= heat leakage/hr/latent heat= - 46.81/266.75= 0.175 kg/h
Example 2-5. A composite is made of fire clay brick of thermal conductivity 1.16 W/m K and magnesia
insulation of conductivity 0.07 W/m K. Fire clay brick exposed to a temperature of 5000 oC and
magnesia insulation 50oC. If the thickness of the fire clay brick is 30 cm and if the interface
temperature is limited to 380oC what should be the thickness of magnesia insulation? What should
be the interface temperature if the thickness of magnesia insulation were doubled? Find the heat
transfer in each case.With magnesia insulation of thickness L
Solutions: Data ginven: Q T1 - T2 T2 - T3
= =
A L1 L2
k1 k2
5000 - 380 380 - 50
\ = Þ\ L2 = 0.0012 m
0 .3 L2
Q KC Km
1.16 0.07 T1
T -T 5000 - 50
q= 1 3 Þ T2
L1 L2 0.3 0.0012068
+ +
k1 k 2 1.116 0.07 T3
q = 17943.84 W
q = 17.943 W
If the insulation is doubled 30 L
L = 0.0012068 m
2 L = 0.0024136 m
Interface temperature T2
T1 - T2 T2 - T3 Q KC Km
=
L1 L2 T1
k1 k2 T2
5000 - T2 T2 - 50 o
= \ T2 = 630.0 C T3
0.3 0.002413
1.16 0.07
If the magnesia insulation is doubled
T -T 30 2L
5000 - 50
q=q= 1 3 Þ = 16.88 kW
L1 L2 0.3 0.002413
+ +
k1 k 2 1.116 0.07
Example 2-6 A thin hollow sphere of diameter 50cm contains a hot fluid. To reduce loss of heat it is lagged
by two layer of insulation of different thermal conductivity. The thickness of each insulator being 30mm. The
average thermal conductivity of one of them is four times that of the other. Compare the heat transfer when.
1. The interior insulator is next to the sphere
2. The superior insulator is next to the sphere. Find the % heat reduction in the second.
29
r1 = 25cm = 0.25 m
Solution: Given data: (Feb/March 1998 K.U)
r2 = 0.28 m
r3 = 0.31m
Assuming k 2 = 4k1 wnen material of conductivity k 2 is better insulator
Case - 1
The intrior insulator is next to the sphere
4 p ( T1 - T3 )
Q1 = r
r2 - r1 r -r 2
+ 3 2 r
k1 r1 r2 4 k1 r2 r3 2
T T T 3
4 p ( T1 - T3 ) r
1 2
Q1 = 1
0.28 - 0.25 0.31 - 0.28 K
+ K
1
k1 x0.28 x0.25 4 k1 0.28 x0.31 2
4 p k1 ( T1 - T3 )
Q1 =
0.5149755
The superior insulator is next to the sphere
4 p ( T1 - T3 ) r2
Q1 =
r2 - r1 r -r r
+ 3 2
2
T T T
4 k1 r1 r2 k1 r2 r3 1 2 3
r1
4 p ( T1 - T3 )
Q1 = K2
0.28 - 0.25 0.31 - 0.28 K1

+
4 k1 x0.28 x0.25 k1 0.28 x0.31
4 p k1 ( T1 - T3 )
Q1 =
0.4323754
Percentage of reduction
Q1 - Q2 1 0.433 - 1 0.515 2.3094 - 1.9417
= = = 0.153
Q1 1 0.433 2.3094
\ Percentage of reduction = 15.3%
Example2-7. An insulating wall is composed of 15cm of a material having thermal conductivity of 0.15
W/mK and unknown thickness of cork of thermal conductivity 0.045W/m K. The inside wall is contact with a
fluid at a temperature of 30oC with a surface heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2K where as outside wall
temperature is -5oC. Determine the thickness of cork required to keep the heat loss to 10W/m2.
(Sep 97 K.U)
Solution: Given data: L1 = 15cm = 0.15 m hi = 10W / m K2
k1 = 1.5 W / mK Ti = 30 o C
k 2 = 0.045 W / mK T3 = -5 o C
Q K1 K2
q = 10 W / m 2 L2 = ?, T2 = ?
T1
Q T1 - T2 T2 - T3 h h0
= = i T2
A L1 L 2 T3
k1 k2
30 - T2
10 = = Þ\ T2 = 29 o C
0.15
15 L
1. 5
30
Q T1 - T3
=
A 1 L1 L2 1
+ + +
hi k1 k 2 h0
30 + 5
10 =
1 0.15 L 1
+ + 2 +
10 1.5 0.045 0
L2 = 0.15
Thickness of cork required is 0.153m to keep the heat to 10 W/m 2
Example2-8. A hallow sphere 10cm ID and 30cm OD has an inner surface temperature of 300oC and an outer
surface temperature of 100oC. Assuming one dimensional steady radial conduction determine the
temperature one fourth way between the inner and outer surfaces (Sept 1997 K.U)
Solution: Data given: r = 5cm = 0.05m, r = 15cm = 0.15m, r - r = 0.15 - 0.05 = 0.1m
1 2 2 1
th
1 0.1
way between inner and outer surface = 0.025m
4 4
ri = 0.05 + 0.025 = 0.075m
by considering teperature distribution equation weget
(T1 - T2 ) ì 1 1 ü
T = T1 - í - ý
é 1 1 ù î r r1 þ r2
ê - ú ri
ë r2 r1 û T3 To
or T1 r1
ì1 1 ü ì 1 1 ü K1
í - ý í - ý K2
T - T1
=- î r r1 þ Þ
T - 300
=î
0.075 0.05 þ
T1 - T2 ì1 1ü 300 - 100 ì 1 1 ü
í - ý í - ý
î r2 r1 þ î 0.15 0.05 þ
\ T = To = -100 + 300 = 200 o C
Temperatur e (1/4) th way will be 200 o C
Example 2-9 A composite wall consists of 1.5 mm of steel sheet and 10 mm of plywood separated by 2 cm
of glass wool in between calculate the rate of heat flow. If the temperature on the steel and plywood sides are
25oC and -15oC respectively. Given ksteel=23.23W/mK, kPlywood=0.052W/mK, kGlasswool=0.014W/mK write
thermal resistance circuit also.
Solution: Data given:
Q Ks Kg Kp
L1 = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m k g = 23.23 W / mK T1
L2 = 20 mm = 0.02 m k s = 0.014 W / mK
T2
L3 = 10 mm = 0.01m k p = 0.052 W / mK T3
Q T1 - T3 R1 R R R
= Q
2 3 4
A L1 L2 1
+ + Ti T1 T2 To
k1 k 2 k 3 T3
L1 L2 L3
Q 25 + 15
=q= Þ q = 27.62 W / m
A 0.0015 0.02 0.001
+ +
23.23 0.014 0.052
31
Example 2-10. A hallow sphere of inside radius r=r1 and outside radius r=ro is electrically heated at the inner
surface at a constant rate of qo W/m2. At the outer surface it dissipates heat by convection into a fluid at
temperature T¥ with a heat transfer coefficient h. The thermal conductivity k of the solid is constant.
Develop expression for the determination of the inner and outer surface temperature T1 and T2 of the
sphere. Calculate inner and outer surface temperature for ri=3cm, r0=5cm, h=400W/m2 oC, T¥ =100oC,
k=15W/moC and qo=105 Watt. (April 97 K.U)
Solution: Data given r = 3cm = 0.03m h = 400W / m K 2
i
ro = 5cm = 0.05m T1 = ?
k = 15W / mK T2 = ? q = 105 watts
4 p r1 r2 k (Ti - To )
Q1 =
r2 - r1
By considering convective heat transfer
4 p (Ti - To )
Q1 =
r0 1 1ær -r ö
2
+ çç 2 1 ÷÷
T0 ho ro k è r1 r2 ø
Ti ri 4 p (Ti - To )
105 =
K1 1 1 æ 0.05 - 0.03 ö
2
+ ç ÷
400 ´ 0.05 15 è 0.05 ´ 0.03 ø
(Ti - To ) = 15.782876
q = hA(T2 - T¥ )
105 + 40000
105 = 400 ´ 1´ (T2 - 100) = 400T2 - 40000 Þ T2 = = 350 o C
400
Substituting T2 in to the above Eq.(a)
T1 - 350 = 15.79 Þ T1 = 365.78o C
Example 2-11 Compare the heat loss from an insulated and an uninsulated copper pipe under the following
conditions: The pipe (k = 400Wm°C) has an internal diameter of 10cm and an external diameter of
12cm. Saturated steam flows inside the pipe at 110°C with heat transfer co-efficient 10000 W/m2 °C..
The pipe is located in a space at 30°C and the heat transfer co-efficient on its outer surface is estimated to
be 15W/m2 °C. The insulation available to reduce heat transfer is 5cm thick and its thermal conductivity
is 0.2W/m°C. (July/Aug 2005 V.T.U)
k copper = 400 k / m°C k insulation = 0.2 W / m°C , L = 1m
Without insulation :
Ti - To 110 - 30
Q= =
1 ln r2 r1 1 1 ln 0.06 0.05 1
+ + + +
hi Ac 2p kl ho Ao 2px0.05 x10000 2px400 x1 2px0.06 x15
= 451W
32
Example 2-12 What is the thickness required of a masonry wall having thermal conductivity 75W/(m-K) if
the heat transfer rate is to be 80% of the heat transfer rate through a composite structural wall having a
thermal conductivity of 0.25W/(m- K) and a thickness of 100mm. Both walls are subjected to the same
surface temperature. (Jan/Feb 2006 V.T.U)
k1 = 0.75W / mK , Q1 = 0.8 Q2
Solution: Data given
k 2 = 0.25W / mK , L2 = 0.10 m
To , find : L1 :
k A ( T1 - T2 )
Q1 = 1
L1
k A ( T1 - T2 )
Q2 = 2
L2
Q k L
\ 1= 1 2
Q2 k 2 L1
Q æk ö
\L1 = 2 çç 1 ÷÷ L2
Q1 è k 2 ø
1 0.75
= x x0.10
0.8 0.25
or L1 = 0.375 m = 37.5cm
Example 2-13 Calculate the heat loss per square meter area from a composite furnace wall made up of the
following materials.
200 mm thick fire brick with k1 = 1.16 W/mK
150 mm thick insulating brick with k2 = 0.1 W/mK
100 mm of red brick k3 = 1.74 W/mK.
2
The out side film coefficient of heat transfer is 20W/m K. The inside surface temperature of
wall is 1200°C and temperature of room air is 50°C.
. (Jan/Feb 2006 old scheme V.T.U)
Overall thermal resis tan ce,
Ro = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
L L L 1
= 1+ 2+ 3+
k1 k 2 k 3 hO
200 x 10 -3 150 x 10 -3 100 x 10 -3 1
= + + +
1.16 0 .1 1.74 20
\Ro = 1.78 m 2 °C/W
Understeady steady condition, the heat loss is
T + To 1200 - 50
Q= i = = 646 .1 W/m 2
Ro 1.78
Example 2-14. A steel tube (k=43.26W/mK) of 5.08 cm ID and 7.62 OD, is covered with a 2.54cm layer of
asbestos insulation (k=0.208W/mK). The inside surface of the tube receives heat by conversion from a hot
gas at a temperature of Ti=316oC with a heat transfer coefficient hi=38 W/m2K, while the outer surface of
insulation is exposed to the ambient air at To=38oC with a heat transfer coefficient of ho=17 W/m2K.
Calculate: i) The heat loss to ambient air for 3m length of the tube, ii) The temperature drop across the tube
material and insulation layer. (July 2006 V.T.U)
33
Solution: Data given r1 = 5.08 x 10 2 2 = 0.0254 m r2 = 7.62 x 10 2 2 = 0.0381m

k1 = 43.26 W / mK
k 2 = 0.208 W / mK L
-2
r3 = r2 + 2.54 x 10 = 0.0635 m
Ti = 316°c
hi = 284W / m 2 K r3
ho = 17W / m 2 K r2
To = 38°c Toho T1 T2 T3
Tihi r1
Thermal resis tan ce
K1
1 1 K2
R1 = =
2pLr1 hi 2 p x 3 x 0.0254 x 284 R1 R2 R3 R4
Q
R1 = 7.354 x 10 -3 ° K / W Ti T1 T2T3 To
1 ær ö 1 æ 0.0381 ö -4
R2 = ln çç 2 ÷÷ = ln ç ÷ = 4.973 x 10 K / W
2pLk1 è r1 ø 2px3 x43.26 è 0.0254 ø
1 ær ö 1 æ 0.0635 ö
R3 = ln çç 3 ÷÷ = ln ç ÷ = 0.1303 K / W
2pLk 2 è r2 ø 2px3 x0.208 è 0.0381 ø
1 1
R4 = = = 0.049 ° K / W
2pLr3 ho 2px3 x0.0635 x17
Total resis tan ce , Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 0.1873 K / W
DT T - T ( 316 - 38 )
( i ) Heat loss ,Q& = overall = i o = = 1484.3 W
Rtotal Rtotal 0.1873
( ii )( a )Temp drop across pipe , DT = Q& R Þ T - T = 1484.3 x4.973 x10 -4 = 0.738°C
i1 2 1 2
DTi ,1 = 0.738°C
( b )Temp drop across Asbestos , DTi ,2 = T2 - T3 = Q& R3 = 1484.3 x 0.1303 = 193.4°C
Example 2-15 An electric cable of 10 mm diameter is to be laid in atmosphere at 20°C. The estimated surface
temperature of the cable due to heat generation is 65°C. Find the maximum percentage increase in heat
dissipation when the wire is insulated with rubber having k = 0.155 W/mK. Take h = 8.5 W/m2K.
Solution: Data given: (May/June 2006)
2p L( Ts - Ta ) 2p 1 ( 65 - 20 )
Q without insulation = = = 12W / m
1 1
rho 0.005 x8.5
k 0.155
Critical Radius rc = = = 18.23mm
ho 8 .5
2p L( Ts - Ta ) 2 p 1 ( 65 - 20 )
q with insulation = = = 19W / m
1 æ rc ö 1 1 18.33 1000
ln ç ÷ + ln +
k è r ø rc + h 0.005 5 x10 -3 28.23 x8.5
q with insulation - Q without insulation
% Heat dissipation increase =
Q without insulation
19 - 12
= x100 = 58.3%
12
35
so the heat flow rate is
100
Q= = 9.42W
4.775 + 1.061 + 4.775
Temperatur e drop across the interface becomes
Rc 1.061
DTc = DT = x100 = 10 0 C
R 1 + Rc + R 1 10.61
Example 2-19 Two 3cm diameter 316 stainless steel bars, 10cm long, have ground surface and are exposed
to air with a surface roughness of about 1mm. If the surfaces are pressed together with a pressure of 50
atm and the two bar combination is exposed to an overall temperature difference of 100oC, calculate the
axial heat flow and temperature drop across the contact surface. Take the contact conductance of the
interface as hc=474 W/m2oC.
Solution:
The overall heat flow is subjected to three thermal resistance, one conduction resistance for each bar, and the
contact resistance. For the bars
DT
Q= W
R1 + R2 + R3
where DT = 100 o C. The thermal resistance R1 fro ecah of the steel bar is
determined as
L 0.1
R1 = = = 8.679 o C / W
kA 16.3 x p 4 x0.032
o
The contact conductance of the interface is hc = 474 W/m 2 C. Then the thermal
contact resistance of the interface becomes
1 1
Rc = = = 0.747 o C / W
hA 474 x p 4 x0.032
\ Total resistance is SR = R 1 + R c + R 1 = 8.679 + 0.747 + 8.679 = 18.105
so the heat flow rate is
100
Q= = 5.52 W
8.679 + 0.747 + 8.679
Temperatur e drop across the interface becomes
Rc DT 0.747 x100
DTc = = = 4.130 C
R 1 + Rc + R 1 18.105
Review Questions:
2.1 A concrete wall (k = 1.37 W/m K) of 10 cm thickness is to be plastered with gypsum (k = 0.48 W/m K) so
that the heat losses from the wall do not exceed 500 W/m2 when the inner and outer surfaces of the wall
are at 110°C and 40°C, respectively. Determine the thickness of plastering to be added to the concrete
wall. (Ans:0.032m )
2.2 When the two surfaces of a plane wall of 4 cm thickness of unknown material are maintained at 80°C and
40°C, respectively, the centre plane was found to be at 50°C and the heat flow through the wall was
8kW/m2. Determine the thermal conductivity of the material as a function of temperature.
(Ans:k=39.60[1-0.0133] where k is in W/mK )
2.3 An oven wall is formed by 0.5 cm thick chrome-nickel (k = 19 W/m K) supported by 1 cm thick asbestos
(k = 0.1105 W/m K) sheet. When the oven is operated in steady-state, the inner surface of the chrome-
nickel sheet is at 300°C while outer asbestos surface is at 40OC. Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit
area of the oven wall (Ans: 2.867kW )
34
Example 2-16 Calculate the heat loss per square meter area from a composite furnace wall made up of the
following materials: 200 mm thick firebrick with k1 = 1.16 W/mK, 150 mm thick insulating brick with k2
= 0.1 W/mK, 100 mm of red brick k3 = 1.74 W/mK. The outside film coefficient of heat transfer is 20
W/m2K. The inside surface temperature of wall is 1200°C and temperature of room air is 50°C.
(July 2007 V.T.U Old Scheme)
Heat lost / m 2
Q K1 K2 K3
( T1 - To ) ( 1200 - 50 )
q= = T1
L1 L2 L3 1 0.2 0.15 0.10 1 T¥
+ + + + + + Ti
k1 k 2 k 3 ha 1.16 0.1 1.74 20 T2
1180 T3
q= = 646.1W / m 2
0.172 + 1.5 + 0.057 + 0.05 L1 L2 L3
Example 2-17.The inside surface of an insulating layer is at 270°C and the outside surface is dissipating heat
by convection into air at 20°C. The insulation is 40mm thick and has thermal Conductivity 1.2 W/m°C.
What is the minimum value of heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface, if the surface temperature
should not exceed70°C? Also calculate the rate of heat transfer. (08 Marks) ( Dec 07/ Jan 08 V.T.U)
Solution: Data given DT
Qcond = kA
L
WT 270 - 70 )
qcond = k = 1.2 = 6000 W / m 2
L 0.04
Also , qcond = qconv = hDT
q 6000
Þ Heat Transfer Coefficient , h = conv =
DT ( 70 - 20 )
h = 120 W / m 2 - °C
Example 2-18 Consider one dimensional steady state heat flow along two stainless steel bars, each of
diameter D=2cm, length L-3cm and pressed together with a pressure of 10 atm. The surface has a
roughness of about 2.5mm. An overall temperature difference of DT=100oC is applied across the bars.
The interface temperature is about 90oC. Calculate the heat flow rate along the bars and the temperature
drop at the interface. Take the contact conductance of the interface as hc=3000W/m2oC.
Solution:
The total haheat flow rate Q along the bars is determined by the application of the thermal resistance concept
as DT
Q= W
R1 + R2 + R3
where DT = 100 o C . The thermal resistance R1 fro ecah of the steel bar is
determined as
L 0.03
R1 = = = 4.775
kA 20 x p 4 x0.02 2
o
The contact conductance of the interface is obtained as hc = 3000 W/m 2 C . Tehn the thermal
contact resistance of the interface becomes
1 1
Rc = = = 1.061
hA 3000 x p 4 x0.02 2
VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
AND
EXTENDED SURFACES
36
2.4 It is required to reduce the heat loss from a furnace wall by doubling the thickness of the insulating brick
work. Initially the temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the insulating brick are 480°C and
180°C, respectively. The atmospheric air is at 30°C. Calculate the percentage decrease in heat loss
because of doubling of the thickness of insulating brick.(Ans: 40% )
2.5 A steel pipe of 5 cm OD is covered with 0.5 cm asbestos (k = 0.1105 W/m K) followed by 0.5 cm thick
glass wool (k = 0.038 W/m K) insulation. It was found that the insulation temperature reached a steady-
state value of 40°C, while the pipe surface is at 150°C and the atmospheric air to which the insulated pipe
is exposed is at 25°C. Determine the temperature at the interface of the asbestos and glass wool and the
film coefficient between the glass wool and atmospheric air. (Ans : 118.oC: 36.7W/m2K )
2.6 The inner surface of a thick invertor (k = 10.7 W/m K) cylinder of ID = 2 cm and OD = 12 cm is held at
150°C, while the outer surface is at 50°C. Calculate the temperatures at r = 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm and 5
cm.(Ans: 3.752kW, :111.3oC, 88.7oC,72.6oC,60.2oC )
2.7 In a steam radiator saturated steam at 120°C flows through a carbon-steel (k = 54 W/m K) tube of 1.5 cm
ID and 2.5 cm OD. The radiator is placed in a room in which the air is at 5°C. The convection heat
transfer coefficient between the condensing steam tube and tube is 4000W/m2K. Calculate the
temperature of the inner and outer surface of the tube and the rate of heat transfer from steam to air per
meter length of the tube. (Ans:119oC, 118.8oC,178.7 W )
2.8 A current-carrying wire of 3 mm diameter is to be insulated with rubber (k= 0.163 W/m K) to increase the
current-carrying capacity of the wire. If the convection heat transfer coefficient from the rubber surface
to air is 10 W/m2 K, determine the critical thickness of insulation.(Ans: 0.015m )
2.9 A carbon-steel (k=54W/mK) pipe of OD = 6 cm carrying steam at 300°C is to be insulated to reduce heat
losses. The outer surface of the pipe may be assumed to be at 300°C. It is desired to use 1 cm thick
asbestos (k = 0.1105 W/m K) and 1 cm thick glass wool (k = 0.038 W/m K) insulation. The atmospheric
air is at 30°C and the film coefficient between the insulating layer and air is 10 W/m2 K. Determine
which insulating material should be used as the first layer of insulation.(Ans:Glass wool )
2.10 An electrical heater uses 5 m length and 2 mm diameter wire to dissipate 500 W in air at 30°C. The
convection heat transfer coefficient between the wire surface and air is 20 W/m2 K. (a) Determine the
temperature of the wire, (b) Determine the temperature of the wire if 3 mm thick rubber (k = 0.163
W/m2 K) insulation is used, assuming that the film coefficient between the rubber surface and air is 20
W/m2 K. (c) Calculate the temperature of the wire if the thickness of rubber insulation is equal to the
critical thickness of insulation. Ans:(a) 825.8°C (b)364.3°C ( c)332.5°C.
2.11 Freon-12 at 40°C is flowing through a copper tube of 1 cm OD. The atmospheric air is at 30°C and the
film coefficient between the tube surface and air is 10 W/m2 K. An engineer wanted to reduce the heat
losses and added 6 mm thick asbestos (k = 0.1105 W/m K) insulation to the tube. Determine the
percent reduction in the heat loss due to the added insulation. Assume that the outer surface of the tube
is at -40°C.(Ans:23.18% )
2.12 Steam at 125°C is to be transported through a carbon-steel pipe of ID = 5 cm and OD = 6 cm. To reduce
heat losses it is to be insulated with asbestos (k= 0.1105 W/m K) so that the rate of heat loss from steam
to the atmospheric air is not more than 50 W per metre length of the pipeline. The atmospheric air is at
25°C and the film coefficient between air and the insulation is 10 W/m2 K. Determine the thickness of
insulation. Assume that the outer surface of the steel pipe is at 125°C.(Ans:0.079m )
2.13 A small spherical vessel of OD = 6 cm is covered with asbestos (k = 0.1105 W/m K) and left in the
atmospheric air at 30°C. The film coefficient between air and asbestos is 5 W/m2 K. If it is desired to
maximize the heat transfer rate from the contents of the vessel to the air, determine the thickness of
asbestos cover needed.(Ans: 0.014m)
38
a éx æ a öù
-1± 1- 4ê (T1 - T2 )(1 + a .Tm ) - T1 ç1 + T1 ÷ú
2 ëL è 2 øû
T=
a
2
2
1 1 é
2 x æ a öù
T =- + 2
- ê (T1 - T2 )(1 + a .Tm ) - T1 ç1 + T1 ÷ú
a a a ëL è 2 øû
1 1 2é æ a ö x ù
T =- + 2
+ êT1 ç1 + T1 ÷ - (T1 - T2 )(1 + a .Tm )ú (3-3)
a a a ë è 2 ø L û
Eq.(3-3) is temperature distribution when the temperatures of two sides are known
Heat flow through the slab of thickness ‘L’

æ dT ö é dT ù
Q = ç - kA. ÷ = ê- k0 ( 1 + a T ) A
è dx ø x =0 ë dx úû x =0
dT C1
=
dx k0 ( 1 + a T )
Substituting C1
dT k0 1
= [ ( T2 - T1 )( 1 + a Tm ) ]
dx L k0 ( 1 + a T )
( T - T )( 1 + a Tm )
\ Q = -k0 ( 1 + a T ).A. 2 1
L( 1 + a T )
- k0
Q= ( 1 + a Tm ) .A.( T1 - T2 )
L (3-4)
k .A.( T1 - T2 )
Q= m Where k m = k0 ( 1 + a Tm )
L
Steady state Unidirectional heat flow through slab with Non-Unifrom Conductivity without heat
generation
dT
Q = -kA.
dx
dT
= -k0 ( 1 + a T ).A.
dx
Integrating the above equation
æ a ö
Q.x = -k0 ç T + T 2 ÷ A + C1
è 2 ø
Using the boundary condition
T = T1 at x = 0
é a ù
\ C1 = k0 êT1 + T12 ú .A
ë 2 û
Substituting the value of C1 in to the eqation
æ a ö æ a ö
\ Q.x = -k0 ç T + T 2 ÷ A + k0 ç T1 + T12 ÷.A
è 2 ø è 2 ø
37
3
3-1 VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Temperature distribution in a plane wall with variable thermal conductivity. Consider steady state
unidirectional heat flow thorough slab of non- uniform conductivity without heat generation.
The controlling differential equation will be
d æ dT ö
ç k. ÷=0 (3-1)
dx è dx ø
Where k = f (T ) = k 0 (1 + a T )
d é dT ù
\ ê k 0 (1 + a T ) =0
dx ë dx úû
Integrating with respect to x
dT
k 0 (1 + a T ) = C1
dx
Integrating with respect to x once again
é a ù
k 0 êT + T 2 ú = C1 x + C 2
ë 2 û (3-2)
Using boundary conditions
T = T1 at x=0
é a ù
\ C 2 = k 0 êT1 + T12 ú
ë 2 û
and T = T2 at x = L
é a ù
\ C1 L = k 0 êT2 + T22 ú - C 2
ë 2 û
éì
k0 a 2ü ì a 2 üù
C1 = ê íT2 + T2 ý - íT1 + T1 ýú
L
ëî 2 þ î 2 þû
k é a ù
= 0 ê(T2 - T1 ) + .(T22 - T12 ) ú
L ë 2 û
k0 é ì a üù k 0 T1 + T2
= ê(T2 - T1 ) í1 + .(T2 + T1 ) ýú = [(T2 - T1 ) (1 + a Tm ) ] where Tm =
L ë î 2 þû L 2
Substituting the values of C1and C2 in to the Eq.(3-2) we get
é a ù x é a ù
k0 êT + T 2 ú = k0 [( T2 - T1 ) ( 1 + a Tm ) ]+ k0 êT1 + T12 ú
ë 2 û L ë 2 û
é a 2ù x é a 2ù
ê T + 2 T ú - L [( T2 - T1 ) ( 1 + a Tm ) ]- êT1 + 2 T1 ú = 0
ë û ë û
a 2 x æ a ö
T + T + ( T1 - T2 )( 1 + a .Tm ) - T1 ç 1 + T1 ÷ = 0
2 L è 2 ø
The quadratic equation can be solved by using the solution
- b ± b 2 - 4 ac
x=
2a
39
Q.x æ a ö æ a ö
\ = -ç T + T 2 ÷ + ç T1 + .T12 ÷
k 0 .A è 2 ø è 2 ø
a 2 Q.x æ a 2ö
.T + T + - ç T1 + .T1 ÷ = 0
2 k 0 .A è 2 ø
é Q.x æ
a a öù
-1+ 1- 4 ê - ç T1 + .T12 ÷ú
2
ë k 0 .A è 2 øû
T=
a
1 1 2 é q .x a ù
T =- + 2
+ ê - T1 - T12 ú
a a a ë 0k 2 û
Q
Where = q known as heat flux.
A
1 1 2 2 q .x
\T = - + 2
+ T1 + T12 -
a a a a k0
2
1 æ1 ö 2 q .x
\T = - + ç + T1 ÷ - (3-5)
a è a ø a k0
3-2 CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION
Contrary to the common belief that addition of insulating material on a surface always brings about
a decrease in the heat transfer rate there are instances when the addition of small amount of insulation to
small diameter wires or tubes frequently increases the rate of heat flow through the tubes to the ambient air. It
was shown with experiment that the rate of heat loss was increased by the addition of the insulation.
Critical Thickness of Insulation for Cylinder
Let us consider a layer of insulation which might be installed around a circular pipe, as shown in
Fig.3-1. The inner temperature of the insulation is fixed at T1, and the outer surface exposed to a convection
environment at T¥ . From the thermal network the heat transfer is
2p L( Ti - T¥ )
Q=
ln r0 ri 1
+
k r0 h T¥ h
Ti ri
r0
æ 1 1 ö
- 2p L( Ti - T¥ )ç - 2÷ k
ç ÷
dQ
=0 = è kr0 hr0 ø
dr0 2
ln r0 ri 1
é ln r0 ri 1 ù
ê + ú 2p r0 Lh
ë k r0 h û 2p kL
which gives the result Fig.3-1 Critical thickness of insulation of cylinder
k
r0 = (3-6)
h
40
Eq. (3-6) expresses the critical-radius-of-insulation concept. If the outer radius is less than the value
given by this equation, then the heat transfer will be increased by adding more insulation. For outer radii
greater than the critical value an increase in insulation thickness will cause a decrease in heat transfer. The
central concept is that for sufficiently small values of h the convection heat loss may actually increase with
the addition of insulation because of increased surface area.
Qc
b
Q a c
ri rc r
Outer radius
Fig. 3-2 Rate of heat flow v/s thickness of insulation on cylinder
If ri is sufficiently small, it will be seen that the value of Q increases with increasing thickness of
insulation up to certain value of r0 and then it diminishes as further thickness of insulation is added Fig.3-2
illustrate this phenomena.
Critical Thickness of Insulation for Spheres
Let us consider a layer of insulation which might be installed around a sphere, as shown in Fig.3-3.
Consider sphere having radii ri and r0 and Ti and T¥ inside and out side temperature respectively. Let h is the
convective heat transfer coefficient at out side air.
Using the equation of heat flow through sphere with insulation as

( Ti - T¥ )
Q=
r0 - ri 1
+
4p kr0 ri 4p r02 h
d é r0 - ri 1 ù ri T¥ h
ê + ú =0
dr0 ê 4p kr0 ri 4p r 2 h ú r0
ë 0 û Ti
d é 1 1 1 ù
ê + + 2 ú =0 k
dr0 êë ri k r0 k r0 h úû
\
1 21
- =0 Fig.3-3 Critical thickness of insulation of Sphere
r02 k r02 h
2k
r0 =
h (3-7)
41
3-3 THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Analogy between Heat Conduction, Electrical, and Hydraulic Systems
If an electrical resistor having a constant value of resistance, R, has a voltage difference, V,

impressed across it, we know from experience that an electrical current ‘I’ will flow through that resistor.
The magnitude of the current will vary linearly with the magnitude of the volt age difference impressed
across the resistor.
An analogous situation is encountered in the case of the low velocity flow of water flowing from a
valve . In a half-inch pipe, if the water flows at a velocity of 0.18m/s or less, the flow will be laminar and the
analogy will hold.
The pressure difference between the upstream of the valve and the downstream of the valve is the
driving force analogous to the potential difference in the electrical circuit. The extent to which the valve is
opened represents the reciprocal of resistance. The flow rate of water from the valve is then analogous to the
current flow in the electrical circuit, and the magnitude of that flow is directly proportional to the pressure
differential upstream and downstream of the valve.
Extending this analogy to the case of heat flow through a wall we are able to make the
following comparisons.
DT =The temperature difference across, the wall represents the

potential difference or driving force
Q = Represents the current flow, and (L/kA) in Eq. (2-22) represents the thermal resistance
to the flow of heat by conduction. These concepts are summarized shown Fig.2-18
The electrical analogy can be used for quantitative analysis of complex heat
transfer problems encountered in practice. The resistance to heat conduction of the
composite medium or wall equals the sum of the thermal resistances of the single layers. In
this case, therefore same law can be applied as is used in electrical engineering for resistor
connected in series.
æ T -T ö kA (2-22)
Qx = -k Aç 2 1 ÷ = - ( T2 - T )
è L ø L
Qx =
( T2 - T )
Where R =
L
R kA Thermal system
Electrical system Hydraulic system

I T1
R Q
P T2
R
Q
V x=0 x=L
L
R
Fig. 3-4 Electrical, hydraulic and thermal analogy Q
T1 T2
42
- 3.4 FINNED SURFACES
The heat that is conducted through a body must frequently be removed (or delivered) by some
convection process. For example, the heat lost by conduction through a furnace wall must be dissipated to the
surroundings through convection. In heat-exchanger applications a finned-tube arrangement might be used
to remove heat from a hot liquid.
The heat transfer from the liquid to the finned tube is by convection. The heat is conducted through
the material and finally dissipated to the surroundings by convection. Obviously, an analysis of combined
conduction-convection systems is very important from a practical stand point. Heat transfer by convection
between a surface and the fluid surrounding it can be increased by attaching to the surface thin strips of
metal called fins. A large variety of fin geometries are manufactured for heat transfer applications.
Fig. 3-5 and Fig.3-6 shows typical examples.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.3-5 Examples of extended surfaces (a) and (b) are straight fins of uniform thickness and (c) and (d)
are straight fin of non-uniform cross section
(e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

Fig.3-6 Examples of extended surfaces (e) Spin of constant cross section (f) and (g) spin of non-uniform
cross section(h) and (i) annulus fins.
When heat transfer takes place by convection from both interior and exterior surfaces of a tube or a
plate, generally fins are used on the surface where the heat transfer coefficient is low. For example, in a car
radiator the outer surface of the tubes is finned because the heat transfer coefficient for air at the outer surface
is much smaller than that for water flow at the inner surface. The problem of determination of heat flow
through a fin requires a knowledge of temperature.
3-5 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH RECTANGULAR FIN

Consider the one-dimensional fin exposed to a surrounding fluid at a temperature T ¥ as
shown in Fig. 3-7 . The temperature of the base of the fin is TO. We approach the problem by making an energy
balance on an element of the fin of thickness dx as shown. Fig.3-8 shows the temperature distribution curve
for fin having length ‘L’. Thus
Energy in left face = Energy out in right face + Energy lost by convection
The defining equation for the convection heat transfer coefficient is recalled as
Q=hA(Tw-T¥ )
43
-
dQ x = hPdx(T - T¥ )
Tw t
T
AC
TO Qx Q x + dx
b
x dx
Base
L h, T¥
x
(a)
d2
AC = p
Tw 4
P = pd
TO T d
L
h, T¥
(b)
Fig 3-7 Extended surfaces with uniform cross section
(a) Fin with rectangle
(b) Fin with circular profile(spine)
Temperature profile T(x)

(T0-T¥ )
T0
dT
T
T¥
Wall at
T0 Qx Qx+dx
x dx
L
Fig 3-8 Heat transfer though fin of uniform cross section

44
Analysis of heat transfer from the fined surface is made with the following assumptions
1. Thickness of the fin is small compared with the length and width, temperature gradient over the cross
section are neglected and heat conduction treated as one dimensional
2. Homogenous and isotropic fin material and the thermal conductivity k of the fin material is constant
3. No heat generation with in the fin itself
4. Joint between the fin and the heated wall offers no bond resistance, temperature at the root or base of
the fin is uniform and equal to temperature T0 of the wall.
5. Negligible radiation exchange with the surrounding, radiation effects, if any are considered as
included in the convection coefficient
Heat balance on the element gives:
Energy in left face = Energy out in right face + Energy lost by convection (3-8)
dT dT d æ dT ö
- kA = - kA + A ç- k ÷dx + hPdx(T - T¥ )
dx dx dx è dx ø
It is noted that the deferential surface area for convection is the product of the perimeter of the fin and
the differential length dx. When we con bine the quantities, the energy balance yields.
d 2T
kA - hP(T - T¥ ) = 0
dx 2
d 2T hP
2
- (T - T¥ ) = 0
dx kA
Put q = (T - T¥ )
d 2T hP
2
- q =0
dx kA
hp
Assuming m 2 =
KA
2 2
\ D -m q = 0
D2 - m2 = 0 therefore D = ± m
- mx
Solution for this differential equation is q = A e + B e mx (3-9)
substituting the values
e mx + e - mx e mx - e - mx
e mx = cosh mx + sinh mx = +
2 2
mx - mx
e +e e - e - mx
mx
e -mx = cosh mx - sinh mx = -
2 2
q = A cosh mx + A sinh mx + B cosh mx - B sinh mx
q = ( A + B) cosh mx + ( A - B) sinh mx put ( A + B) = C1
( A - B) = C2
\ q = C1 cosh mx + C 2 sinh mx (3-10)
Different physical situations may be considered
1. Heat dissipation from an infinitely long fin (L=¥ )

2. Fin with convection at the tip
3. Heat dissipation from a fin insulated at the tip
4.Heat dissipation from a fin having finite length or long fin
45
3-5-1 Heat dissipation from an infinitely long fin (L = ¥ )

Using boundary conditions:
1. Temperature at the base of fin equals the temperature of the surface to which the fin is attached
T=T0 at x =0
In terms of q L=¥
T-T¥ =T0 -T¥ x=0 x=¥
q = q0 at x = 0 T=T0 T=T¥
2. Temperature at the at the end of an infinitely long fin
Equals to that of the surrounds. Base Surrounding Temp, T¥
T=T¥ at x = ¥
In terms of q
T-T¥ =T¥ -T¥ = 0
q = 0 at x = ¥ m1< m2< m3
Substituting these boundary conditions. Eq.(3-9) T -T ¥
θ = A e mx + B e - mx T0 - T¥
Using first B. C θ = θ 0 at x = 0 m1
A + B = θ0 m2
and
m3
Using first B. C θ = 0 at x = ¥
x
θ = A e m¥ + B e - m¥ = 0 since A = 0 and B = θ 0
\ θ = θ 0 e - mx
θ T - T¥
= e - mx ie = e - mx (3-11) This is the temperature distribution equation
θ0 T0 - T¥
Heat flow through the fin can be evaluated from Fouriers law of thermal conduction
From the expression of temperature distribution Eq.(3 - 11)

T = T¥ + (T0 - T¥ )e - mx
æ dT ö
ç ÷
è dx ø x =0
[
= - m(T0 - T¥ )e - mx ] x =0 = -m(T0 - T¥ )
Q fin = -kAc - m(T0 - T¥ )

hP
Q fin = kAc m(T0 - T¥ ) m=
kA
Q fin = PhkAc (T0 - T¥ )
(3-12)
Heat flow rates through solids can be compared by having an arrangement consisting of box to which
different material attached
Then m1 L1 = m2 L2 = m3 L3
hP hP hP
or L1 = L2 = L3
k1 A k2 A k3 A
L1 L L k1 k 2 k 3
or = 2 = 3 or = =
k1 k2 k3 L21 L22 L23 (3-13)
46
3-5-2 Fin with convection at the tip
Using first boundary condition at T=T0 at x=0
In terms of q x=0 x=L
T=T0 T=T¥ A
T-T¥ =T0 -T¥ L c
q = q0 at x=L
Considering convective BC (i.e 2nd B.C) at the tip with area Ac
T¥ , h
é dq ù Base Surrounding Temp, T¥
- kAc ê ú x=L = Ac h [q ] x = L
ë dx û
Using first boundary condition in Eq.(3-10). C = q q = q at x = 0
1 0 0
\q = q 0 cosh mx + C 2 sinh mx
Differentiating the above equation
dq
= q 0 m sinh mx + C 2 m cosh mx (3 - 14a)
dx
Using second boundary condition at x = L
- k[ q 0 m sinh mL + C 2 m cosh mL ]= h [q 0 cosh mL + C 2 sinh mL ]
é h cosh mL + mk sinh mL ù
\ C 2 = -q 0 ê ú
ë mk cosh mL + h sinh mL û
Substituting the values of C1 and C 2 in equation we get
q = q 0 cosh mx - q 0 ê ú sinh mx
q é h cosh mL + mk sinh mL ù é T - T¥ ù
= cosh mx - ê ú sinh mx = ê T - T ú (3-14)
q0 ë mk cosh mL + h sinh mL û ë 0 ¥ û x=L
Eq.3-14 is called temperature distribution equation
For finding the heat lost by the fin at the tip, consider fourier conduction equation
æ dT ö æ dq ö
Q fin = -kAc ç ÷ = -kAc ç ÷
è dx ø x =0 è dx ø x =0
æ dq ö é h cosh mL + mk sinh mL ù
ç ÷ = -q 0 ê úm After putting C 2 in ( 3 - 14 a )
è dx ø x =0 ë mk cosh mL + h sinh mL û
\Q = kAc mq 0 ê ú
é mk ù
ê 1 + h tanh mL ú
\Q = kAc mq 0 ê ú
ê mk + tanh mL ú (3-15)
ëê h ûú
3-5-3 Heat dissipation from a fin insulated at the tip
The boundary condition are q =q0 at x=0

dq
=0 at x=L
dx
47
Using equation and using first boundary condition in Eq.(3-10), we get C1=0
é dq ù
By using second boundary condition ê dx ú = m [q 0 sinh mL + C 2 cosh mL] = 0
ë û x=L
\ C 2 = -q 0 tanh mL
q = q 0 cosh mx - (q 0 tanh mL) sinh mx x=L

x=0
q cosh m ( L - x) T=T0 T=T¥
\ = L
q0 cosh mL (3-16) dq
=0
dx
Eq.3-16 is temperature distribution equation
Base Surrounding Temp, T¥
æ dT ö æ dq ö
Q = kAC mq 0 tanh mL (3-17)
3-5-4 .Heat dissipation from a fin having finite length or long fin
Using boundary condition when q =q0 at x=0

q =0 at x=L when L is sufficiently long
Using boundary conditions in the Eq. (3-10)

C1 = q 0 and C 2 = -q 0 coth mL
substituting the values in to the equation, we get
q = q 0 [ cosh mx - coth mL. sinh mx ]
q
\ = [ cosh mx. sinh mL - cosh mx. cosh mL ] (3-18)
q0
Eq.3-18 is the temperature distribution equation

æ dT ö æ dq ö
é dθ ù
ê dx ú = mq 0 [ sinh mx - coth mL. sinh mx ]
ë û x =0
é dθ ù
\ê ú = -mq 0 coth mL
ë dx û x =0
Q = kAc mq 0 coth mL
(3-19)
3-6 EFFECTIVENESS OF FIN

The effectiveness of the fin is defined as the ratio of heat lost with fin to the heat lost without fin
Heat lost with fin
Î= (3-20)
Heat lost without fin
The fin w ill be m ore useful if the value of Î > 1
48
kAc mq 0 ê ú
Î= ë mk cosh mL + h sinh mL û
hAcq 0
é mk ù
1+ tanh mL ú (3-21)
km ê h
Î= ê ú
h ê mk + tanh mL ú
ëê h ûú
In the case of non dimensional number is named as Bi(Biot number) and is defined as the ratio of internal
resistance to the external resistance of the fluid on fin surface
hd d k Internal resistance of the fin material
Bi = = = (3-22)
k 1 h External resistance of the fluid on fin surface
Consider the following case:

1. If Bi=0, then Î=1
There is no use of putting the fin as there is no increase of heat flow and this is possible when poor
conducting material is used for fin
2. If Bi >1, then Î <1
There is an adverse effect on heat flow and fin works as insulator. This is possible if the value of h is
quit high. This is the main cause for not using the fins on the steam condenser tubes, because the
value of ‘h’ is high in case of condensation heat transfer.
3. If Bi <0, then Î>1
Which is most desirable case. This is possible by using the high conductivity material like Cu or Al.
Therefore in all type of heat exchanges fins are desirable where there is no difficulty of cleaning and
less danger of fouling.
3-7 FIN EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of fin is defined as actual heat transfer through fin to ideal heat transfer through fin.
If entire fin surface at fin base temperature T0
Q
η = fin Where Q ideal = A f hθ 0 , A f = Surface area, m 2
Q ideal
kA f mθ 0 tanhmL
η= (3-23)
A f hθ 0
Q fin = η Q ideal
Q fin = η Q ideal = η ( A f hθ 0 ) (3-24)
3-8 FIN CONNECTED BETWEEN TWO SOURCES

L
Qconv = hPdx(T - T¥ )
T1 T2
Qin Qout
Reservoir Reservoir
A dx B
Surrounding at T¥
Fig.3-9 Conduction through a bar with heat loss by convection
49
Heat transfer from a bar(constant cross section area) which is connected to the two heat source are at
different temperatures shown in Fig 3-9.. The system is also subjected to convective heat flow from the bar
to the surrounding.
Consider the system as shown in Fig.3-9

We have to find the temperature distribution in a rod and heat flow from the rod. Using Eq.(.3-10),.
q = C1 cosh mx + C 2 sinh mx
Using boundary conditions q = q1 at x=0

q = q2 at x=L
therefor C1 = q1
q 2 - q1 cosh mL
and C 2 =
sinh mL
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in to the above equation
( q 2 - q 1 cosh mL )
q = q 1 cosh mx + sinh mx
sinh mL
é cosh mx. sinh mL - cosh mL. sin mx ù q 2 sinh mx
= q1 ê ú + sinh mL
ë sinh mL û
q 2 sinh mx + q 1 sinh m( L - x )
= when q1 = q 2 = q 0
sinh mL
q [sinh mx + sinh m( L - x )]
q= 0
sinh mL
q [sinh mx + sinh m( L - x )]
\ = (3-25)
q0 sinh mL
L
The value of q at x = is given by
2
é æ mL ö æ mL öù
q0 êsinhç ÷ + sinhç ÷ú
2 è 2 øû
[q ]x= L = ë è ø
2 sinh mL
ml
sinh
= 2q0 2
(3-26)
sinh mL
Heat lost from the surface is given by the expression
L
ò
Q = hPdxq
0
L
é q sinh mx + q 1 sinh m( L - x ) ù
Q = hP ê 2 ò ú dx
ë sinh mL û
0
L
hP é cosh mx q 1 cosh m( L - x ) ù
= q2 -
sinh mL êë m m ú
û0
50
hP
= [q 2 {cosh( mL ) - 1}- q 1 ( 1 - cosh mL )]
m sinh mL
hP é cosh( mL ) - 1 ù hP
= (q1 + q 2 ) ê ú where m =
m ë sinh mL û kAc
Substituting the value of m
é cosh( mL ) - 1 ù
Q = hPkAc ( q 1 + q 2 )ê ú
ë sinh mL û
é cosh( mL ) - 1 ù (3-27)
Q = 2q 0 hPkAc ê ú whenq 1 = q 2 = q 0
ë sinh mL û
To find the position for the maximum temperature which occurs in the rod. Maximum temperature occurs
when. dq
=0
dx
Differentiating the above equation and equated to zero
dq q 2 sinh mx + q 1 sinh m( L - x )
=
dx sinh mL
\q 1 cosh m( L - x ) = q 2 cosh mx
q 2 cosh m( L - x )
=
q1 cosh mx (3-28)
From this Eq.(3 - 25) x can be found
if q1 = q 2
cosh m( L - x ) = cosh mx
L mL mL
when x = , cosh = cosh
2 2 2
\ Maximum temperature occurs at the centre.
This value of x from the above equation gives the position of maximum temperature in the rod
Example 3-1 A cylindrical chimney is built using fire clay bricks. The flue gases inside the
chimney cause the inner wall of it to attain a temperature of 1500°C while the outer wall is at a
temperature of 50°C. The thermal conductivity of the fire clay brick is given by k = 0.8 (1 + 0.8 Tx10-3)
where T is in °C. Assuming one- dimensional radial heat conduction find the rate of heat flow across the
wall. Given that I.D. = 30 m; O.D. = 30.5 m. What is the temperature at radius = 15.25 m.
Solution: Data given: (April/May 1995 V.T.U)
r1 = 15m
r2 = 15.25m
D
k = k0( 1 + α T ) = 0.8( 1 + 0.8 x10 -3 )
2π k 0 é
(i) Q = (T1 - T2 )+ α ( T12 - T2 2 ) ùú
ln r2 r1 êë 2 û
2π x 0.8 é 0.8 x10 -3 ù
Q= ê( 1500 - 50 )+ ( 1500 2 - 50 2 ) ú
ln 15.25 15.0 êë 2 úû
\ Q = 714.33kW/m
51
2p k0 é
(ii) Q = ( T1 - T )+ a ( T12 - T 2 ) ùú
ln r r1 êë 2 û
2p 0.8 é 0.8 x10 -3 ù
714.33 x10 3 = ê(1500 - T )+ ( 1500 2 - T 2 )ú
ln ( 15.25 15.0 ) êë 2 úû
T 2 + 2500T - 127500 By solving quadratic equation,
0
T = 50 C
Example 3-2 A furnace wall is made of one layer of fire clay of thickness 150 mm [k = (0.28+0.00023 T)
W/m°C] where T is in °C and another layer of red brick of 600 mm thickness [k = 0.7 W/m°
C]. The inside surface temperature of fire clay is 980°C and outside of red brick wall is at 45°C.
Calculate the interface temperature and the amount of heat lost per unit area of the wall.
Solution: Data given (July/August 1998 V.T.U)
T1 = 980°C ,T3 = 45°C , L1 = 150 mm and L2 = 600 mm
k1 = ( 0.28 + 0.00023 )W / m°C k 2 = 0.7W / m°C
QFC = QRB
k1 A( T1 - T2 ) k 2 A( T2 - T3 )
=
L1 L2
é 0 . 2223( T1 + T2 ) ù ( T1 - T2 ) 0.7( T2 - T3 )
ê 0.28 + 2 ú 0.15
=
0 .6
ë û
0.7 x 0.15
[0.28 + 0.555115 ( T1 + T2 )]( T1 - T2 ) = ( T2 - T3 )
0 .6
0.28( T1 - T2 ) + 0.000115 ( T12 - T22 ) = 0.17 (T2 - T3 )
0.28( 980 - T2 ) + 0.000115 ( 980 2 - T22 ) = 0.17 (T2 - 45 )
274.4 - 0.28T2 + 110 .446 - 0.000115 T22 = 0.175T2 - 7.875
0.000115 T22 + 0.455T2 - 392.721 = 0
T22 + 3956.52T2 - 3414965.2 = 0
- 3956.52 ± 3956.52 + 4 x1x3414965.2
T=
2
- 3956.52 ± 5414.23
T=
2
T = 728.86°C k m = 0.4765
Rate of heat transfer from the wall
k A ( T1 - T2 ) 0.7 x1x ( 728.86 - 45 )
Q= 2
L2 0. 6
= 797.84 Watts
Example 3-3 Calculate critical radius of insulation for asbestos (k= 0.17W/m °C) surrounding a pipe and
exposed to room air at 20°Cwith h = 3W/m2 °C. Calculate the heat loss from a 200°C, 50mm diameter
pipe when covered with critical radius of insulation and without insulation.
Solution: Data given: (July/August 2005)
k ins = 0.17 W / m°C h = 3 W / m°C
k insu 0.17
( i ) ropt = = = 0.057 m
h 3
( ii ) Ti = 200 0 C
rc = r2 = 0.057
52
( Ti - T¥ )
Q1 =
1 ì ln r2 r1 1 ü
í + ý
2p xL î k insu r2 ho þ
200 - 20
= = 105.7 W / m
1 ì ln 0.057 0.025 1 ü
í + ý
2p x1 î 0.17 0.057 x3 þ
Example 3-4 One end of a long aluminum rod is connected to a wall at 140°c, while the other end protrudes
into a room whose air temperature is 15°C. The rod is 3mm in diameter and the heat transfer co-efficient
between the rod surface and environment is 300 W/m2 °c. Estimate the total heat dissipated by the rod
taking its thermal conductivity as 150W/m°C. (July/Aug 2005 V.T.U)
Solution: Data given To =140°C T¥ =15°C d = 0.003m
h = 300 W/m 2 °C k =150 W/m°C
-3
P = π d = 9.424 x 10 m
Tb=140oC D
π
A c = d 2 = 7.068 x 10 -6 m 2
4
Q fin = hpkA c (To - Tw ) = 6.843 W
Example 3-5 An electric motor drives a centrifugal pump which circulates a hot liquid metal at 480°C. The
motor is coupled to the pump impeller by a horizontal steel shaft [k = 32 W/m°C] 25mm in diameter. If
the ambient air temperature is 20°C, the temperature of the motor is limited to a maximum value of 55°
C and heat transfer coefficient between steel shaft and ambient air is 14.8 W/m2 °C, what length of shaft
should be specified between motor and pump?(Jan/Feb 2006 V.T.U old scheme)
Heat is transferring from pump towards motor as well to the surroundings in this case, the length
of the shaft can be decided by assuming the tip of the shaft connects the
motor is insulated. for the above case,
Tw = 20°C , h = 14.8W / m 2 K
T0 = 480°C ,TL = 55°C ,q L = ( 55 - 20 ) = 35°C ,
q o = T0 - Tw = 480 - 20 = 460 °C
T - T¥ q cos h m ( L - x ) T¥ =20oC h=14.8W/m2K
= =
To - T¥ q o cos h m L End is insulated
At x = L , q =q L
D=0.025m
q 1
\ L= Pump
oq cos h m L
35 1
=
460 cos h m L
mL = 3.02 x=0 x=L T =35oC
L
4h
To=480oC qL=35oC
L = 3.02
kD q0=To-T¥ =460oC
4 x 14.8
x L = 3.02
32 x 0.025
\ Length of the shaft required, L = 0.351m
53
Example 3-6 One end of a long rod of 1 cm diameter is maintained at a temperature of 500°C, by placing it
in a furnace. The rod is exposed to air at 30°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 35 W/m2K. The
temperature measured at a distance of 78.6 mm was 147°C. Determine the thermal conductivity of the
material.(May/June 2006 V.T.U)
T = 147 o C, T¥ = 30 o C, To = 500 o C, h = 35W/m 2 K
θ T - T¥
= = e - mx
θ o To - T¥
147 - 30
= = e - m x 0.0786
500 - 30
0.249 = e - 0.0786 x m
\m = 17.69
P = π d = π ´ 0.01 = 0.03m
π d 2 π ´ 0.012
A= = = 2.85 ´ 10 -5 m 2
4 4
Ph Ph 0.03 ´ 35
m2 = \k = 2 =
kA m A (17.69) 2 ´ 7.85 ´ 10 -5
k = 44.75W/mK
Example 3-7 A cylinder 1m long and 5cm in diameter is placed in an atmosphere at 45°C. It is provided
with 10 longitudinal straight fins of material giving k=120 W/m K. The height of 0.76 mm thick fins is
1.27 cm from the cylinder surface. The heat transfer coefficient between cylinder and atmospheric air is
17 W/m2K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer and the temperature at the end of fins if surface temperature
of cylinderis 150°C. (July 2006 V.T.U)
k = 120 W/mK, t = 0.76x10-3 m
t
L = 1.27x10-3 m, h = 17W/m 2 K
Tb = 150°c, T¥ = 45°c
R
N = No.of fins = 10
H
(i) To find efficiency of fin
L
t 0.76 ´ 10-3
Lc = L + =1.27 ´ 10- 2 + = 0.0131m
2 2
A m = tLc = 0.76 ´ 10-3 ´ 0.0131 = 9.961´10- 6 m 2
As = 2Lc H = 2 ´ 0.0131´1 = 0.0262 m 2
0.5 0.5
æ h ö æ 17 ö
L1.5
c çç ÷ = 0.01311.5 ç
÷
÷ = 0.18
kA ç -6 ÷
è mø è 120 ´ 9.94 ´10 ø
From graph, η » 0.96
\Heat transfer/fin, q f = As h(Tb - T¥ ) = 0.0262 ´ 17(150 - 45) = 44.9W
Total heat transfer from fins, Qfin = Nq f = 10 ´ 44.9 = 449W
heat transfer from bare surface, Q b = (2π2 1 - Nt)H.hΔt
æ 0.05 ö
= ç 2π ´ - 10 ´ 0.76 ´ 10-3 ÷ ´1´17(105)
è 2 ø
Q b = 266.82W
\Total heat transfer, & = Q + Q = 715.78W
Q fin b
54
ii) To find the temp.at the tip of the fin
T - T¥ 1
eqn. becomes, L = (a)
Tb - T¥ coshmL + h L sinhml
mk
hp
Here, m =
kAc
where
P = (2L + t) = ( 2 ´ 1.27 ´ 10- 2 + 0.76 ´ 10-3 ) = 0.0262m
A c = t ´ H = 0.76 ´10-3 ´ 0.76 ´ 10-3 m 2
1/2
æ 17 ´ 0.0262 ö
\m = ç ÷ = 2.208m -1,
ç 120 ´ 0.76 ´10-3 ÷
è ø
mL = 2.208´1.27 ´10- 2 = 0.028
h 17
& = = 0.0642
mk 2.208 ´ 120
T - T¥ 1
\ln Eq. (a), L = = 0.998
105 cosh(0.028) + 0.0642sinh(0.028)
\TL =149.8°c
Example 3-8 The aluminium square fins (0.5 mm X 0.5 mm), 10 mm long, are provided on the surface of
semi conductor electronic device to carry 1 W of energy generated! The temperature at the surface of
the device should not exceed 80 °C, when the surrounding temperature is 40°C. k(aluminium) = 200
W/m°C; h = 15 /m2 °C.Determine the number of fins required to carry out the above duty. Neglect the
heat loss from the end of the fin.(May 2007 V.T.U)
Total heat to be transferred, QT =1W
Perimeter, P = 2(W + W) = 4W = 4 ´ 0.5 ´ 10-3 m
Area, A = w 2 =(0.5´ 0.5) ´10- 6 = 2.510- 7 m 2
P 4W 4 4
\ = = = = 8,000 m -1
A W 2 W 0.5´10-3
hP 15 ´ 8000 x=0
\m = = = 24.5 m -1 x=L
Tb=80oC
kA c 200
t
mL = 24.5´10 ´ 10-3 = 0.245
L W
\Heat transfer / fin = q f = hpkA θ b tan hmL
= 15 ´ 2 ´10-3 ´ 2.5´10- 7 ´ 200 ´ (80 - 40) ´ tanh (0.245)

q f = 0.012 W/tin
qt 1.0
\No. of fins required, N = = = 83.33 » 84 No.s
q f 0.012
Example 3-9 An electric motor drives a centrifugal pump which circulates a hot liquid metal a 480°C. The
motor is coupled to the pump impeller by a horizontal steel shaft [k = 31 W/m°C] 25 mm in diameter. If
the ambient air temperature is 20°C, the temperature of the motor is limited to a maximum value of
55°C and heat transfer coefficient between steel shaft and ambient air is 14.8 W/m2 °C, what length of
shaft should be specified between motor and pump?(May 2007 V.T.U)
55
o
Assuming at x = L, negligible heat loss, T¥ =20 C,h-1484W/mK
Temp. distribution is given by Hot metal d=0.025m Motor
TL - T¥ 1
=
Tb - T¥ cosh mL
Tb=480oC
55 - 20 1
Þ = Þ mL = 3.27
480 - 20 cosh mL TL=55oC
4h 4 ´14.8
where m = = = 8.6 m -1 x=0 x=L
kD 32 ´ 0.025
\Length of the shaft required, L = 3.27/8.6 = 0.38m
Example 3-10 A steel tube carries steam at a temperature of 300°C. A thermometer pot of iron (k = 52.3
W/mK) of inside diameter of 16 mm and thickness 1 mm is used to measure the temperature. The error to
be tolerated is 2% of maximum. Calculate the length of pocket required to measure temperature within
this error. How should the thermometer be located? Take the tube wall temperature as 130°C and
diameter as 90 mm. Assume the convective heat transfer co-efficient as 95 W/m2K (Dec.06/Jan.07
V.T.U)
K = 52.3W/mK, d i = 16mm, τ = t = 1min

Tb = T4 =130°C, T¥ = 300°C, h = 95W/m 2 K
Error to be tolerated = 2% of T¥
ie., TL = 0.98 T¥ = 294°C
Assume the heat loss from the tip of the pocket is negligible, the temperature
distribution becomes,
TL - T¥ 1 294 - 300 1
= Þ =
Tb - T¥ cosh mL 130 - 300 cosh mL
mL = 4.04 Tb x=0
if P & A calculat as follows :
P = πd
Steam
A=
4
(
π 2
d 0 - d i2 ) x=L
D
P πd o x4 T¥ =20oC di
=
A π(d 02 - d i2 )
P
=1058.8m -1
A
\m = 43.86m -1 & L = 92mm
\mL = 4.04
hp hπ d 95
Now, m = = = = 42.62m -1
kA k π dt 52.3 x 1 x 10-3
4.04
\L = = 0.095 m or 95mm
42.62
As the length of the pocket is more than the diameter of the pipe, it is to be located
in an inclined orientation
56
Example.3-11. Aluminium fins of rectangular profile are attached to a plane wall with 5mrn spacing. The
fins have thickness of 1mm, length 10mm and thermal conductivity of 200W/m K, The wall is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 200°C and the fins dissipate heat by convection into an
ambient at 40°C with a surface heat transfer coefficient of 50W/(m2 K. Determine
i) the fin efficiency and
ii)the heat loss from the plane wall per m2 of the wall surface.
Neglect the heat loss from the fin tip.
Solution: Given data: (Jan/Feb 2006 New scheme 2006)
Consider a plane wall area of 1m 2

Pitch = P = 0.005 m , H = 1m
Thickness = t = 0.001m
Length = L = 0.10 m Pitch=P
Width =W = 1m
To = 200°c; T¥ = 40°c
t
h = 50W / m 2 K H=1m L
k = 200W / mK
Heat loss from fin type is negligibles
(i) Area of cross section of each fin = A = Wt = 1x0.001 = 0.001m 2

Perimeter of each fin = P = 2(Wxt ) » 2W = 2 x 1 = 2 m
hr 50 x 2
m= = = 22.4 / m
kA 200 x 0.001
mL = 22.4 x 0.01 = 0.224
When the heat loss from the fin tip is neligible
Q fin = kmAq o tan h mL
Q fin kmAq o tan h mL
\Efficiency =h = =
Qmax hPLq o
tan h mL tan h 0.224
= = = 0.985 = 98.5%
mL 0.224
H 1
( ii ) Total number of fin = h = = = 166
P + t (0.005 + 0.001)
\Total heat Dissipated from all the fins is
Q fin = nq fin = n kmAq o tan h mL
Q fin = 166 x 200 x 22.4 x 0.001 [200 - 40 ]tanh 0.224
= 26216.47 W / m 2
Base area of the plane wall = Abase = HW - (ntW )
= 1x1 - [166 x0.001x1]= 0.834 m 2
Heat disspates from the base area = Q base = h Abase Qq
= 50 x0.834 x[200 - 40 ]
= 6672 W / m 2
\Total Heat disspates from the plane wall is
Q = 26216.47 + 6672 = 32888.47 W / m 2
57
Review Questions:
3.1 A plane wall is fitted with an aluminium (k = 204 W/m K) pin fin of 1 cm diameter and 30 cm length.
The fin base temperature is 300°C and the pin fin is in contact with air at 30°C. The convection heat
transfer coefficient between the fin surface and air is 10 W/m2 K. Assuming that the fin is infinitely
long, calculate the temperature at 5 cm, 15 cm and 25 cm from the base and the rate of heat transfer from
the fin.(Ans:246.4°C, 160°C, 89.2°C, 19.15W )
3.2 A rectangular fin of length 30 cm, width 30 cm and thickness 2 mm is attached to a surface at 300°C. The
fin is made of aluminium (k = 204 W/m K) and is exposed to air at 30°C. The fin end is uninsulated and
can lose heat through its end also. The convection heat transfer coefficient between the fin surface and
air is 15 W/m2 K. Calculate the temperature of the fin at (a) 10 cm (b) 20 cm and (c) 30 cm from the base
and (d) the rate of heat transfer from the fin.(Ans:147.2°C,86.5°C,70.3°C,281.1W )
3.3 The temperature of steam flowing through a 50 mm carbon-steel pipe is measured with the help of a
mercury-in-glass thermometer immersed in an oil-filled steel well (k = 54 W/m K). A schematic of the
thermometer well is shown in Fig. 3.6. The heat transfer coefficient between steam and the
thermometer well is 1500 W/m2 K. If the surface temperature of the pipe is 50° C and the thermometer
reading is 2-50°C, determine the true temperature of steam.(Ans: Stem temp T¥ =379.9°C )
Tb x=0
Fig. 3.6 Oil filled steel welland steam tube Steam T¥ D

x=L
di
3.4. One end of the long rod is inserted into a furnace and the other end projects into the surrounding
air at 20°C. Under steady state conditions, the temperature of the rod measured at two points,
100 mm apart, was found to be 120°C and 100°C respectively. If the diameter of the rod is 25 mm
and thermal conductivity of the fin material is 120 W/m°C, make calculations for the surface heat
transfer coefficient.(3.725 W/m2°C)
3.5. A heating unit in the form of a vertical tube, 120 cm high and 6 cm outside diameter, has its surface
maintained at 80°C whilst the surrounding air is at 18°C. The tube is provided with 20 equally spaced
longitudinal fins of rectangular section; the fins are 5 cm long and 0.03 cm thick. Calculate the
amount of heat transferred from the finned wall to the surroundings. Take thermal conductivity of fin
material k = 55.7 W/m°C and the surface heat transfer coefficient h = 9.3 W/m2°C.(1356 W)
3.6. A 12.5 mm diameter rod of iron (k = 45 W/m°C) is heated to 260°C at its base and protrudes into air
35°C where surface conductance h = 8.5W/m2°C. How long must be the rod in order that its end
temperature may be computed, with less than 2.75°C error, by the use of infinite rod equations ? What
error in heat dissipation is made, at this length, by the use of the infinite rod equation ?
3.7. A glass rod (k - 3.45 kJ/m-hr°C) of 15 mm diameter and 65 cm length is heated to 150°C at its base and
extends into air at 25°C. If the surface film coefficient is known to be 26 kJ/m2-hr-°C, determine the
temperature distribution and heat loss from the rod. Neglect heat flux through the tip of rod.(3.4 kJ/hr).
3.8. Explain the different parameters which form a basis for assessing the utility of a fin in dissipating a
given quantity of heat. A longitudinal copper fin (k = 14 kJ/m-hr°C) 60 mm long and 5 mm in diameter
is exposed to air stream at 20°C. The air moving past the fin has a uniform convection coefficient h =
80 kJ/m2-hr°C If the fin has a base temperature of 150°C, determine the heat given up by the rod and its
effectiveness in dissipating heat. (9.2 kJ/m2-hr, 0.94)
58
3.9 A very long aluminium pin fin of 2 cm diameter is attached to a surface at 300°C, while the fin surface is
exposed to an environment at 25°C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the fin if the medium is (a)
flowing liquid with a heat transfer coefficient of 200 W/m2 K. (b) flowing air with h = 20 W/m2 K. (c)
stagnant air with h = 5 W/m2 K. Ans: a)246W, b) 77.8W, c)38.9W
3.10 An aluminium rectangular fin of length 50 cm, width 20 cm and thickness 2 mm is attached to a wall at
350°C and the end of the fin is insulated. The fin surface is exposed to an environment at 25°C with h =
10 W/m2 K. Calculate the temperature of the fin
(a) at a distance of 25 cm from the base and
(b) at the insulated end.
(c) Also calculate the rate of heat transfer from the fin. Ans: a)82.6°C , b) 44.3°C, c)18.63W
3.11 One end of a long, 2 cm diameter metal rod of unknown thermal conductivity is maintained at 400°C by
keeping it in a furnace, while the rod's surface is exposed to air at 25° C. The convection heat transfer
coefficient from the surface is 10 W/m2 K. Once the steady-state is reached, the temperature of the rod
at a distance of 60 cm from the hot end is 100° C. Determine the thermal conductivity of the metal.
Ans: 278W/mK,
3.12 One end of a long copper rod of 3 cm diameter is maintained at 400°C, while the rest of the rod is
exposed to an environment at 25°C. In steady-state, the temperature of the rod at a distance of 50 cm
from the hot end is found to be 120° C. Determine the average value of the convection heat transfer
coefficient from the surface to the environment. Ans: 21.84W/m2K
3.13 One end of a long copper (k = 386 W/m K) rod of 3 cm diameter is maintained at a constant temperature
by placing it in a furnace, while the rest of the rod is exposed to an environment at 25°C. In steady-state,
the temperatures at two different locations 25 cm apart along the length of the rod are found to be
200°C and 100°C, respectively. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient from the rod's surface to the
environment. Ans: 33.25 W/m2K
3.14 One end of a wrought-iron (k = 59 W/m K) rod of 30 cm length and 3 cm diameter is attached to a wall
at 300°C, while the second end is insulated. The surface of the rod is exposed to an environment at 25°
C and the convection heat transfer coefficient from the surface to the environment is 15 W/m2 K.
Determine (a) the temperature of the insulated end and (b) the rate of heat transfer from the rod.
Ans: a)181.8°C, b) 62.83 W
3.15 One end of an aluminium rod of 2 cm diameter and 50 cm length is attached to a wall at 200°C, and the
rest of the rod is exposed to an environment at 25°C. The other end of the rod is losing heat to the
environment. If the heat transfer coefficient to the environment is 5 W/m2 K, determine (a) the
temperature at the end of the rod and (b) the rate of heat transfer from the rod.
Ans: a)128.4°C, b) 20 W
3.16 An aluminium rod of 2 cm diameter and 30 cm length is used as a fin. The heat transfer coefficient from
the fin to the environment is 10 W/m2 K. Calculate the fin efficiency assuming that the fin is
(a) of finite length but the end is insulated, and
(b) of finite length and loses heat through its end also. Ans: a)0.7824 , b) 0.7899
3.17 The temperature of steam flowing through a pipe is measured as 150°C with a thermometer placed in .a
thermometer well. A sketch of the thermometer well is shown in Fig. 3.6. The pipe surface is at 50°C
and the convection heat transfer coefficient between the thermometer well and steam is 600 W/m2 K.
The thermal conductivity of the thermometer well is 54 W/m K. Estimate the true temperature of steam,
assuming that the thermometer well is an infinitely long fin. Ans: 236.3°C
3.18 Two walls 1 m apart are kept at 200°C and 100°C, respectively. If the walls are connected by a 2 cm
diameter brass (k = 111 W/m K) rod and the rod loses heat by convection (h = 10 W/m2 K) to the
ambient air at 25°C, determine the total heat transferred from the brass rod to air. Ans:35.95W
59
4
TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS
One dimensional unsteady state heat conduction

Lumped system analysis:
4-1 INTRODUCTION:
If the surface temperature of a solid body is suddenly altered, the temperature within the body
begins to change over time. It will take some time before the steady-state temperature distribution is reached.
The determination of the temperature distribution within the solid during temperature transients is a more
complicated matter because temperature varies with both position and time. In many practical applications,
the variation of temperature with position is negligible during the transients, hence the temperature is
considered to vary with time only.
The analysis of heat transfer under such an assumption is called the lumped system analysis, and
since the temperature is a function of time only, the analysis becomes very simple. Therefore, in this chapter
we begin with the lumped system analysis of transient heat conduction problems.
The use of transient-temperature charts is illustrated for solving simple transient heat conduction
in a slab, cylinder, and sphere in which temperature varies with both time and position.
4-2 LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Consider that a solid of arbitrary shape, volume V, total surface area A, thermal conductivity k,
density r, specific heat cp, at a uniform temperature T0 is suddenly immersed at the time t = 0 in a well-stirred
fluid which is kept at a uniform temperature T0 Figure 4-1 illustrates the considered heat transfer system.
The thermal network for the single-capacity system is shown in Figure 4.2
S
Ambient fluid at T0
A= surface area
T¥ ,h
Solid
V=Volume
cp=Specific heat 1
r = Density Cih=rCV hA
T0= Initial temperature
T(t)= Temperaure
T¥
Fig.4-1 Lumped system analysis of transient heat flow Fig.4-2 Thermal net work for single capacity system
Heat transfer between the solid and liquid takes place by convection with a heat transfer coefficient h. It is
assumed that the temperature distribution within the solid at any instant is sufficiently uniform, that the
temperature of the solid can be considered to be a function of time only, that is, T(t). The energy equation for
heat transfer in the solid may be stated as.
æ Rate of heat flow into the ö æ Rate of increase of ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
çç solid of volume V through ÷÷ = çç internal energy of ÷÷ (4-1)
è boundary surface A ø è the solid of volumeV ø
dT
hA [ T¥ - T(t ) ] = r c pV
dt
60
dT
hA [ T¥ - T(t ) ] = r c pV
dt
1
dT(t ) r c pV
or + [ T(t ) - T¥ ] = 0
dt hA
dT(t )
+ mq t = 0
dt
dq (t )
+ mq t = 0
dt
1 r c pV
Where = and q t = [ T(t ) - T¥ ]
m hA
dq (t )
ò qt
= -m dt = 0 ò
ln q t = -mt + C1
By considering boundary condition
T = T0 at t = 0
when T is the intial body temperature of the solid to be cooled or heated
\ C1 = ln q 0
General solution will be written as q 0 = C e - mt
therefore substituting C1 in the above equation
ln q t = -mt + ln q 0
qt
= e - mt
q0
T(t ) - T¥
= e - mt (4-2)
T0 - T¥
If solid body of uniform thickness of 2d or a solid cylinder or sphere of diameter 2d is considered then
ha
.t Can be written as modified below
r c pV
ha æ h d öæ K öæ A öæç 1 öæ d ö
÷ç ÷ .t
.t = ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷
r c pV è K øè d øè V øçè r c p ÷è d ø
ø
hd K t Ad
= . . .
K r cp d 2 V
hd æ K t ö Ad
= .ç . 2 ÷.
K ç r cp d ÷ V
è ø
Ad
= Bi .Fo .
V
Ad
T(t ) - T¥ - Bi Fo
V
=e
T0 - T¥
T(t ) - T¥
= e - Bi Fo G
T0 - T¥
qt (4-3)
= e - Bi Fo G
q0
61
hd Heat transfer coefficient of the solid surface

Bi = =
k Internal conductance of solid across length L
æ k t ö Rate of heat conduction across L in volume L3
Fo = ç . 2÷=
ç r cp d ÷ Rate of heat storage in volume L3
è ø
Ad
G= = Non dimensional geometry
V
Theoretically body will take infinite time to attain steady state condition but practically it comes
very very near to the steady state condition within a very short period as illustrated shown in Fig.
e - mt m
- mt
Increasing
qt Increasing qt e
q0 m
q0
t Time t Time
Fig.4-3. Cooling of body of zero internal resistance Fig.4-4. Heating of body of zero internal resistance
4-3 MIXED BOUNDARY CONDITION
Consider a situation in which part of boundary surface of the region subjected to convection and the
remainder is subjected to prescribed heat flux as illustrated below.
Consider a slab of thickness L, initially at a uniform temperature r T0. For times t > 0, heat is
supplied to the slab from one of its boundary surfaces at a constant rate of q W/m2 while heat is dissipated by
convection from the other boundary surface into a medium at a uniform temperature T¥ with a heat transfer
coefficient h. Figure 4-3 shows the geometry and the boundary conditions for the problem.
We assume an equal area A for heat transfer on both sides of the plate. The application of the energy
balance equation (4-1) for this particular case gives
Consider energy balance equation

Slab
Heat
T(t)
supply q
Convection
to a fluid at T¥
L
x =0 x =L
Fig.4-5 Transient heat flow in slab with mixed boundary
62
dT(t ) dq t
Aq + Ah( T¥ - T(t ) ) = r c p AL = -mq t + Q
dt dt
dT(t ) dq t
q + h( T¥ - T(t ) ) = r c p L For t > 0 = ( Q - mq t )
dt dt
By using initial boundary condition. dq t
= dt
T(t ) = T0 for t = 0 ( Q - mq t )
Put q t = ( T¥ - T(t ) ) put y = ( Q - mq t )
dq t h q Divide by m
+ mq t = Q where m = and Q = Q y
dt r cpL r cpL -qt =
dq t Q m m
ò qt
= - mdt +
m
differenti ating
the equatioin
Q
ln q t = - mt + q p + C where q p = Partial solution dy
m - dq t =
m
q t = Ce - mt + q p Substituting this
Q in the above equation
q t = Ce - mt + at t = 0
m dy
Q - = dt
\ C = q0 - Substituting this in the above equation m ( Q - mq t )
m dy
æ Q ö Q - = dt
q t = ç q 0 - ÷ e - mt + (4-5)
my
è mø m Integrating the
Q above equation
q t = q 0 e - mt + ( 1 - e - mt )
m - ln y = mt + C1
As the t ® ¥ thus solution get simplifie d to
\ y = e - mt .e C1
Q q h
q¥ = = m= , r c p L Þ 0 after long period e -C1
m h r cpL \( Q - mq t ) = e - mt .e C1 , Put C =
m
q
\q t = q 0 e - mt + ( 1 - e - mt ) (4-6) Q
h q t = Ce - mt +
m
\q t = Ce - mt +q p
Example 4-1. An alluminium plate k=160 w/moC, cp=880 J/kgoC, r=2790 kg/m3 of thickness L=3cm and at
a uniform temperature of To=225oC is suddenly immersed at time t=0 in a well stirred fluid maintained
at a constant temperature T¥ =25oC, the heat transfer coefficient between the plate and fluid is h=320w/m2
o
C. Determine the time required for the center of the plate to reach 50oC.
Solution: Given:
Note: This example can be solved by the lumped system analysis with sufficient accuracy if
Bi<0.1. Therefore, we need to check the magnitude of the Biot number. The characteristic
dimension Lsis determined as
Volume LA L 3
Ls = = = = = 1.5 cm half the length
Area 2A 2 2
hL 320 x1.5 x10 - 2
\Bi = s = = 3 x10 - 2 < 0.1
k 160
Hence the lumped system analysis is applicable
T (t ) - T¥
= e - mt
T0 - T¥
63
where T(t ) = 50 o C , T¥ = 25 o C , T0 = 225 o C
hA h 320
m= » = = 0.00869 s -1
r C pV r C p Ls 2790 x880 x1.5 x10 - 2
50 - 25
then = e 0.00869 t
225 - 25
0.125 = e 0.00869 t
\ ln 0.125 = 0.00869t
\ t = 239 s = 4 min
Example. 4-2. The temperature of the gas stream is measured with a thermocouple the junction may be
approximated as a sphere of diameter Do=1mm, k=25 w/moC, cp=400 J/kgoC, r=8400 kg/m3 . The heat
transfer coefficient between junction and the gas stream is h=50w/m2. How long will it take for the
thermocouple to record 99% of the applied temperature difference.

Volume 4 3 p r 3 r D 1
Ls = = = = = mm
Area 4p r 2 3 6 6
-3
hL 560 x10
\Bi = s = = 3.7 x10 -3 < 0.1
k 25 x6
T(t ) - T¥
= e - mt
T0 - T¥
when the temperature reaches 99%of the applied temperature
1% = 1 100
1 100 = e - mt Þ e mt = 100 Þ ln 100 = mt
\ mt = 4 ,6
hA h 560 x6
m= » = = 1 s -1
r c pV r c p Ls 8400 x400 x10 -3
t = 4.6
\ t = 4.6 s
Example.4-3 A house hold electric iron has a steel base k=70 w/moC, cp=450 J/kgoC and r=7840 kg/m3 .
Which weighs M=1kg. The base has an ironing surface of A=0.025m2 and is heated from the outer
surface with a 250w heating element. Initially the iron is at uniform temperature of Ti=20oC. Suddenly
the heating starts and the iron dissipates heat by convective from the ironing surface into and ambient at
T¥ with heat transfer coefficient of h=50w/m2.
Calculate the temperature of the iron t=5min after the start of heating. What would be the equilibrium
temperature of the iron be if the control did not switch off the current.
Solution: Given: The thickness L of the base is determined to be

M 1 M M
Ls = = = 0.51x10 - 2 m Q r = Þ V=
Ar 0.025 x7840 V r
-2
hL 50 x0.5 x10
\Bi = s = = 0.36 x10 - 2 < 0.1
k 70
64
we have
q
\q t = q 0 e - mt + ( 1 - e - mt )
h
where q o = Ti - T¥ = 20 - 20 = 0
250 o
q= = 10000 w / m 2 , h = 50 w / m 2 C
0 .025
hA h 50
m= » = = 0.278 x10 - 2
r c pV r c p Ls 7840 x450 x0.51x10 - 2
then the temperature at the end of t = 5min is determined as
mt = 0.278x10 -2 x5 x60 = 0.834
10000
\q t = 0 + ( 1 - e -0.834 ) = 113 o C
50
\ T(t ) = q (t ) + T¥ = 113 + 20 = 133 o C
the equilibrium temperature becomes
10000
q¥ = = 200 o C
50
\ T(¥ ) = q (¥ ) + T¥ = 200 + 20 = 220 o C
4-4 USE OF TRANSIENT TEMPERATURE CHARTS (Heisler Charts)
In many situation the temperature gradients with in the solid are no longer negligible, hence the
lumped system analysis is no longer applicable. Then the analysis of heat conduction problems involves the
determination of the temperature distribution within the solid as a function of both time and position, and it is
a complicated matter such problems can be analyzed by referring to Heisler Charts or Transient Temperature
Charts. ( Bi> 1)
4-4-1 FOR SLAB
Transient conduction in slabs
Consider a slab of thickness 2L that is confined to the region -L £ x £ L. Initially the slab is at a
uniform temperature Ti . Suddenly, at t=0, both boundary surfaces of the slab are subjected to convection
with a heat transfer coefficient h in to ambient at temperature T¥ and are maintained so for time as t >0
shown in Fig.4-6(a) and (b)shows the geometry, coordinates and boundary conditions for the problem as
explained about the time-dependent heat conduction problem.
dT dT
-k = h(T - T¥ ) -k = h(T - T¥ )
dx dx
dT dT
h(T - T¥ ) = + k =0
dx dx Initially
Initially
Ti
Ti
x 0
-L 0 +L x=0 x=L
Fig.4-6 Geometry coordinates, and boundary conditions for transient heat conduction in a slab
65
Dimension less equation:
The transient heat conduction problem given by Eqs.(4-7) can be expressed in the dimension less
by introducing the following dimension less variables:
d 2T 1 dT
= in 0 < x < L for t > 0 4-7(a)
2 a dt
dx
dT
=0 at x = 0, for t > 0 4-7(b)
dx
dT
k + ht = hT¥ at x = L, for t > 0 4-7(c)
dx
T = T1 for t = 0 in 0 £ x £ L 4-7(d)
T( x ,t ) - T¥ 4-8(a)
q = = Dimension less temperature
Ti - T¥
x 4-8(b)
X = = Dimension less co - ordinate
L
hL Heat transfer coefficient at the surface of solid 4-8(c)
Bi = = Biot number =
K Internal conductance of solid across length L
at Rate of heat conduction across L in volume L3 W / o C
t = Fo = 2
= 4-8(d)
L Rate of heat storage in volume L3 W / o C
¶ 2q ¶q
2
= in 0 < x < L for t > 0 For t > 0 4-9(a)
¶X ¶Z
¶q 4-9(b)
= 0 at X = 0 , for t > 0
¶X
¶q
+ Biq = 0 at X = 0 , for t > 0 4-9(c)
¶X
q = 1 in 0 £ X £ 1 for t = 0
4-9(d)
Transient Temperature Charts for Slab
Equation 4.9 (a) to (d) has been solved and the results for the dimension less temperature present in Fig.4-7
(a) and (b). The dimension less heat transfer Q/Qo as a function of dimension less time for several different
value of Biot number for a slab of thickness (2L) as sown in Fig.4-8.
Example.4-4. A 5 cm thick iron plate [k=60 w/moC], cp=460J/kgoC, r=7850kg/m3 and a=1.6 x 10-5m2/s is
initially at Ti=225oC. Suddenly, both surfaces are exposed to an ambient air at T¥ =25oC with heat transfer
coefficient h=500 w/m2 oC
Calculate the center temperature at t=2min after the start of the cooling.
Calculate the temperature at a depth of 1.0 cm from the surface at t=2min after the start of cooling.
Calculate the energy removed from the plate per square meter during this time. (Oct/Nov 1996 K.U)
Solution: Given: 2L=5x10-2 m or L=2.5x10-2m

hL 500 ´ 2.5 ´ 10 -2
\ Bi = = = 0.21
K 60
1
= 4.8
Bi
66
at 1.6 x10 -5 x 2 x60
t = Fo = = = 3 .1
L2 2.5 2 x10 -4
1
Then from Fig for t = 3.1 and = 4.8, the centre temperature T0 is
Bi
T -T
q (0,t ) = 0 ¥ = 0.58
Ti - T¥
\ T0 = T¥ + ( Ti - T¥ ) ( 0.58 )
\ T0 = 25 + ( 225 - 25 )( 0.58 )
\ T0 = 141o C
Temperatur e 1.0 cm from the surface is determined as
x 2. 5 - 1
= = 0 .6
L 2 .5
1 x
For = 4.8 , and = 0.6 from fig , we have
Bi L
T - T¥
= 0.95
T0 - T¥
T = T¥ + ( T0 - T¥ )( 0.98 )
T = 25 + ( 141 - 25 )( 0.98 )
T = 135.2 o C
The heat lost from the plate per square meter (including both sides) during
the transient up to t = 2min is determined as follows Bi = 0.21 and Bi 2t = 0.212 x 3.1 = 0.137
we find
Q
= 0.45
Qo
Where Qo = ( mc p D T ) = r 2 LAc p ( Ti - T¥ )
= 7850 x460 x5 x106 - 26 x1(225 - 25 )
= 35.33 x10 6 J
Then the heat lost from the slab per square meter in 2min becomes
Q = 0.45Q 0
Q = 15.9 x10 6 J 0.98
T0 - T¥ x
Hints: For determining dimension less quantities = 0.6
i.e x/L and Q/Qo by using Hesilers charts as Ti - T¥ L
represented graphically shown
dT
dT - k dx = h(T - T¥ )
h(T - T¥ ) = + k
dx Initially 1
Ti = 4.8
x Bi
-L +L
0
1 Q
0.58 = 4.8 = 0.45
Bi Qo
T0 - T¥ B i = 0.21
Ti - T¥
Fo=3.1 Bi2t=0.137
67
dT dT
h(T - T¥ ) = + k -k = h(T - T¥ )
dx dx
Initially
Ti
x
-L 0 +L
1 k
=
b hrO
T0-T¥
Ti-T¥
ro
k/h
at
t=
L2
(a) Temperature To at the center plane,x=0 (Heisler Charts)
x/L
T -T¥
T0-T¥
1 k
=
b hL
(b) Position correction for use with part (a)
Fig.4-7 Transient temperature charts for slab of thickness 2L

subjected to convection at both boundary surface
68
Q
Qo
h 2a t
2
= Bi2t
k
Fig.4-8 Dimension less heat transferred Q/QO for a slab of thickness 2L
4--4-2 LONG CYLINDER AND SPHERE - use of
Transient charts- Temperature charts
The dimension less transient-temperature distribution and the heat transfer results similar to those given
by Figs. 4-9 and 4-10 also can be developed for a long cylinder and sphere.
Transient-Temperature Chart for Long Cylinder
Consider one-dimensional, transient heat conduction in a long cylinder of radius r, which is initially
at a uniform temperature Ti. Suddenly, at time t = 0, the boundary surface at r = rO subjected to convection
with a heat transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperature Tx and maintained so for t > 0. The
mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem is given in the dimension less form as
1 ¶ æ ¶q ö ¶q ü
çR ÷= in 0 < R < 1, for t > 0 ï
R ¶R è ¶R ø ¶t ï
¶q ïï (2.10)
at R = 0 , for t > 0
¶R ý
¶q ï
+ Biq = 0 at R = 1, for t > 0 ï
¶R ï
q =1 in 0 £ R £ 1, for t = 0 ïþ
T( r ,t ) - T¥ ü
q = = Dimension less temperature ï
Ti - T¥ ï
ro ï
X= = Dimension less co - ordinate ïï
r
hr Heat transfer coefficient at the surface of solid ý (2-11)
Bi = = Biot number = ï
K Internal conductance of solid across length L ï
a t Rate of heat conduction across L in volume L3 W/ o C ï
t = Fo = 2 = ï
r Rate of heat storage in volume L3 W/ o C ïþ
69
dT
-k = h(T - T¥ )
dx
Initially
Ti rO
1 k
=
b hrO
T0-T¥
Ti-T¥
ro
k/h
at
t=
r2
(a)
(a) Temperature To at the center cylinder r=rO, (Heisler Charts)
r/rO
T -T¥
T0-T¥
(b) Position correction for use with part (a)

1 k
=
b hrO Fig.4-9 Transient temperature charts for a long cylinder of
(b) radius r=ro subjected to convection at boundary surface
70
Q
Qo
ko
hr/
Bi =
h 2a t
= Bi2t
k2
Fig.4-10. Dimension less heat transferred Q/QO for a long cylinder of radius r = rO
Transient-Temperature Chart
The dimension less transient-temperature distribution and the heat transfer results similar to those given
by Figs. 4-11 and 4-12 also can be developed for a long cylinder and sphere.
4-4-3 Transient-Temperature Chart for Sphere

For a sphere of radius r, initially at a uniform temperature Tf, and for t > 0 subjected to convection at
the boundary r = rO, with a heat transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperature Tx, the transient heat
conduction problem is given in the dimension less form as
1 ¶ æ ¶q ö ¶q ü
çR ÷= in 0 < R < 1, for t > 0 ï
R ¶R è ¶R ø ¶t ï
¶q ïï
at R = 0 , for t > 0
¶R ý
ï (2-12)
¶q
+ Biq = 0 at R = 1, for t > 0 ï
¶R ï
q =1 in 0 £ R £ 1, for t = 0 ïþ
T( r ,t ) - T¥ ü
q= = Dimension less temperature ï
Ti - T¥ ï
ro ï
X = = Dimension less co - ordinate ïï
r
hr Heat transfer coefficient at the surface of solid ý
Bi = = Biot number = ï
K Internal conductance of solid across length L ï (2-13)
a t Rate of heat conduction across L in volume L3 W / o C ï
t = Fo = 2 = ï
r Rate of heat storage in volume L3 W / o C ïþ
71
rO ¶T
-k = h( T - T¥ )
¶r
1 k
=
b hrO
T0-T¥
Ti-T¥
ro
k/h
at
t=
r2
(a)
(a) Temperature To at the center sphere r=rO, (Heisler Charts)
r/ro
T -T¥
T0-T¥
1 k
= (b) Position correction for use with part (a)
b hrO
(b) Fig.4-11. Transient temperature charts for a long sphere of
radius r=ro subjected to convection at boundary surface
72
Q k
Qo
hr/
Bi =
h 2a t
2
= Bi2t
k
Fig.4-12. Dimension less heat transferred Q/QO for a sphere of radius r = rO
Example.4-5. A long aluminium cylinder of radius 10 cm which is initially at a uniform temperature of

350°C is suddenly exposed to an environment at 30°C. The convection heat transfer coefficient between
the cylinder's surface and the environment is 1000 W/m2 K. Determine the time required for the axis of
the cylinder to attain a temperature of 126°C.
Solution: Data given: For aluminium, k = 204 W/m K; a= 8.418 x 10-5 m2/s TO=126°C,
T¥ =30°C, Ti=350°C, rO=0.1m and h=1000W/m2K
Therefore
To - T¥ 126 - 30
= = 0.3
Ti - T¥ 350 - 30
k 204
= = 2.04 or Bi = 0.5
hro 1000 ´ 0.1
From Heisler charts Fig.4 - 9(a)
αt To - T¥ k
= 1.55 at = 0.3 and = 2.04
ro2 Ti - T¥ hro
Hence
1.55ro2 1.55 ´ (0.1) 2
t= = = 184 s
α 8.418 ´ 10 - 5
The axis of the cylinder reaches a temperature of 126o C after 184 s
Example 4-6.A long aluminium cylinder of radius 10 cm which is initially at a uniform temperature of 350°C
is suddenly exposed to an environment at 30°C. The convection heat transfer coefficient between the
cylinder's surface and the environment is 600 W/m2 K. Calculate the temperature at a radius of 6 cm and
the heat transferred per metre length of the cylinder 120 s after the cylinder is exposed to the
73
environment.
Solution: Given data: Ti = 350°C; T¥ = 30°C; h = 600 W/m2 K; r0 = 0.1 m; r = 0.06 m; t = 120 s
5
We know that for aluminium k = 204 W/m K; a = 8.418 x 10- m2/s; r = 2707 kg/m3 and
c = 0.896 kJ/kg K
αt 8.418 ´ 10-5 ´ 120

= = 1.01
ro2 (0.1)2
1 k 204 r 0.06
= = = 3.4, = = 0.6, Bi = 0.2941 » 0.3
Bi hro 600 ´ 0.1 ro 0.1
Determine the temperature at the axis of the cylinder by using Heisler chart
To - T¥ αt k
= 0.65 at 2 = 1.01 and = 3.4 from Fig.4 - 13
Ti - T¥ ro hro
From Fig.4 - 9(b)
T - T¥ αt r
= 0.93 at 2 = 3.04 and = 0.6
To - T¥ ro ro
Therefore,
T - T¥ æ To - T¥ ö æ T - T¥ ö
=ç ÷ç ÷ = 0.65 ´ 0.93 = 0.6045
Ti - T¥ çè Ti - T¥ ÷ø çè To - T¥ ÷ø
T - 30
= 0.6045 or T = 223.4o C
350 - 30
h 2α t 6002 ´ 8.418 ´ 10-5 ´ 120
(Fo ) ´ (Bi ) 2 = 2
= = 0.087
k 2042
hro 1
Bi = = = 0.294
k 3.4
From Heisler chart Fig.4 - 12
Q
= 0.38 at (Fo ) ´ (Bi ) 2 = 0.087 Bi = 0.294
Q0
For unit length of cylinder
Qo ρ c p V
= = ρ c p π ro2 (Ti - T¥ )
l l
= 2707 ´ 0.896 ´ 103 ´ π (0.1)2 ´ (350 - 30) = 24.384MJ
Hence, heat transferred per unit
length of the cylinder = 24.384 ´ 0.38 = 9.266MJ/m
Example 4-7. A steel sphere of radius 10 cm which is initially at a uniform temperature of 630°C is suddenly
immersed in an oil bath at 30°C with convection heat transfer coefficient 500 W/m2 K. How long will it take
for the centre of the sphere to reach a temperature of 90°C ?
Solution: Given data: We know that for steel, k = 54 W/m K and a = 1.474 x 10-5 m2/s. This problem can
be solved by using the Heisler charts presented in Figs. 4-9 and 4-10.
It is given that T0 = 90°C; T ¥ =30°C; Ti = 630°C.
Therefore
To - T¥ 90 - 30
= = 0.1
Ti - T¥ 630 - 30
74
hro 500 ´ 0.1 1 k

Bi = = = 0.9259 or = = 1.08
k 54 Bi hro
From Heisler charts Fig.4 - 15
αt T - T¥ 1 k
Fo = 2 = 1.125 at o = 0.1 and = = 1.08
ro T i - T¥ Bi hro
αt 1.474 ´ 10-5 ´ t
= 1.125 =
ro2 (0.1)2
Hence
t = 7632 s
Fig.4-13 Mid plane temperature for an infinite flat plate of thickness 2L for 0<Fo<4
Example. 4-8. A steel sphere of radius 6 cm which is initially at a uniform temperature of 325°
C is suddenly exposed to an environment at 25°C, with convection heat transfer coefficient 500 W/m2 K.
Calculate the temperature at a radius 3.6 cm and the heat transferred 100 seconds after the sphere is
exposed to the environment.
Solution: Given data :This problem can be conveniently solved by using the Heisler charts presented in
Figs.. 4-11 and 4-.12. First let us determine the centre temperature. We know that for steel, r = 7833
5
kg/m3; cp = 0.465 kJ/kg K k = 54 W/m K and a = 1.474 x 10- m2/s
It is given that ro=6cm r=3.6cm Ti=325oC
T¥ = 25oC h=500W/m2K and t=100 s
Then Bi= hro/k= 500x0.06/54=0.5555 and 1/Bi ===500

75
Fig.4-14 Dimension less temperature ratio at the axis of the

infinitely long cylinder of radius ro in the range 0<Fo<4
Fig.4-15 Dimension less temperature ratio at the centre of a sphere

of radius ro in the range 0<Fo<3
76
αt 1.474 ´ 10 -5 ´ 100 r 3.6

Fo = = = 0.400 and = = 0.6
ro2 (0.06) 2
ro 6
From Fig.4 - 15
To - T¥ 1 k
at = 0.7 at Fo = 0.409 and = = 1.8
Ti - T¥ Bi hro
Therefore
T - T¥ æ To - T¥ ö æ T - T¥ ö
=ç ÷÷ ç ÷ = 0.7x0.9 = 0.63
Ti - T¥ çè Ti - T¥ ç
ø è To - T¥
÷
ø
T - 25
or = 0.63 T = 214 o C
325 - 25
Hence the temperature (at r = 3.6cm and t = 100 s) = 214 o C
(Fo )(Bi ) 2 = 0.409(0.5555) 2 = 0.126
Q
we read from Fig.4 - 12 = 0.45 at (Fo ) ´ (Bi ) 2 = 0.126 and Bi = 0.5555
Qo
From Fig.4 - 12
4 2
Q = ρ c p V(Ti - T¥ ) = ρ c p π ro (Ti - T¥ )
3
4
= 7833 ´ 0.465 ´ 10 3 ´ π ´ (0.06) 2 ´ (325 - 25)
3
= 0.9877 kJ, Therefore,
Q = 0.45Q o = 0.45 ´ 0.9877 ´ 10 6 = 0.445MJ
Example 4-9 An iron sphere[ k = 60 W/(m °C), cp = 460 J/(kg °C), r = 7850 kg/m3, and a = 1.6 x 10-5m2/s] of
diameter D = 5 cm is initially at a uniform temperature Ti = 225°C. Suddenly the surface of the sphere is
exposed to an ambient at T¥ = 25°C with a heat transfer coefficient h = 500 W/(m2 °C).
Calculate the center temperature t = 2 min after the start of the cooling.
Calculate the temperature at a depth 1.0 cm from the surface t = 2 min after the start of the cooling.
Calculate the energy removed from the sphere during this time period. (Dec07/Jan 08 V.T.U)
Solution: Given data: This problem is identical to that considered in Example 4-4, except here the geometry
is a sphere. The transient-temperature charts can be used to solve this problem. We have
r = 2.5 ´ 10 -2
αt 1.6 ´ 10 -5 ´ 2 ´ 60
τ = Fo = = = 3.1
r2 2.5 2 ´ 10 - 4
1 k 60
= = = 4.8, Bi = 0.21
Bi hr 500 ´ 2.5 ´ 10 - 2
Then from Fig4 - 11b for τ = 3.1 and , the centre temperature T0 is
T0 - T¥
θ(0, τ) = = 0.18
Ti - T¥
\ T0 = T¥ + (Ti - T¥ ) (0.18)
\ T0 = 25 + (225 - 25)(0.18)
\ T0 = 61o C
77
Temperatur e 1.0 cm from the surface is determined as

r 2.5 - 1
= = 0.6
ro 2.5
1 r
For = 4.8, and = 0.6 from fig, we have
Bi ro
T - T¥
= 0.95
T0 - T¥
T = T¥ + (T0 - T¥ )(0.95)
T = 25 + (61 - 25)(0.95)
T = 59.2 o C
The heat lost from the sphere during tansient up to t = 2min is
determined as follows : From Fig 4 - 12, for Bi = 0.21 and Bi 2 t = 0.212 ´ 3.1 = 0.137
we find
Q
= 0.8
Qo
4 3
Where Q o = (mc p Δ T) = ρ c p π r (Ti - T¥ )
3
4
= 7850 ´ 460 ´ π ´ 2.53 ´ 10 -6 ´ (225 - 25) = 47268J
3
Then the heat lost from the slab per square meter in 2min becomes
Q = 0.84Q 0
Q = 37814J
Example.4-10. Explain how transient temperature chart may be used to estimate the time for the following
case;
A potato is taken out from cold storage unit where its temperature was -2°C. Ambient temp. = 25°C.
Estimation of time required for the centre of the potato to reach 15°C is to be considered. Given that:
Potato is a sphere of 5 cm, dia. k=0.5W/mK, h = 10 W/m2K, cp=2kJ/kg K, r = 1200 kg/m3.
(April/May 1995 K.U)
Solution: Given Data: r = 2.5cm = 0.025m
To = -2 o C θ = T - T f
T f = 25 o C θ = To - T f = -2 - 25 = -27 o C
k = 0.5W/mK r = 1200kg/m 3
h = 10W / m 2 K c p = 2 x10 3 J / kgK
( i ) Internal Temperatur e gradinent are neglected
hAt
-
T(t ) - T¥ q r c pV
= e - mt =e
T0 - T¥ qo
As = 4pr 2 = 4px0.025 2 = 7.85 x10 -3 m 2
4 4
V = pr 3 = px0.025 3 = 6.545 x10 -5 m 3
3 3
78
10 x7.85 x10 - 3 xt
-
- 10
=e 1200 x 2 x10 3 x6.545 x10 - 5
- 27
-4
= e -4.997 x10 t
t = 1987.7s = 33.13 min
( ii ) Internal temperature gradients not negleted
qr
R
= 0.37
qo
hr 10 x0.025
\ Bi = = 0 .5
k 0 .5
1
=2
Bi
at 1.0 xr 2 1.0 x( 0.025 ) 2
From graph Fo = 1.0 = Þ\ t = =
r2 a æ 0 .5 ö
ç -3
÷
è 1200 x 2 x10 ø
t = 3000 s = 50 min
Example 4-11..An aluminium plate 50 cmx50 cm of 4 mm thickness at 250°C is suddenly quenched in liquid
oxygen which is at -183°C Find the time required for the plate to reach temperature of -80°C. Take h =
5200 w/m2°C. Cp=0.89kJ/kg°C,g=0.75x10-4m2/s. (July/Aug 1998 K.U)
Solution: Given data:
A = 2 x0.5 x0.5 = 0.5 m 2 ( 2 sides )

V = 0.5 x0.5 x0.004 = 1 x10 - 3 m 3
V 1 x10 - 3
Lc = = = 2 x10 - 3 m h = 5200W / m 2 K , K = 205Wm °C
A 0 .5
C p = 0.869 kJ / kg °C r = 2707 kg / m 3
hLc 5200 x 2 x10 - 3
Bi = =
K 205
= 0.05073 < 0.1
T - T¥ é æ hA ö ù
= exp ê - çç ÷÷t ú T = 80°C , T¥ = 183°C , To = 250°C ,
Ts - T¥ êë è rCV ø úû
æ hA ö æ 5200 x 0.5 ö
çç ÷÷ = ç ÷ = 1.072
ç 3 -3 ÷
è rCV ø è 2707 x 0.896 x 10 x 1 x10 ø
T - T¥ é æ hA ö ù
= exp ê - çç ÷÷t ú
Ts - T¥ êë è rCV ø úû
- 80° + 183 103
= e -1.072 t , = e -1.072 t
250 + 183 433
e -1.072 t = 0.2379 , - 1.072t = ln 0.2379 = -1.4359

t = 1.339 S
79
Example.4-12. A metallic sphere of radius 10mm is initially at a uniform temperature of 335°C. It is
quenched in water bath at 20°C with h = 6000 W/m2 °c. Determine the time taken for the center
temperature to reach 50°c. Also determine surface temperature when the centre temperature is 50°c.
Take :r = 3000 kg/m3, Cp = I1000J/kg °C, k = 20W/m°C,a = 6.66 x 10-6 m2/s. (July/Aug 2005 V.T.U)
ro = 10 x10 -3 m = 0.010m
T(r,0) = 335 o C = To , T¥ = 15 o C
ho = 6000W / m 2 o C
To
check, lumped system analysis can be used or not
hr 600 x10 x10 -3 V r
Bi = o = 1.0 > 0.1 where L = = o
3k 3 x 20 A 3
as Bi > 0.1, Lumped capacity method can not be used and hence
Heisler charts to be used .
1 k
= = 0.333 or corresponding chart Fig .4 - 11 a and b
Bi hro
hr
Bi = o = 3.03
k
Temperatur e gradient at the center of the sphere at any time is
T(0,t) - T¥ 50 - 20
= = 0.095
T( t ,0 ) - T¥ 335 - 20
From Heisler chart
at
Fo = 2 = 0.56
ro
Fo ro2 0.56 x0.012
t= = =
a 6.66 x10 -6
t = 8.4 s
( ii ) The surface temperature at the end of quenching in water
may be obtained from Fig 4 - 11
1 k r
= = 0.333 and =1
Bi hro ro
hr
Bi = o = 3.03
k
T(ro ) - T¥
= 0.34
T( 0 ,t ) - T¥
T( ro ) = T¥ + 0.33( T( 0 ,t ) - T¥ ) = 20 + 0.34( 50 - 20 )
T( ro ) = 30.2 o C
Example.4-13. A 40 x 40 cm copper slab 5mm thick at a uniform temperature of 250°C suddenly has its
surface temperature lowered to 30°C. Find the time at which the slab temperature becomes 90°C. Take
the following properties for copper.r = 9000 kg/m3,cp = 0.38 kJ/kgK, k = 370 W/mK and h = 90 W/m2K
.(Jan/Feb 2006V.T.U)
Solution: Given data

80
3 c ) Given :Ti = 250°C , T¥ = 30°C , T final = 90°C ,
hL h x L 90 x 2.5 x 10 -3
Biot number : Bi = = =
k k 370
Bi = 6.08 x 10 -4 < 0.1
\ Lumped system of analysis is appropriat e
the temperature distribution for the above case is
given by
q é hAs ù é h ù
= exp ê- t ú = exp ê- tú
qi ëê r Vc p ûú ëê r c p .Lc ûú
90 - 30 é 90 ù
Þ = exp ê- t
-3 ú
250 - 30 ëê 9000 x 380 x 2.5 x 10 ûú
\Time required to reach 90°C is, t = 123.43 s or 2.06 min
Example.4-14. A long solid cylinder [a=0.05m2/h, k=50W/mK] 5cm diameter is initially at 200°C.
Suddenly it is immersed in water at 20°C. The surface heat transfer coefficient is 200W/m2K.
Determine i) Centre temperature after 10 minutes have elapsed and ii) the surface temperature after 10
minutes have elapsed.
Using Heislers chart
For long cylinder
0.05
a = 0.05m 2 /h = = 1.39 x10 -5 m 2 / s
3600
k = 50W / mK , r = 2.5cm = 0.025 m
Ti = 200°C T¥ = 20°C h = 200W / m 2 k t = 10 min = 600 s
hr 200 x0.025 1
( i ) Bi = = = 0.1 or = 10
k 50 Bi
at 1.39 x10 -5 x(600 )
Fo = = = 13.34
r2 (0.025 )2
from chart ,
q ( 0 ,t )
= 0.08
qo
\T( 0 ,t ) - T¥ = 0.08( Ti - T¥ )
T( 0 ,t ) = 20 + 0.08( 200 - 20 ) = 34.4°C
r
(ii)at the surface = 1.0
ro
q ( r ,t )
Then chart = 0.94
q ( 0 ,t )
\q ( r ,t ) = 0.94 ( T( 0 ,t ) - T¥ )
T( r ,t ) = T¥ + 0.94( T( 0 ,t ) - T¥ )
= 20 + 0.94( 34.4 - 20 ) = 33.54°C
Solution used for centre temperature by one term approximat ion
of the series solution
q (0,t) 2
= A1 e -l1 Fo
qo
81
From table for Bi = 0.1, for inf inite cylinder
A1 = 1.0161, l1 = 0.4417
q (0, t) 2
= 1.0161xe -( 0.4417 ) x13.34
qo
= 0.0753
\T( 0 ,t ) = T¥ + 0.0753 [ Ti - T¥ ]
= 20 + 0.0753 [ 200 - 20 ]
= 33.5°C
Example.4-15.A solid iron rod of diameter 60 mm initially at temperature 800°C, is suddenly dropped into
an oil bath at 50°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the fluid and the surface is 400 W/m2K. The
properties of iron rod are as follows : a=2 x 10-5m2/s and k = 60 W/m°C. i) Calculate the center line
temperature 10 min after immersion in fluid ii) How long will it take the center line temperature to reach
100°C.? iii) Determine the energy removed from the rod during 10 min time. (May/June 2006 V.T.U)
Solution: Given data This problem also solved by lumped system analysis
r = 0.03m , Ti = 800°C , T¥ = 50°C , h = 400W / m 2 °C

a = 2210 -5 m 2 / s , k = 60W / mK , t = 10 m = 10 x60 = 600 s
at 2 x 10 -5 x 600
t= = = 13.33
r2 ( 0.03 )2
hb 400 x0.03
Bi = = = 0.2
k 60
1
=5
Bi
T -T
q ( 0 ,t ) = o ¥ = 0.008
Ti - T¥
\ To = 0.008( Ti - T¥ ) + T¥
To = 0.008( 800 - 50 ) + 50 = 56°C
To = 100°C
100 - 50 50 1
q ( 0 ,t ) = = = 0.0666 , = 15
800 - 50 750 Bi
at
From the chart t =7 = 2
r
7 r 2 7 x( 0.03 )2
\t = = = 315
a 2 x10 -3
t = 5.25 min
r
From the chart = 0.9
ro
Q
For unit area o = r c pV ( To - Tw ) / A
A
Qo
= 2.71 x10 9 J / m 2
A
Q Q
= 0.9 o = 2.43 x 10 9 J / m 2
A A
82
2
Example.4-16. An iron sphere [k=60w/m°C, cp=460 J/kg°C, r=7850 kg/m3, a=1.6x10 5 m /s] of dia, D=5
cm is initially at uniform temperature Ti=225°C, suddenly the surface of the sphere is exposed to an
ambient at Tb=25°C with a heat transfer coefficient, h=500 W/m2 °C. Calculate the center temperature at
t=2min after the start of the cooling. Calculate the temperature at a depth of 1.0 cm from the surface at
t=2min after the start of cooling. Also calculate the energy removed from the sphere during this period of
time.
Solution: Given data: k = 60W/m°C, c p = 460J/kg °C, ρ = 7850kg/m 3 , (July 2006 V.T.U)
x = 1.6x10 -5 m 2 /s, D = 0.05m, R = 0.025m,

Ti = 225°C,Tb = T¥ = 25°C, h = 500W/m 2 K
t = 2min = 120 s
hL V R 0.025
i) Biot no, Bi = c where Lc = = = 8.33x10 -3 m
k A 3 3
500X8.33X10 -3
\ Bi = = 0.0694 < 0.1
60
\ Lumped system of analysis can be adopted,
αt 1.6x10 -5 x120
Fourier no, Fe = = = 27.67
L2c ( 8.33x10 -3 ) 2
\ centre temp
T - T¥
= exp [ - Bi x Fo ] = exp [ -0.0694 x 27.67] = 0.147
To - T¥
\ T r - T¥ = 0.147 x ( 225 - 25 ) = 29.3°C
ro =0
\ T r = 29.3 + 25 = 54.3°C, which is same as at r = 0.01cm from surface
ro =0
ii) Energy removed from the sphere for t = 2min
4
Qt = ρcpV(T - Ti ) = 7850 x 460 x π x 0.025 x 0.025 3 (54.3 - 225)
3
. Qt = 40.34KJ (Rejected )
Example 4-17 A ball of 60 mm diameter at 600°C is suddenly immersed in controlled medium at 100°C.
Calculate the time required for the ball to obtain a temperature of 150°C. Assume k = 40 W/mK, r = 800
kg/m3, cp = 500 J/kg K, h = 20 W/m2K for the ball. (May 2007 V.T.U)

R 30 x 10 -3
Lc = = = 0.01m
3 3
hL 20 x 0.01
Biot no, Bi = c = = 5 x 10 -3 < 0.1
K 40
\Lumped system of analysis is applicable
Temp. distribution.
Tt - T¥ - B x Fo
=e i
T0 - T¥
83
ì 150 - 100 ü -3 x F
ln í ý = - 5 x 10 0 Þ F0 = 460.5
î 600 - 100 þ
αt F x L2c 460.5 x (0.01) 2
F0 = Þ t= 0 =
L2c a 1 x 10 -4
h
Þ Time, t = 460.50 or 7.675 min or
0.128
Example. 4-18.An iron sphere [K = 60 W/m°C,cp = 460 J/kg°C r = 7850 kg/m3, a= 1.6 x10-5 m2/s] of
diameter, D = 5 cm is initially at uniform temperature Ti = 225°C, suddenly; the surface of the sphere is
exposed to an ambient at Tt, = 25°C with a heat transfer coefficient, h = 500 W/m2 °C. Calculate the
center temperature at t = 2 min after the start of the cooling. Calculate the temperature at a depth of 1.0 cm
from the surface at t = 2 min after the start of cooling. Also calculate the energy removed from the sphere
during this period of time.(July 2007 V.T.U)
Solution: Given data Given r = 2.5cm = 0.025 m ,t = 2 min = 120 s

R 0.025
Characteristic length , Lc = = = 8.33 x 10 -3 m
3 3
hL 500 x 8.33 x 10 -3
\Biot Number , Bi = c = = 0.069 < 0.1
k 60
\Lumped system of analysis can be adopted
Temp distribution is given by
at
Fo = 2 = 27.67
Lc
T( o ) - Tb T( o ) - 25
= Exp { - Bi x Fo } Þ = exp( -0.069 x 27.67 )
Ti - Tb 225 - 25
Centre temperature, T( o ) = 54.64°C = Temp .at x = 1.0 cm
4
Energy removed, Q = pr 3 rc ( Ti - Tb )= 47.27 kJ
3
Example 4-20. A slab of alluminium 10 cm thick is originally at a temperature of 500°C. It is suddenly

immersed in a liquid at 100°C resulting in a heat transfer co-efficient of 1200 W/m2-K° Determine the
temperature at the center line and the surface 1 minute after the immersion. Also calculate the total
thermal energy removed per unit area of the slab during this period. The properties of alluminium for the
given conditions are a = 8.4xl0-5m2/s, r= 2700kg/m3 ,k = 215W/m-K,cp = 0.9kJ/kg-K.
Solution: Data given: (Dec.06/Jan 07V.T.U)

t = 1 min = 60 s , 2 L = 0.1m \ L = 0.05 m
Note : a = 8.4 x10 -5 m 2 / s
k 215
but a = = 8.85 x10 -5 m 2 / s
r c p 2700 x900
By the definition of Biot No,
hLc 2l
Bi = here Lc = = L = 0.05 m
k 2
1200x0.05
Bi = = 0.28 > 0.01
215
84
\Lumped system of analysis is not applicable
\ Charts to be used
(i) centre temperature (To ,t )
As per the chart,
hL c
Bi = = 0.28
k
a t 8.4 x10 -5 x60
& Fo = 2 = = 2.02
L (0.05 )2
From chart,
(To - T¥ ) » 0.62
(Ti - T¥ )
\To = 348°c
(ii) Surface temperature, Tx L = 1
x
From chart for , Bi = 0.28 & = 1
L
Tx L - T¥
= 0.87 Þ Tx L = 315.76°c
To - T¥
(iii.) Total energy removed for t = 60s
as per chart, (h 2 α t)/k 2 = 0 .157
Bi = 0.28
q
» 0.45
qo
qo = r c L ( Ti - T¥ )
q = 0.45 r c L ( Ti - T¥ ) = 0.45 x 2700 x900 x 0.05 x (500 - 100 )
q = 21.87 MJ / m 2
4-5 USE OF TRANSIENT TEMPERATURE CHARTS
Transient Conduction in Semi-infinite Solids.
4-5-1 INTRODUCTION:
Consider one-dimensional, transient heat conduction in a semi-infinite solid in rectangular

coordinates with no energy generation in the medium with simple geometry for which the temperature
distribution in the solid as a function of time ‘t’ and position ‘x’ can be presented in graphical form.
Consider a semi-infinite solid shown in Figure 4-16, confined to the domain 0 < x <¥ , which is
initially at a uniform temperature Ti, and there is no internal energy generation. Then the temperature
transient within the solid can be initiated by a change in the thermal condition at the boundary surface x = 0,
since the solid extends to infinity.
Figure 4-16 illustrates three different possibilities at the boundary surface x = 0 to initiate the transients
within the solid. The physical significance of these three situations is as follows:
4-5-2 Transient Conduction in Semi-infinite Solids Exposed to Temperature
1. In Fig. 4-16a, at t = 0 the surface temperature is suddenly changed to T¥ and is maintained at that
temperature for t > 0. The applied temperature T¥ may be higher or lower than the initial temperature Tt of
the medium.
85
For
Initially Solid at Ti
t>o
Surface at To
In Fig. 4-16a, at t = 0 the surface temperature is suddenly changed to T¥
¶T ¶ 2T
=a 2 (4-14)
¶t ¶x
The initial boundary conditions are given by
T(x,0 ) = Ti
T( 0 ,t ) = T¥ for t > 0
The solution for the above Eq.(4 - 14) is given by
T - T¥ æ x ö
= erf ç ÷
Ti - T¥ ç2 at ÷ (4-15)
è ø
Where the Gauss error function is defined as
x
æ x ö 2 2 a t -b 2
ç ÷
erf
ç2 at ÷
è ø
= ò
p 0
e db (4-16)
where b is dummy variable. The values of the error function are in Table 4 - 1.
The rate of heat transfer at the surface can be obtained from
æ dT ö
( Q )x =0 = -kA ç ÷ (4-17)
è dx ø
Differentiating the above Eq.(4 - 17), we get
¶T 2 - x 2 4at ¶ æç x ö÷ Ti - T¥ - x 2 4at
= ( Ti - T¥ ) e = e (4-18)
¶x p ¶x çè 2 a t ÷ø at
Therefore
kA( T¥ - Ti )
Q x =0 = (4-19)
pat
The total change in the energy of the solid during the time t = 0 to t = t is given by
t t
kA( T¥ - Ti ) t (4-20)
ò
Q 0 = Qdt = ò t1 2 dt = 2 kA( T¥ - Ti )
pat pa
0 0
Example.4-21. One surface of a large block of nickel steel which is initially at 30OC is suddenly raised to a
temperature of 530OC. Calculate the temperature at a depth of 5cm after a time of 50s.
Solution: Given data: For nickel-steel, k=19W/mK and a=0.52x10-5 m2/s. The temperature distribution in
86
the solid is given by T - T¥ æ x ö
= erf ç ÷
Ti - T¥ ç2 at ÷
è ø
x 0.05
= = 1.54
2 a t 2 0.526 x10 -5 x50
Table 4 - 1, we read erf (1.54) = 0.9706. Therefore
T -T¥
= 0.9706
Ti - T¥
or
T - 530
= 0.9706
30 - 530
or T = 44 .7 o C
Example 4-22. A large slab of wrought-iron is at a uniform temperature of 375OC. The temperature of one
surface of this slab is suddenly changed to 75. Calculate the time required for the temperature to reach
275 at a depth of 5cm and the quantity of energy transferred per unit area of the surface during this period.
Solution: Given data: For wrought-iron, k=59 W/mK and a=1.626x10-5 m2/s
T - T¥ æ x ö
= erfç ÷
Ti - T¥ ç2 at ÷
è ø
x 0.05 6.2
= =
2 a t 2 1.626 x10 x t - 5 t
we know that the temperature distribution in the solid is given by

T - T¥ æ x ö
= erf ç ÷
Ti - T¥ ç2 at ÷
è ø
275 - 75 æ x ö
or = 0.6667 = erf ç ÷
375 - 75 ç2 at ÷
è ø
we read the value of z = x 2 a t = 0.685 corresponding to erf(z) = 0.6667
(obtained from interpolation)
Therefore 6.2/ t = 0.685
or t = 82 s
Hence time required = 82 s.
The quantity of energy transferred per unit area of the surface is given by
Q t
= 2 k ( T¥ - Ti )
A pa
82
= 2 x59( 75 - 375 )
p x 1.626 x 10 -5
Q
= -44.85 MJ / m 2
A
87
4-5-3 Transient Heat Flow in a Semi-infinite Solid Exposed to a Constant Heat Flux
Let us consider the semi-infinite solid shown in Fig 6-16b. Initially the solid is at a uniform
temperature Ti. At time t=0, one surface of the solid is suddenly exposed to a constant heat flux qo. In Fig.
4-16.b, at t = 0 a constant heat flux q0 W/m2 is imposed on the boundary surface at x = 0 and maintained
for t > 0.
For
t>o Initially Solid at Ti
heat supply at
the rate
qo W/m2
Fig. 4-16.b, at t = 0 a constant heat flux q0
Then the differential equation governing the temperature distribution is given by

¶T ¶ 2T
=a 2 (4-21)
¶t ¶x
The initial boundary conditions are given by
T(x,0 ) = Ti
Q0 é dT ù
= -k ê ú for t > 0
A ë dx û x =0 (4-22)
The solution of Eq. (4 - 21) subjected to the boundary conditions[Eq.(4 - 22) ]and is given by
Differentiating the above Eq.(4 - 17), we get

2Q0 a t p - x 2 4at Q0 x é æ x ö ù
( T - Ti ) = e - ê 1 - erf ç ÷ ú (4-23)
kA kA ê ç2 at ÷ úû
ë è ø
Example.4-23. A large block of wrought-iron is initially at a uniform temperature of 30oC. One surface of
the block is suddenly exposed a constant surface heat flux of 2 MW/m2. Calculate the temperature at a
depth of 5cm after a time of 50s.
Solution: Given data: We know that for wrought-iron, k=59W/mK and a=1.626x10-5 m2/s. It is given that
Ti=30oC Q/A=2MW/m2,, x=5cm and t=50 s.
x 0.05
= = 0.88
2 at 2 1.626 x10 -5 x 50
we know that the temperature distribution in the solid is given by

x2
= 0.7744
4a t
From the Table. 4 - 1 the erf(0.88) = 0.7867.
88
The temperature distribution in the solid is given by
2Q0 a t p - x 2 4at Q0 x é æ x ö ù
( T - Ti ) = e - ê 1 - erf ç ÷ ú
kA kA ê ç2 at ÷ ú
ë è ø û
2 x 2 x10 6 1.626 x10 -5 x50 p 2 x10 6 x0.05
( T - 30 ) = e -0.7867 - ( 1 - 0.7867 )
59 x1 59 x1
( T - 30 ) = 141.2
\ T = 141.2 + 30 = 171.2 o C
4-5-4 Transient Heat Flow in a Semi-infinite Solid with Convection at the Surface
The semi-infinite medium transient heat conduction problems have numerous practical
applications in engineering. In many practical situation, the temperature of the surface of a semi-infinite
body is not changed suddenly to a different condition, but its surface is suddenly exposed to an environment
at a different temperature. In such case the surface temperature change due to convection heat transfer. To
obtain the temperature distribution in a solid the Eq.(5-21) is to be solved with the boundary condition.
æ dt ö
hA( T¥ - T )x =0 = -kA ç ÷ (4-24)
è dx ø x =0
In Figure 4-16c,At t = 0 the boundary surface at x = 0 is subjected to convection with a fluid at

temperature Tx and with a heat transfer coefficient h. This condition is maintained for all t > 0. Here, the fluid
temperature T¥ may be higher or lower than the initial temperature Tt of the solid.
For
t>o
Convection Initially Solid at Ti
to fluid at T¥ ,h
Fig. 4-16c. At t = 0 the boundary surface at x = 0 is subjected to

convection with a fluid at temperature Tx
Eq.5.24 states that the heat transfer by convection at the surface is equal to the heat transferred by
conduction into the solid from its surface. The solution of this problem is given by
æ hx h 2a t ö
æ x ö é æ öù ç + 2 ÷
T - Ti
= 1 - erf ç ÷ - ê1 - erf ç x + h a t ÷ú e çè k k ÷ø
T¥ - Ti ç2 at ÷ ê ç2 at k ÷ú (4-25)
è ø ë è øû
The solution of this equation is presented in graphical form in Fig ure. 4-17.
89
x
2 at
Fig.4-17. Temperature distribution in a semi-infinite solid with convection at the surface
Example 4-24. A large block of wrought-iron is initially at a uniform temperature of 30°C. One surface of the
block is suddenly exposed to an environment at 530°C, with a convection heat transfer coefficient of 400
W/m2 K. Calculate the temperature at a depth of 5 cm after a time of 60 seconds.
Solution: Given data: We can use either Eq. (4-25) or Fig. 4-17 to obtain the solution of the problem. We
-5
know that for wrought-iron, k = 59 W/m K and a = 1.626 x 10 m2/s. It is given that x= 5 cm; t = 60 s; T, =
30°C; T¥ = 530°C and h = 400 W/m2K.
x 0.05
= = 0.80
2 at 2 1.626 x 10 -5 x60
h at 400 x 1.626 x10 -5 x60
= = 0.212
k 59
The temperature distribution in the block is given by the equation
90
æ hx h 2a t ö
æ x ö é æ öù ç + 2 ÷
T - Ti
= 1 - erf ç ÷ - ê1 - erf ç x + h a t ÷ú e çè k k ÷ø
T¥ - Ti ç2 at ÷ ê ç2 at k ÷ú
è ø ë è øû
æ 400 x0.5 2 ö
ç +( 0.212 ) ÷
T - 30
= 1 - erf ( 0.80 )- [1 - erf ( 0.80 + 0.212 ) ]e è 59 ø
530 - 30
T - 30
= 1 - 0.7421 - ( 1 - 08476 )x14.468 = 0.034
500
T = 47 o C
Where erf(0.80) = 0.7421 and erf(1.012) = 0.8476. we can also obtain
the solution from the Fig.4 - 17. and the values can be read as
T - Ti x h at
= 0.034 at = 0.80 and = 0.212
T¥ - Ti 2 at k
T - 30
or = 0.034 or T = 47 o C
530 - 30
Review Questions:
4-1 Using the lumped system analysis, determine the time required for a solid steel ball of diameter D = 5 cm
[r= 7833 kg/m3, cp = 0.465 kJ/(kg °C), and k = 54 W/(m °C)] to cool from 600 to 200°C if it is exposed to
an air stream at 50°C having a heat transfer coefficient h = 100 W/(m2 °C) Answer: 6min 34 s
3
4-2 A 2-cm-diameter, stainless-steel ball [ r= 7865 kg/m , cp = 0.46 kJ/(kg °C), and k = 61 W/(m °C)] is
uniformly heated to Ti = 800°C. It is to be hardened by suddenly dropping it into an oil bath at T= 50°C. If
the quenching occurs when the ball reaches 100°C and the heat transfer coefficient between the oil and
the sphere is 300 W/(m2 °C), how long should the ball be kept in the oil bath?
If 100 balls are to be quenched per minute, determine the rate of heat removal from the oil bath per
minute needed to maintain its temperature at 40°C. Answer. 1 min 6s; 3580 kJ/min
4-3 A steel bar [ r= 7800 kg/m3, cp = 0.5 kJ/(kg °C), and k = 50 W/(m °C)] of diameter D = 5 cm is to be
annealed by slowly cooling from Ti = 800°C to 120°C in an ambient at T = 50°C. If the heat transfer
coefficient between the ambient air and the surface of the bar is h = 45 W/(m2 °C), determine the time
required for the annealing process by applying the lumped system analysis. Answer: 42 min 49 s
4-4 Consider an aluminum cube [ r= 2700 kg/m3, cp = 0.896 kJ/(kg °C), and k = 204 W/(m °C)] that is 5 cm by
5 cm by 5 cm, and initially at Ti = 20°C. For t > 0, two of the boundary surfaces are kept insulated, two are
subjected to uniform heating at a rate q0 W/m2, and the remaining two surfaces dissipate heat by
convection into an ambient at Tx = 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient h = 50 W/(m2°C). Assuming the
lumped system analysis is applicable, develop an expression for the temperature T(t) of the aluminum
block as a function of time. Calculate the equilibrium temperature of the block for qo = 10,000 W/m2.
Answer: 220°C
4-5 A thermocouple junction may be approximated as a sphere of diameter D = 2 mm, with k = 30 W/(m
°C),r = 8600 kg/m3, and cp = 0.4 kJ/(kg °C). The heat transfer coefficient between the gas stream and the
junction is h = 280 W/(m2 °C). How long will it take for the thermocouple to record 98 percent of the
applied temperature difference? Answer: 8 s
4-6 Thermocouples are to be used to measure the temperature in a gas stream. The junction may be
approximated as a sphere having thermal conductivity k = 25 W/(m °C), r= 8400 kg/m3, and cp = 0.4
kJ/(kg °C). The heat transfer coefficient between the junction and the gas stream is h = 560 W/(m2 °C).
91
Calculate the diameter of the junction if the thermocouple should measure 95 percent of the applied
temperature difference in 3 s.
4-7 A 3-cm-diameter aluminum sphere [k = 204 W/(m °C), r= 2700 kg/m3, and cp = 0.896 kJ/(kg °C)] is
initially at T0 = 175°C. It is suddenly immersed in a well-stirred fluid at T = 25°C. The temperature of the
sphere is lowered to T(t) = 100°C in t = 42 s. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient.
Answer: h = 200.1 W/(m2 °C)
-5 2
4-8 A solid iron rod [a = 2 x 10 m /s and k = 60 W/(m °C] of diameter D = 6 cm. initially at temperature Ti=
800°C, is suddenly dropped into an oil bath at T = 50°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the fluid
and the surface is h = 400 W/(m2 °C).
(a) Using the transient-temperature charts, determine the centerline temperature 10 min after immersion
in the fluid.
(b) How long will it take the centerline temperature to reach 100 °C?
Answer: (a) 54.5°C; (b) 5 min 47 s
4-9 An orange of diameter 10 cm is initially at a uniform temperature of 30°C. It is placed in a refrigerator in
which the air temperature is 2°C. If the transfer coefficient between the air and the surface of the orange
is h=50 W/(m2 °C). Determine the time required for the center of the orange to reach 10°
C. Assume the thermal properties of the orange are the same as those of water at the same temperature
[ a= 1.4 x 10-7 m2/s and k = 0.59 W/(m °C)]. Answer: 1 h 32 min
4-10A long hot dog a= 1.6 x I0-7m2/s and k = 0.5 W/(m °C) of diameter D = 2cm, initially at a uniform
temperature of 7°C, is dropped suddenly into boiling water at Tm = 100°C. The heat transfer coefficient
between the water and the surface is h = 150 W/(m2 °C). The hot dog is considered cooked when its center
temperature reaches 80°C. How long will it take the centerline temperature to reach 80°C?
Answer. 8 min 20 s
4-11A 6-cm-diameter potato, initially at a uniform temperature of 20°C, is suddenly dropped into boiling
water at 100°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the water and the surface is h= 6000 W/(m2°
C). The thermo physical properties of potato can be taken the same as those of water [ a= 1,6 x I0-7m2/s
and k= 0.68 W/(m-K). Determine the time required for the center temperature of the potato to reach
95°C and the energy transferred to the potato during this time. Answer: 33 min; 37.8 kJ
4-12 A solid aluminum sphere [a = 8.4 x I0-5m2/s and k = 204 W/(m °C] of diameter D = 10cm is initially at Ti
= 250°C. Suddenly it is immersed in a well-stirred bath at T = 80°C. The heat transfer coefficient
between the fluid and the surface is h = 1000 W/(m2 °C. ), How long will it take for the center of the
sphere to cool to 100°C ? Answer: 80.4 s
4-13Consider a slab of thickness 10 cm, a cylinder of diameter 10 cm, and a sphere of diameter 10 cm. each
made of steel [a = 1.6 x 10-5m2/s and k = 61 W/(m °C)] and initially at uniform temperature Ti, =300°C.
Suddenly, they are all immersed into a well-stirred bath at T = 50°C. The heat transfer coefficient
between the surface and the fluid is h = 1000 W/(m2 °C). Calculate the time required for the centers of
slab, cylinder, and sphere to cool to 80°C. Answer : 547, 266, and 188s
4-14 A thick stainless-steel slab [a = 1.6 x 10-5 m2/s and k = 61 W/(m °C] is initially at a uniform temperature
T- = I50oC. Its surface is suddenly lowered to 20°C. By treating this as a one-dimensional transient heat
conduction problem in a semi-infinite medium, determine the temperature at a depth 2 cm from the
surface and the heat flux at the surface 1 min after the surface temperature is lowered.
Answer. 65.5°C; - 144.4 kW/m2
-5 2
4-15 A thick bronze [ a= 0.86 x 10 m /s and k = 26 W/(m °C)] is initially at a uniform temperature 250°C.
Suddenly the surface is exposed to a coolant 25°C. Assuming that the heat transfer coefficient for
convection between the fluid and the surface is 150 W/(m2 °C), determine the temperature 5 cm from the
surface 10 min after the exposure. Answer: 205°C
92
5
5.0 CONCEPT AND BASIC RELATION IN BOUNDARY LAYERS:
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
So for we have considered and discussed heat transfer by conduction in solids in which no motion
of the medium was involved. In conduction problems, the convection entered the analysis merely as a
boundary condition in the form of a heat transfer coefficient.
Our objective in this and the following chapters on convection is to establish the physical and
mathematical basis for the understanding of convective transport and to reveal various heat transfer
correlations.
In engineering applications, the pressure drop or the drag force associated with flow inside ducts
or over bodies is also of interest. Therefore, appropriate correlations are presented to predict pressure drop
or drag force in flow.
The analysis of convection is complicated, because the fluid motion affects the pressure drop,
the drag force, and the heat transfer. To determine the drag force or the pressure drop, the velocity field
in the immediate vicinity of the surface must be known. To determine the heat transfer by convection, the
velocity distribution in the flow also is needed, because the velocity enters the energy equation. The
solution of the energy equation yields the temperature distribution in the flow field.
5.2 FLOW OVER A BODY

When a fluid flows over a body, the velocity and temperature distribution at the immediate vicinity
of the surface strongly influence the heat transfer by convection. The boundary-layer concept frequently is
introduced to model the velocity and temperature fields near the solid surface in order to simplify the analysis
of convective heat transfer. So we are concerned with two different kinds of boundary layers, the velocity
boundary layer and the thermal boundary layer.
5.2.1 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER

To illustrate the concept of the velocity boundary layer, we consider the flow of a fluid over a flat
plate, as illustrated in Fig. 5.1. The fluid at the leading edge of the plate (i.e., at x = 0) has a velocity u¥ which
is parallel to the plate surface. As the fluid moves in the x direction along the plate, those fluid particles that
make contact with the plate surface assume zero velocity (i.e., no slip at the wall). Therefore, starting from
the plate surface there will be a retardation in the x direction component of the velocity u(x, y) º u. That is, at
the plate surface y = 0, the axial velocity component is zero, or u= 0.
Laminar boundary Transition Turbulent boundary

layer region layer u¥
u¥
Boundary layer u(x, y)

u¥
thickness d(x) u(x, y)
Buffer layer
y=0 Viscus layer
u= 0 Boundary layer
xC thickness d(x)
Fig.5.1 Boundary-layer concept for flow along a flat plate
93
The retardation effect is reduced when the fluid is moving at a location away from the plate surfaces at
distances sufficiently far from the plate the retardation effect is considered zero, that is, u = u¥ . for large y.
Therefore, at each location x along the plate, one considers a distance y = d(x) from the surface of
the plate where the axial velocity component u equals 99 percent of the free-stream velocity ux, that is, u =
0.99u¥ . The locus of such points where u = 0.99u¥ , is called the velocity boundary layer d(x).
With the boundary-layer concept thus introduced for flow over a flat plate, the flow field can be
separated into two distinct regions.
(1) In the boundary-layer region, the axial velocity component u(x, y) varies rapidly with the
distance y from the plate, hence the velocity gradients and the shear stress are considered large.
(2) In the region outside the boundary layer, called the potential-flow region, the velocity
gradients and shear stresses are negligible.
Referring to the illustration in Fig. 5.1, we now examine the behavior of flow in the boundary layer
with the distance x from the leading edge of the plate. The characteristic of the flow is governed by the
magnitude of the quantity called the Reynolds number. For flow over a flat plate as illustrated in Fig.5-1, it is
defined as
u x
Re x = ¥ (5-1)
n
where u¥ = free-stream velocity
x = distance from leading edge
g = kinematic viscosity of fluid
The boundary layer starts at the leading edge (that is, x = 0) of the plate as a laminar boundary
layer, in which the flow remains orderly and fluid particles move along streamlines. This orderly motion
continues along the plate until a critical distance is reached or the Reynolds number attains a critical value.
After this critical Reynolds number is attained, the small disturbances in the flow begin to be amplified and
fluid fluctuations begin to develop, which characterize the end of the laminar boundary layer and the
beginning of transition from the laminar to turbulent boundary layer.
5.2.2 CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER
For flow along a flat plate, the critical Reynolds number at which the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow takes place is generally taken for most analytical purposes, as
u¥ x
Re x = @ 5 x10 5 (5-2)
n
However, this critical value is strongly dependent on the surface roughness and the turbulence
level of the free stream.
For example, with very large disturbances in the free stream, the transition may begin at a
5
Reynolds number as low as 10 , and for flows which are free from disturbances it may not start until a
6
Reynolds number of 10 or more. But for flow along a flat plate, the boundary layer is always turbulent for
6
Rex ³ 4 x 10 .
In the turbulent boundary layer next to the wall, there is a very thin layer, called the viscous sub
layer, where the flow retains its viscous-flow character. Adjacent to the viscous sub layer is a region
called the buffer layer in which there is fine-grained turbulence, and the mean axial velocity rapidly
increases with the distance from the wall. The buffer layer is followed by the turbulent layer in which
94
there is larger-scale turbulence, and the velocity changes relatively little with the distance from the
wall.
Figure 5.2 shows the boundary-layer concept for flow over a curved body. In this case, the x
coordinate is measured along the curved surface of the body; by starting from the stagnation point and
at each x location, the y coordinate is measured normal to the surface of the body. The free-stream
velocity u¥ (x) is not constant, but varies with distance along the curved surface. The boundary-layer
concept discussed above also applies to t his particular situation.
Unseparated
flow u Fig.5.2 Boundary-layer concept
u for flow along a curved
body and the flow separation
Separated
u
u flow
Pont of
y inflection
x
The boundary-layer thickness d(x) increases with the distance x along the surface. However, because of
the curvature of the surface, after some distance x, the velocity profile u(x, y) exhibits a point of inflection;
that is, du/dy becomes zero at the wall surface. Beyond the point of inflection, the flow reversal takes
place, and the boundary layer is said to be detached from the wall surface. Beyond the point of flow
reversal, the flow patterns are very complicated and the boundary-layer analysis is no longer applicable.
5.3 DRAG COEFFICIENT AND DRAG FORCE
Suppose the velocity profile u(x, y) in the boundary layer is known. The viscous shear stress tx
acting on the wall at any location x is determined from its definition by
¶u (x, y )
tx = m y =0 (5-3)
¶y
Here, the constant of proportionality n is the viscosity of the fluid. Thus, knowing the velocity
distribution in the boundary layer, one can determine the shear force acting on the wall owing to the flow.
The definition of shear stress as given by Eq. (5-3), however, is not practical in engineering applications.
In practice, the shear stress or the local drag force t, per unit area is related to the local drag coefficient cx
by the relation.
r u ¥2
t x = cx (5-4)
2
Where r is the density of the fluid and u¥ is the free-stream velocity. Thus, knowing the drag
coefficient, we can calculate the drag force exerted by the fluid flowing over the flat plate. Equating Eqs.
(5-3) and (5-4), we obtain
2n ¶u (x, y )
cx = y =0 (5-5)
u ¥2 ¶y
95
Thus, the local drag coefficient can be determined from Eq.(5-5) if velocity profile u(x,y) in the boundary
layer is known.
The mean value of the drag coefficient cm over x = 0 to x = L is defined as
L
1 (5-6)
cm =
L ò c dx
x =0
x
Knowing the mean drag coefficient cm , we can find the drag force F acting on the plate from x = 0 to x =L
and for width w from
r u ¥2
F = wLc m N (5-7)
2
Local drag coefficient in terms of Renolds number
0.646 (5-8)
cx =
Re1x 2
Mean drag coefficient

0.646 (5-8)
c m = 2.
Re 1x 2
5.4 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
Analogous to the concept of velocity boundary layer, one can envision the development of a
thermal boundary layer along the flat plate associated with the temperature profile in the fluid. To
illustrate the concept, we consider that a fluid at a uniform temperature T¥ flows along a flat plate
maintained at a constant temperature Tw. Let x and y be the coordinate axes along and perpendicular to the
plate surface, respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 5-3. We define the dimension less temperature q(x, y) as
q¥ .=1
u¥ T¥
T¥
dt(x) T( x , y ) - T w
q ( x, y ) =
T¥ - T w
Tw Thermal boundary thickness qw=0

Figure 5-3 Thermal boundary-layer concept for the flow of a hot fluid over a cold wall.
T( x , y ) - T w
q ( x, y ) = (5-9)
T¥ - T w
where T(x, y) is the local temperature in the fluid. At the wall surface, the fluid temperature is equal to the
wall temperature, hence
q(x, y) ®1 as y®¥
96
At distances sufficiently far from the wall, the fluid temperature remains the same as T¥ , then
q(x, y) ®1 as y®¥
Therefore, at each location x along the plate, one envisions a location y = dt (x) in the fluid where
q(x, y) equals 0.99. The locus of such points where q(x, y) = 0.99 is called the thermal boundary layer
Thermal boundary-layer thickness dt (x).
The relative thicknesses of the thermal boundary layer dt(x) and the velocity boundary layer d(x)
depend on the magnitude of the Prandtl number for the fluid. For fluids having a Prandtl number equal to
unity, such as gases, dt(x)=d(x). The thermal boundary layer is much thicker than the velocity boundary
layer for fluids having Pr < 1, such as liquid metals, and is much thinner than the velocity boundary layer
for fluids having Pr > 1.
5.5 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
The mean heat transfer coefficient hm over the distance x = 0 to x = L along the plate surface is determined
from L
1 (5-10)
hm =
L ò
h x dx
x =0
Knowing the mean heat transfer coefficient hm, we can find the heat transfer rate Q from the
fluid to the wall from x = 0 to x = L and for the width w:
Q = wLh m (T¥ - Tw ) (5-11)
Relation between cx and h(x)
Now we seek a relation between the heat transfer and drag coefficient We consider the exact
expressions for the local drag coefficient and the Nusselt number for laminar flow along a flat plate given,
respectively, by
cx (5-12)
= 0.332 Re1x 2
2
Nu x = 0.332 Pr 1 3 Re 1x 2 (5.13)
We define the local stanton number Stx as

h( x )
St x =
r C pu¥
Nu x
St x =
Pr Re x
Then the expression (5-13)for local nusselt number can be rewritten as
St x = 0.332 Pr - 2 3 Re -1 2 (5-14)
97
From Eqs (5-12) and (5-13). The following relation is obtained between the Stanton number and drag
coefficient
c
St x Pr 2 3 = x (5-15)
2
This expression is referred to as the Reynolds-Colburn analogy that relates the local drag
coefficient cx to the local Stanton number Stx for laminar flow along a flat plate. Thus, by making frictional
drag measurements for laminar flow along a flat plate with no heat transfer involved, the corresponding
heat transfer coefficient can be determined by Eq. (5-15). It is much easier to make drag measurements
than heat transfer measurements.
Equation (5-15) is also applicable for turbulent flow along a flat plate, but it does not apply to
laminar flow inside a tube.
In the case of the average values, Eq. (5-15) is written as

cm (5-16)
St m Pr 2 3 =
2
Where Stm and cm are respectively, the mean stanton number and the mean drag coefficient.
5.6 FLOW INSIDE A DUCT
The basic concepts discussed in the 5.1 to 5.5 on the development of velocity and thermal
boundary layers for flow along a flat plate also apply to flow at the entrance region of ducts. We
illustrate this matter by considering flow inside a circular tube.
5.6.1 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
Consider the flow inside a circular tube, as illustrated in Fig. 5-4. The fluid has a uniform velocity
u0 at the tube inlet. As the fluid enters the tube, a velocity boundary layer starts to develop along the wall
surface. The velocity of fluid particles at the wall surface becomes zero, and that at the vicinity of the wall is
retarded; as a result, the velocity in the central portion of the tube increases to satisfy the requirement of the
continuity of flow.
Hydrodynamic entry region Hydrodynamically developed region
r u(r,z) d R
u0 u(r)
0
d
Fig.5.4 Concept of development of velocity boundary layer at entrance region of a circular tube
The thickness of the velocity boundary layer d(z)continuously grows along the tube surface until
it fills the entire tube. The region from the tube inlet to little beyond the hypothetical location where the
boundary layer reaches the tube center is called the hydrodynamic entry region. In this region the shape of
the velocity profile changes in both the axial and radial direction. The region beyond the hydrodynamic
98
entry length is called the hydrodynamically developed region, because in this region the velocity profile is
invariant with distance along the tube.
If the boundary layer remains laminar until it fills the tube, fully developed laminar flow of
parabolic velocity profile prevails in the hydrodynamically developed region. However, if the boundary
layer changes to turbulent before its thickness reaches the tube center, fully developed turbulent flow is
experienced in the hydrodynamically developed region. When the flow is turbulent, the velocity profile is
flatter than the parabolic velocity profile of laminar flow.
For flow inside a circular tube, the Reynolds number, defined as

u D
Re = m (5-17)
n
is used as a criterion for change from laminar to turbulent flow. In this definition, um, is the mean flow
velocity, D is the tube's inside diameter, and n is the kinematic viscosity of fluid. For flow inside a
circular tube, the turbulent flow is usually observed for
um D (5-18)
Re = > 2300
n
However, this critical value is strongly dependent on the surface roughness, the inlet conditions, and the
fluctuations in the flow. In general, the transition may occur in the range 2000 < Re < 4000
Friction Factor and Pressure Drop
To calculate the pressure drop along a given length of tube can be calculated by using the following
relations.
2
L r um N
DP = f . (5-19)
D 2 m2
If M is the mass rate in cubic meter per second through the pipe, the pumping power required to get the fluid
through the pipe against the pressure drop DP becomes
N .m
Pumping power = M .DP or W (5-20)
s
Friction factor for hydrodynamically developed laminar flow inside a circular tube is determined as
64 (5-21)
f =
Re
5-7 HYDRODYNAMIC AND THERMAL ENTRY LENGTH
It is very important and of practical interest to know the hydrodynamic entrance length Lh and the
thermal entrance length L, for flow inside ducts.
In the determination of the convective heat transfer coefficient the key is the determination of the
temperature gradient in the fluid at the solid-fluid interface. This is done by using the boundary layer concept
to solve for T= f (y). The simplest situation is the flow over a flat plate and flow inside tube. The fluid enters
with a uniform velocity of ‘u¥ ’ as shown in Fig.5-5.
99
The value of u=0.99u¥ is called boundary layer thickness denoted by d. The velocity profile in the
boundary layer depicts the variation of u with y, through the boundary layer. The model characterizes two
distinct regions.
The hydrodynamic entrance length Lh is defined, somewhat arbitrarily, as the length required from the
duct inlet to achieve a maximum velocity of 99 % of the corresponding fully developed magnitude.
The thermal entrance length Lt, is defined, somewhat arbitrarily, as the length required from the
beginning of the heat transfer section to achieve a local Nusselt number Nux equal to 1.05 times the
corresponding fully developed value.
Heat transfer section
u¥
0 z
T0 d dt
Lh
Lt
(a)
Isothermal section
Heat transfer section
u¥
0 z
T0 d dt
Lh Lt
(b)
Fig.5-6 Hydrodynamic and thermal entrance lengths:
(a) heat transfer starts at the duct inlet, (b)heat transfer starts after an isothermal section
If heat transfer to the fluid starts as soon as fluid enters the duct, both the velocity and thermal boundary
layers begin to develop immediately, and Lh and Lt, are both measured from the tube inlet, as illustrated in
Fig. 5-5a.
In some situations the heat transfer to the fluid begins after an isothermal calming section. For such a
case, Lh is measured from the duct inlet because the velocity boundary layer begins to develop as soon as the
fluid enters the duct, but Lt, is measured from the location where the heat transfer starts, because the thermal
boundary layer begins to develop in the heat transfer section.
Table 5-1 the hydrodynamic entrance length Lh for laminar flow inside conduits of various cross sections
are tabulated. This table gives the thermal entrance lengths for constant wall temperature and constant wall
heat flux boundary conditions for thermally developing, hydrodynamically developed flow. In this table, Dh
is the hydraulic diameter, and the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic diameter.
100
We note from Table 5-1 that for a given geometry, the hydrodynamic entry length Lh depends on the
Reynolds number only, whereas the thermal entry length.
Table 5-1 Hydrodynamic entrance length Lh and thermal entrance length Lt, for laminar flow inside ducts. In
this various geometry having hydrodynamic entry length Lh depending on Renolds number only.
Table 5-1 Hydrodynamic entrance length Lh and

thermal entrance length Lt, for laminar flow inside ducts
Lt D h
Pe
Lh D h
Constant wall Constant wall
Geometry Re Temperature Heat Flux
D 0.05 0.033 0.043
0.011 0.008 0.012

2b
2a
2b
a
= 0.25 0.075 0.054 0.042
b
a
= 0.50 0.085 0.049 0.057
b
a
= 1 .0 0.09 0.041 0.066
b
In many cases the velocity and temperature profiles developed simultaneously at the entrance region. Such a
flow is called the simultaneously developing flow. The thermally entry lengths for a simultaneously
developing flow also depend separately on the Prandtl number. For example, for simultaneously developing
flow inside a circular tube, under constant wall temperature, the thermal entry length Lt is
Lt
= 0.037 for Pr = 0.7
DPe
Which should be compared with
Lt
= 0.037 for Pr ® ¥
DPe
As Lt increases with decreasing Prandtl number and a weak function of the Prandtl number for Pr>0.07
101
5-8 THERMALLY DEVELOPING,
HYDRODYNAMICALLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW
Consider thermally developing, hydrodynamically developed laminar flow of a fluid inside a duct, as
illustrated in Fig. 5-6b, in which there is an isothermal section to allow for the velocity development before
the fluid enters the heat transfer zone. For a large Prandtl number such as oils, the hydrodynamic entrance
length is very small in comparison with the thermal entrance length.
In the analysis of heat transfer for such situations, it is reasonable to assume a thermally developing
but hydro-dynamically developed flow inside a circular tube, squar duct , between parallel plate and several
other geometry by neglecting the axial heat conduction and viscous-energy dissipation in the fluid. A
classic solution of laminar forced convection inside a circular tube subject to uniform wall surface
temperature given by Greatz and Nusselt. The local and average Nusselt number for thermally developed,
hydrodynamically developed laminar flow inside a circular tube are plotted against the dimension less
parameter of (x/D)/(Re.Pr) where x is the axial distance along the conduit measured from the beginning of
the heated section.
Reader advised to refer for more details the data hand book for the plots of Mean and local Nusselt
numbers for thermally developing, hydrodynamically developed laminar flow of a fluid inside a circular
tube, between parallel plate and square duct.
Many empirical relations have been developed for calculating heat transfer as the fluid enters the duct.
Analysis of temperature distribution in the flow and heat transfer between fluid and walls for such situation
is more involved because the velocity distribution varies in the axial direction as well as normal to it. The
empirical relations for mean Nusselt number for simultaneously developing laminar flow inside a circular
tube and between parallel plate are subjected to constant wall temperature. One such correlation for mean
Nusselt number for laminar flow in a circular tube at constant wall temperature is given by Hausen as
0.0668Gz
Nu m = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04( Gz ) 2 3
h D
where Nu = m
k
Re . Pr
Gz =
L D
um D
Re = where L = Dis tan ce from the inlet
v
As L increases the Nusselt number approaches the asymtotic value of 3.66.
Simple empirical correlation has been proposed by Sieder and Tate to predict the mean Nusselt number for
laminar flow in a circular tube at constant wall temperature.
0.14
æm ö
Nu m = 1.86 ( Gz )1 3 çç b ÷÷
è mw ø
and is recommended for 0.48 < Pr < 16 ,700
μ
0 .0044 < b < 9 .75
μw
0 .14
æμ ö
(Gz)1 3 çç b ÷
÷ >2 m w is evaluated at the wall temperature
è μw ø
102
Example 5-1.Atmospheric air at T¥ = 400 K with a velocity u¥ = 1.5 m/s flows over a flat plate L = 2 m long
maintained at a uniform temperature Tw = 300 K. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient hm from
x = 0 to x = L = 2 m. Calculate the heat transfer rate from the airstream to the plate from x = 0 to x = L = 2 m
for w = 0.5 m.
Solution : Given Data: The physical properties of atmospheric air evaluated at the arithmetic average of the
-4
free- stream and wall temperature, Tw=350OC, are n=0.21x10 , k=0.0W/mOC, and Pr=0.97, then L=2m.
u¥ L 1 .5 x 2
Re L = = = 1.43 x10 5
n 0.21x10 -4
æ Re L1 2 ö÷ æ 378.2 ö
hm = 2ç 0.332 k Pr 1 3 = 2ç 0.332 x0.03 x0.887 x ÷
ç L ø è ÷ 2 ø
è
= 3.34W / m 2 o C
Then the heat transfer rate Q is determined as
Q = wLh m ( Tm - T¥ )
= 0.5 x 2 x3.34( 400 - 300 )
= 334W
Example 5-2 Atmospheric air at 300 K flows with a velocity of ux = 5 m,., along a flat plate L = 1 m long. The
plate has a width w = 0.5 m. The total drag force acting on the plate is determined to be F = 18 x 10 -3 N.
By using the Reynolds-Colburn analogy, estimate the corresponding average heat transfer coefficient hm
for flow of air over the plate.
SOLUTION The total force acting on the plate is related to the mean drag coefficient by Eq. (5-7) as
r u ¥2
F = wLc m N
2
and the average heat transfer coefficient is related to the average drag coefficient by the Reynolds-Colburn
analogy, given by Eq. (5-16), as c
St m Pr 2 3 = m
2
h 23 c
Pr = m
r c p u¥ 2
The physical properties of atmospheric air at 300 K are taken asr = .177 kg/m3, cp = 1.006 x 103 J/(kg °C), and
Pr = 0.708. Then the mean drag coefficient cm is determined from the first of these equations as
c
St m Pr 2 3 = m
2
h c
Pr 2 3 = m
r c p u¥ 2
hm 2.447 x10 -3
3
( 0.708 )2 3 =
1.177 x( 1.006 x10 )x5 2
hm = 9.12W / m 2 o C
Example 5-3 Atmospheric air at T¥ = 400 K flows with a velocity of u¥ = 4 m/s along a flat plate L = 1 m
long maintained at a uniform temperature Tw = 300 K. The average heat transfer coefficient is
determined to be hm = 7.75 W/(m2 °C). Using the Reynolds-Colburn analogy, estimate the drag force
exerted on the plate per 1-m width.
Solution: The Reynolds-Colburn analogy is given by Eq. (5-16) as

103
cm
St m Pr 2 3 =
2
h c
Pr 2 3 = m
r c pu¥ 2
The physical properties of atmospheric air at the mean film temperature Tm=(400+300)/1=350K are given
by r=0.998kg/m3, cp=1009J/kgoC, Pr=0.697
The drag coefficient cm is
7.75 c
( 0.697 ) 2 3 = m
0.998 x1009 x4 2
c m = 3.03 x10 -3
The drag force is given by
r u ¥2
F = wLc m N
2
0.998 x4 2
F = 1x1x3.03 x10 -3
2
F = 24.2 x10 -3 N
Example 5-4 Engine oil (r = 868 kg/m3, n = 0.75 x 10-4 m2/s) flows with a mean velocity of um = 0.15 m/s
inside a circular tube having an inside diameter D = 2.5 cm. Calculate the friction factor and the pressure
drop over the length L = 100 m of the tube.
Solution: First we calculate the Reynolds number in order to establish whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent.
u D 0.15 x0.025
Re = ¥ = = 50
n 0.75 x10 -4
The flow is laminar, hence the expression for the friction factor is applicable. We find
64 64
f = = = 1.28
Re 50
The pressure drop is calculated by
L ru m2
DP = f
D 2
æ 100 ö (868 x0.15 )
= 1.28ç ÷
è 0.025 ø 2
2
= 50000 N / m
Example 5-5 Engine oil [n = 0.8 x 10-4 m2/s, k = 0.14 W/(m °C] flows with a mean velocity of um = 0.2 m/s
inside a 1.25-cm-diameter tube which is electrically heated at the wall at a uniform rate of q = 2450
W/m2. The heat transfer is taking place in the thermally developed region. Calculate the temperature
difference between the tube wall surface and the mean flow temperatures.
Solution: To ensure that the flow is laminar, we check the Reynolds number
104
u ¥ D 0.15 x0.025
Re = = = 50
n 0.75 x10 -4
u ¥ D 0.2 x0.0125
Re = = = 31.25
n 0.8 x10 -4
The flow is laminar.
The heat transfer coefficient for laminar in the thermally developed region subjected to a uniform
heat flux at the wall is determined as
48 k
h=
11 D
From this problem, h becomes

48 x0.14
h=
11 x0.0125
o
= 48.87W / m 2 C
Then the temperature difference DT between the wall surface and the mean fluid temperature is
q 2450
DT = = = 50.1o C
h 48.87
Example.7-7 Determine the friction factor and the pressure drop for fully developed laminar flow of
ethylene glycol at 40°C m = 0.96 x 10-2 kg/(m s),r = 1101 kg/m3] through a 5 cm-diameter, 50 m long
tube at a rate of 0.1 kg/s.
Volume flow rate = Area x velocity
Solution: V M r
\ um = = =
A A
M 0 .1
um = =
rA 1101 x1.963 x10 -3
u m = 0.462 m / s
Renolds number for the flow
u m D ru m D 1101 x0.462 x0.05

Re = = = = 264
m r m 0.96 x10 - 2
Therefore the flow is laminar
64 64
f = =
Re 264
f = 0.242
Pressure across the tube
L ρ u m2
DP = f
D 2
50 1101 x 0.462 2
DP = 0.242 x x
0.05 2
286 x10 2 N / m 2
105
u m = 1m / s
Renolds number for the flow
u m D ru m D
Re = =
m r m
997.4 x1x0.025
=
0.21
Re = 104
Therefore the flow is laminar
64 64
f = =
Re 104
f = 0.615
Pressure drop across the tube
L ρ u m2
DP = f
D 2
50 997.4 x 12
DP = 0.242 x x
0.025 2
2
DP = 538 kN / m
Example7-8 Engine oil at 40°C m = 0.21 kg/(m s),r = 875 kg/m3] flows inside a 2.5-cm-diameter, 50-m-
long tube with a mean velocity of 1 m/s. Determine the pressure drop for flow through the tube.
106
Review Questions:
5-1 Determine the friction factor, the pressure drop, the mean, and the maximum flow velocities for the fully
developed laminar flow of mercury at 20°C [m = 1.55 x 10-3 kg/(m s), r = 13,579 kg/m] through a 2.5 cm
diameter, 50 m long tube at a rate of 0.05 kg/s.
Answer: f = 0.039; AP = 29.8 N/m2; um = 0.0075 m/s; umax = 0.015 m/s.
5-2 Determine the friction factor for flow of ethylene glycol at 20° C (n= 19.2 x 10- 6 m2/s) through a parallel-
plate channel having a spacing of L = 5 cm between the plates with a velocity of um = 0.25 m/s. Assume
the flow is laminar and fully developed.
Answer: 0.0737
5-3 Consider the flow of water at a rate of 0.015 kg/s through a square duct 2 cm by 2 cm whose walls are
maintained at a uniform temperature 100°C. Assume that the flow is hydrodynamically and thermally
developed. Determine the duct length required to heat the water from 30 to 70°C.
Answer: L = 1 m
5-4 Consider the flow of water at a rate of 0.01 kg/s through an equilateral triangular duct of sides 2 cm and
whose walls are kept at a uniform temperature 100°C. Assume that the flow is hydrodynamically and
thermally developed. Determine the duct length required to heat the water from 20 to 70°C.
Answer: 5 m
5-5 Water at 20°C with a flow rate of 0.015 kg/s enters a 2.5-cm-ID tube which is maintained at a uniform
temperature of 90°C.
(a) Determine the thermal entry length.

(b) Assuming hydrodynamically and thermally fully developed flow, determine the heat transfer
coefficient and the tube length required to heat the water to 70°C.
(c) Determine the heat transfer rate to the water.
(d) Determine the friction factor and the pressure drop.
Answer: (a) 4.4 m; (b) 92.7 W/(m2-°C) and 10.8m; (c) 3.14 kW; (d) 10.4N/m2.
5-6 Determine the hydrodynamic entry lengths for flow at 60°C and at a rate of 0.015 kg/s of water, ethylene
glycol, and engine oil through a circular tube of inside diameter 2.5 cm
Answer: 2.27, 0.207, 0.015 m
5-7 Determine the thermal entry lengths for laminar flow at 60°C at a rate of 0.015 kg/s of water, ethylene
glycol, and engine oil through a circular tube of inside diameter 2.5 cm and subjected to uniform wall
temperature. Answer: 4.04, 6.2, 9.1 m
5-8 Glycerin at 20°C enters a square duct 1 cm by 1 cm in cross section with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s. The
walls of the duct are subjected to uniform heat flux everywhere
(a) Determine the hydrodynamic entry length.
(b) Determine the thermal entry length.
(c) Determine the heat transfer coefficient for the region where the velocity and temperature profiles
are fully developed.
Answer, (a) 0.0006 m; (b) 5.6 m; (c) 103 W/(m2 °C).
5-9 Water at 15°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s enters a 2.5-cm-diameter, 3-m-long tube maintained at
uniform temperature of 100°C by condensing steam on the outer surface of the tube. Assume the flow
hydrodynamically developed. Determine the thermal entry length, the average heat transfer co-eficient,
FREE OR NATURAL CONVECTION
Chapter -Six
107
6
6-.0 EVALUATION OF CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT:
The rate of heat transfer by convection between a solid boundary and a fluid is given by
Qconv = Ah( Ts - T¥ ) (6.1)
The convection equation in this form seems quick simple. The simplicity is misleading, however,
because the above equation is a definition of the average unit thermal convective conductance h rather than a
law of heat transfer by convection. The convective heat transfer coefficient is actually a complicated
function of the fluid flow, the thermal properties of the fluid medium and the geometry of the system. Its
numerical value is in general not uniform over a surface, and depends also on the location where the fluid
temperature T¥ is measured.
The convection heat transfer analysis requires a knowledge of fluid dynamics in addition to energy
balance. The transfer of the heat between a solid surface and the surrounding fluid takes place by a
combination of conduction and mass transport.
If the surface of the body is at a higher temperature than the fluid, the heat flows first by conduction from
the surface of the body to the fluid particles adjacent to the surface of the body. These heated fluid particles
are subsequently carried away by the flowing fluid to regions of low temperature, where energy is again
transferred by conduction from the hot fluid particles to cold fluid particles.
Thus the convection heat transfer is closely coupled with fluid motion. Hence, it is necessary to
understand the flow of fluids, before attempting to understand convection heat transfer.
The flow of the fluid can be laminar or turbulent. In laminar or streamline flow, the fluid moves in layers
and each fluid particle follows along a smooth and continuous path. The fluid particles in each layer follow
one another and the fluid particles in one layer do not mix with the fluid particles in the other layers. In
contrast to this laminar flow, the motion of the fluid particles in turbulent flow is quite irregular and mixing
occurs.
The fluid motion can be induced by two different processes. If there is a temperature gradient in the
fluid, it causes a density gradient which in turn sets the fluid into motion. The heat transfer in a fluid whose
motion is induced by density difference is called natural or free convection heat transfer. The fluid motion
can also be induced by an external agent such as a pump or blower. When the motion of the fluid is caused by
an external agent, the heat transfer is called forced convection heat transfer.
6-1 METHODS OF ESTIMATION OF CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

There are four general methods available for the evaluation of convective heat transfer coefficients:
1. Dimensional analysis combined with experimental data.
2. Exact mathematical analysis of the boundary layer equations.
3. Approximate analysis of the boundary layer equations.
4. Analogy between heat, mass and momentum transfer.
the above all four methods contribute some knowledge of the convection heat transfer, but there is no
single method which can provide complete solutions to all the problems, Each of these methods have their
own limitations.
The dimensional analysis is mathematically simple and finds a wide range of applications. The main
drawback or limitation of this method is that it does not contribute to the understanding of the heat
108
transfer mechanism, and the results obtained by this method are incomplete and require experimental
data. However, it facilitates the extension of the range of application of experimental data by correlating
them in terms of dimension less groups.
6-2 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS :
Dimensional analysis differ from other methods of approach in that it does not yield equation, which
can be solved. Instead, it combines several variables into dimension less groups such as the Nusselt number,
which facilitate the interpolation and extend the range of application of experimental data. In practice
convective heat transfer coefficient are generally evaluated from empirical equations obtained by
correlating experimental data with the aid of dimensional analysis.
The serious limitation of dimensional analysis is that it gives no information about the nature of a
phenomenon. In fact to apply dimensional analysis it is necessary to know before hand what variable
influence the phenomenon, and the success or failure of the method depends on the proper selection of these
variables. It is therefore important to have at least a preliminary theory or a thorough physical
understanding of a phenomenon before a dimensional analysis can be performed. However, once the
particular variables are known dimensional analysis can be applied to most problems by a routine
procedure.
The dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique deals with the dimensions of the quantities
involved in the process or phenomenon. All physical quantities are measured by comparison, which is made
with an arbitrarily fixed value. Length (L), Mass (M), and Time (T) are three fixed fundamental dimensional
which are of importance in fluid mechanics.
Fundamental quantities :
The first step is to select a system of primary dimension. The choice of the primary dimensions is
arbitrary but the dimensional formulas of all particular variable must be expressible in terms of them. We shall
use the primary dimensions of length L, timeq, temperature T and Mass M. The dimensional formula of a
physical quantity follows from definition or physical laws. For instance, the dimensional for the length of a
bar L by definition. The average velocity of a fluid particle is equal to a distance divided by the time interval
taken to traverse it. The dimensional formula of velocity is therefore, (L/q)or (Lq-1). The unit of velocity
could be expressed in m/s, that is length divided by a time. Table 1-6 shows some important quantities
involved in flow media, heat transfer and their dimensions.
In some problems, heat is also involved, then the temperature is also an fixed dimension. Mass M, Length
L, Time T & Temperature q are called fundamental quantities since there is no direct relation between these
dimensions.
Secondary quantities or derived quantities :

The quantities derived from fundamental quantities are called derived or secondary quantities. In
other words, secondary or derived quantities are those quantities which possess more than one fundamental
dimension. 2
1 ) A rea, A = len g th x b read th = L xL = L
-1
2 ) Velo city, V = D istan ce co v ered /se c = L /T = LT
-1 -2
3 ) A cceleratio n , a = Velo city /s ec = LT /T = LT
4 ) F o rce, F = M assx d ista n ce/sec 2 = M L / T 2
= M LT -2
109
Dimensional homogeneity :
Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each term in an equation on both sides are
equal. i.e., An equation is said to be dimensional homogeneous, the fundamental dimensions should have
identical powers of M-L-T, on both sides.
Ex : 1) Discharge = Area x Velocity.
LHS, Q = m3/sec = L3 / T = L3T -1
RHS, AV = L2 x L/T = L3 T -1
\ LHS = RHS.
i.e., The powers of fundamental dimensions (i.e., M.L.T) are identical on both sides.
2) Velocity = Ö 2gh,
6-2.1. Methods of Dimensional Analysis :
If no. of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known then the relation among them can
be determined by the following methods.
1) Ray leigh's Method &
2) Buckingham's p - Theorem.
Rayleigh's Method
This method is convenient only when the variables involved are relatively small in number. The
method consists of expressing the flow problem in the following form of functional relation :
Y = f (X1, X2, X3, .....) = K ( X1a, X2b, X3c, .....) (6-2)
Where Y is the dependent variable and X1, X2, X3, .... are the independent variables. The exponents a,
b, c, etc., are obtained by applying the principle of dimensional homogeneity.
Example 6-1 : Using Rayleigh's method, prove that the drag FD of a sphere exposed to a uniform steam of
fluid is given by :
FD = rV2D2 f(Re)
where r = fluid density, V = velocity of fluid steam, and D = diameter of sphere.
Solution : Since the Reynolds number Re= rVD/m,
let FD = Kra Vb Dc md D
The dimensional equation is, MLT-2 = K (ML-3)a (LT-1)b Lc (ML-1T-1)d
For dimensional homogeneity, the indices of M, L and T on both sides of the equation must be
identical.
For M : 1 = a + d
For L : 1 = - 3a + b + c - d
For T : -2 = -b - d
In terms of any one variable such as d,
a = 1 - d, b = 2 - d and c = 2 - d
\ FD = K [r1-d V2-d D2-d md] = KrV2D2 [ r-d V-d D-d md]
m
\ FD = rV2D2 = f -------- = rV2D2 f (Re)
rVD
110
Buckingham's p -Theorem :
The Buckingham's p-theorem states that if there are 'n' variables in a dimensionally homogeneous
equation and if these variables contain 'm' fundamental dimensions such as M,L,T, then they may be grouped
into (n-m), non-dimensional independent p - terms.
Mathematically,
Let, X1, X2, X3, - - - - - - - -Xn are the variables involved, in physical phenomenon. Let X1 be the
variable depends upon independent variables X2, X3 - - - - - - Xn, then the functional equation may be written
as X1 = f (X2, X3 - - - - - - - Xn)
The above Equation may be written in its general form as f ( X1, X2,X3, - - -Xn) = C (6-3)
Where C is constant, & f represents some function.
In the above equation, there are 'n' variables and if these variables contains 'm' fundamental
dimensions, then according to Buckingham's p - theorem,
f1 (p1, p2, p3, - - - - - - - -pn - m) = (n - m) constant. (6-4)
Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham's p -Theorem :

Generally the following steps are adopted for solving problems by Buckingham's p - theorem.
1) With the given data, write the functional relationship.
2) Write the equation in its general form.
3) Choose 'm' repeating variables and write separate expressions for each p - terms. Every p - term
contains repeating variables and one of the remaining variable.
4) The repeating variables are written in exponential form
5) With the help of dimensional homogeneity, find out the values of exponents a,b,c, etc., (i.e.,by solving
simultaneous equations).
6) Now, substitute the values of these exponents in the p - terms.
7) Write the functional relation in the required form.
8) In selecting repeating variables the following points must be considered.
a) The variables should be selected such that none of them is dimension less.
b) No two variables have the same dimension.
c) As for as possible independent variables should not be selected as repeating
variables.
d) The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable should
possess geometric property, other variable should posses flow property & third variable should
possess fluid property.
Variables with Geometric property are :
1) Length (L), 2) Diameter (D), 3) Height (H), etc.,
Variables with flow property are :
1) Velocity (V), 2) Acceleration (a), 3) Speed (N) etc.
Variables with fluid property are :
1) Viscosity (m), 2) Density (r), 3) Specific weight. (w), 4) Surface tension ( s )
etc.,.
111
Table 6-1 shows some important quantities involved in

flow media, heat transfer and their dimensions.
Table 6-1 Important quantities with their dimensions.
Sl. No. Units Symbol Variable Dimension
1 kg/s m. Mass flow rate MT -1

2 m3/s Q Volume flow rate or Discharge L3T-1
3 N/m2 P Pressure at inlet & outlets ML-1 T-2
4 J/kg E Energy per unit mass or L2T -1
Work / mass
5 J/kg h Enthalpy per unit mass L2T -2
6 J/s or Watt P Power I/P or O/P ML2T -3
7 m D Rotor Diameter L
8 m a, b, c, Machine Dimensions L
9 kg/m3 r Density of fluid ML-3
10 m2/s u Kinematic Viscosity L2T -1
11 kg/m-s m Dynamic Viscosity ML-1 T-1
12 m/s V,C Velocity of fluid or sound LT -1-2

13 N/m s Surface Tension MT
14 N/m2 E Modulus of Elasticity ML-1 T -2
15 rad/s w Angular Velocity T -1
16 N/m3 w Specific Weight
-2 -2
ML-1 T -2
17 N/m2 t,K Shear Stress, or Bulk Modulus ML T
18 N-m T,E,W Torque, or Energy or Work ML-1 T -2
..
19 K q Temperature q
20 N F,W,T,R, Force, Weight or Thrust or MLT -
2
Resistance
21 kg-m/s mu Momentum MLT -1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note :- All dimensions can be obtained with the help of newton's 2nd law of motion..
6-3 NATURAL OR FREE CONVECTION:
Natural convection is caused due to buoyancy force which is the effect of the decrease in density due to
heating. Consider the fluid is heated and forced up due to buoyancy force as shown in Figure.6-1.
Fig.6-1 Heated fluid under buoyance force

112
r 0 = Density of the fluid when it was cold.
r = Density of the fluid when it was heated.
V .r .g = Gravitational force which is acting down.
V .r 0 g = Buoyany force which is acting upward
and V is the volume of the fluid going up.
Where r0 > r
The force causing the flow in upward direction per unit mass of fluid.
( r o - r ) ¶V æ r o - r ö ær ö
= = çç ÷÷ = g çç o - 1÷÷ g (6-5)
rV è r ø è r ø
If b is the coefficient of the thermal expansion then
ro = r[ 1+ b ( Dq ) ]
Where Dq is the temperature difference between hot and cold fluid.

rq
\ = 1 + b ( Dq )
r
Substituting this value in Eq.(6-5), net force causing the upward flow
= br( Dq ) (6-6)
For finding the heat transfer coefficient the following physical quantities.
h = f ( r , L , m ,C r , K , bgDq )
In this particular problem b.g.(Dq) will be considered as one physical factor which is responsible for
causing natural convection flow.
We can write down the above equation as follows.
f [ r i L ,u , K , h ,c p ,( bg .Dq )] = 0 (6-7)
This problem is also controlled by 7 physical quantities containing 4 fundamental dimensions, so

according to Buckingham theorem, this problem can be controlled by (7- 4) = 3 non-dimensional groups.
According to Buckingham theorem, four terms marked in Eq.(6-7) which contain all four
fundamental dimensions must form a non-dimensional group with each of the remaining term.
\ p 1 = h( r ) a .( L ) b .( m ) c .( K ) d = M o LoT oq o
\ p 1 = ( MT -3 q -1 )( ML-3 ) a .( L ) b .( ML-1T -1 ) c .( MLT - 2q -1 ) d = M o LoT oq o
Equating the powers of M, L, T, and q of both sides, we get the following equations
a +c+ d +1 = 0
- 3a + b - c + d = 0
- c - 3d - 3 = 0
- d -1 = 0
Solving the above equations, we get the following values.
113
a=1, b=1, c=0, and d=-1
hL
\p1 = (6-8)
K
Similarly
\ p 2 = ( r ) a1 .( L ) b1 .( m ) c1 .( K ) d1 C p = M o LoT oq o
\ p 2 = ( ML-3 ) a1 .( L ) b1 .( ML-1T -1 ) c1 .( MLT -3q -1 ) d1 L2T - 2q -1 = M o LoT oq o
Equating the powers of M , L, T and q of both sides, we get the following equations :
a1 + c1 + d 1 = 0
- 3a1 + b1 - c1 + d 1 + 2 = 0
- c1 - 3d 1 - 2 = 0
- d1 - 1 = 0
Solving the above equations, we get the following values
a=0 b=0 c=1 d=-1
m Cp
\p 2 = (6-9)
K
Similarly
\ p 3 = ( r )a2 .( L )b2 .( m )c2 .( k )d 2 .( bg .Dq ) = M o LoT oq o
\ p 3 = ( ML-3 )a2 .( L )b2 .( ML-1T -1 )c2 .( TLT - 2q -1 )d 2 .( L T - 2 ) = M o LoT oq o
Equating the powers of M , L, T and q of both sides, we get the following equations :
a2 + c2 + d 2 = 0
- 3a 2 + b2 - c2 + d 2 + 1 = 0
- c 2 - 3d 2 - 2 = 0
- d2 = 0
Solving above equations, we get the following values
a2 = 2 b2 = 3 c 2 = -2 and d 2 = 0
( b g Dq )r 2 L3 ( bg . Dq )L3
\p3 = 2
= (6-10)
m n2
This non dimensional number known as Grashof number
According to Buckingham pTheorem.

p 1 = f ( p 1 .p 3 )
n m
hL æ mC p ö æ bgDq .L3 ö
\ = C çç ÷ ç ÷
K ÷ ç 2 ÷
è K ø è n ø
\ Nu = C (Pr) n .( Gr ) m
114
where C, n and m are the constants and Gr is known as Grashof number.

The values of the constants C, n and m are constants and Where Tf=(Tw+T¥ )/2
The following few co-relations for different flow conditions and different geometric configurations
are given by the following equations.
The empirical relations for natural convection heat transfer coefficient for vertical plate
Correlation for convection on a vertical plate

Some of the correlation of free convection on a vertical wall in laminar and turbulent flow, for both
uniform wall temperature ( isothermal surface) and the uniform wall heat flux boundary conditions.
0.25
Nu=0.59 (Gr.Pr) for laminar flow (6-11)
When 104 <Gr.Pr <109
0.25
Nu=0.59 (Gr.Pr) for turbulent flow (6-12)
When 109 <Gr.Pr <1013
Under isothermal surface condition
0.67 Ra L1 4
Nu m = 0.68 +
[ 1 + ( 0.492 / Pr)9 16 ] 4 9 (6-13)
When 10-1 < RaL <109
For laminar and turbulent flow

0.387 Ra L1 6
Nu 1 2 = 0.825 + (6-14)
m
[ 1 + ( 0.492 / Pr)9 16 ] 8 27
When 10-1 < RaL <1012

Uniform wall heat flux
Nu x = 0.60( Gr . Pr)1 5 for 10 5 < Grx . Pr < 10 16 La min ar (6-15)
Nu x = 0.568Gr . Pr)0.22 for 2 x10 13 < Grx . Pr < 10 16 Turbulent (6-16)
Free convection on a horizontal plate with uniform wall temperature and uniform wall heat flux
can be referred to data hand book.
For the horizontal plate with heated surface facing upward
Nu x = 0.13( GrL . Pr)1 3 for GrL . Pr < 2 x10 8 (6-17)
Nu x = 0.16 ( GrL . Pr)1 5 for 5 x10 8 < Grx . Pr < 10 11 (6-18)
Nu x = 0.58( Gr . Pr)1 5 for 10 6 < Grx . Pr < 10 16 (6-19)

115
Hot surface
Hot surface
facing upward
facing upward
q q
q= -90O q= + 90O
Negative Positive
Hot surface Hot surface

facing downward facing downward
Fig.6-2 the concept of positive and negative inclination angles from

the vertical to define the orientation of the hot surface
Free convection on an inclined plate
The heat transfer coefficient for free convection on an inclined plate can be predicted by the
vertical plate formulas if the gravitational term in the Grashof number is adjusted to
accommodate the effect of the inclination.
Uniform wall heat flux these equations applicable for transition from laminar to turbulent
i.e. critical Grashof number when heated facing upward
Nu = 0.13( Gr . Pr)1 3 for Gr . Pr < 2 x10 8 (6-20)
x L L
(6-21)
Nu x = 0.16 ( GrL . Pr)1 5 for 5 x10 8 < Grx . Pr < 10 11
For the plate slightly inclined with the horizontal (that is 88O< q<90O) and the heated surface
facing down ward as.
Nu x = 0.56 ( GrL . Pr . cos q )1 4 for + q < 88 o , 10 5 < GrL . Pr < 10 11 (6-22)
Eq.(6-15) and Eq.(6-116) are applicable for inclined plate with due consideration of replacing
GrLPr with GrLPr.cosq
Nu x = 0.60( Gr . Pr)1 5 for 10 5 < Grx . Pr < 10 16 La min ar
0.22 13 16
Nu x = 0.568Gr . Pr) for 2 x10 < Grx . Pr < 10 Turbule
Free convection on a long cylinder

Vertical cylinder.
For the case of vertical cylinder subjected to uniform wall heat flux, the local Nusselt number
may be determined Eq.(6-15) and Eq.(6-116) empirical relation.
Horizontal cylinder
For isothermal horizontal cylinder with an equation of the same form as Eq.(6-15) and Eq.(6-
116)
0.387 Ra L1 6 (6-23)
Nu 1 2 = 0.60 + 9 16 8 27
for 10 -4 < Ra < 10 12
m
[ 1 + ( 0.559 / Pr) ]
116
Horizontal isothermal Cylinder simple correlations covering the range as.
Nu = C ( Gr . Pr) n For 10 7 < Ra < 10 12 (6-24)
Where the constant C and the exponent ‘n’ are listed in Table.6-2.
Table 6-2 constant C and exponent n of Eq.(6-64)

or free convection on horizontal cylinder
RaD C n
-10 -2
10 -10 0.675 0.058
-2 2
10 -10 1.02 0.148
4
102 -10 0.850 0.1888
4 7
10 -10 0.480 0.250
7 12
10 -10 0.125 0.333
Free convection on a sphere
The average Nusselt number for free convection on a single isothermal sphere. For fluid
having Prandtl number close to unity, has been correlated with the following expression.
hD 14
Nu m = = 2 + 0.43 Ra D for 1 < Ra < 10 5 and Pr @ 1 (6-25)
k
Free convection on a single isothermal sphere in water as
hD 14
Nu m = = 2 + 0.50 Ra D (6-26)
k
For 3x10 5 < Ra D < 8 x10 8 and 10 £ Nu m £ 90 Here the
Rayleigh number based on the sphere diameter is defined as
gbD 3 ( Tw - T¥ )
Ra D = Grd Pr = (6-27)
n2
6-5 SIGNIFICANCE OF GRASHOF NUMBER
The Grashof number represents the ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous force acting on the fluid.
We call that in forced convection, the Reynolds number represents the ratio of the inertial to viscous forces
acting on the fluid. Therefore, the Grashof number in free convection plays the same role as the Reynolds
number in forced convection. For example, in forced convection the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
is governed by the critical value of the Reynolds number. Similarly, in free convection, the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow is governed by the critical value of the Grashof number.
Nu =f(Gr, Pr)
In free convection flow velocities are produced by the buoyancy forces only, hence there are no
117
externally induced flow velocities. As a result, the Nusselt number does not depend on the Reynolds
number. For gases, Pr = 1; hence the Nusselt number for free convection is a function of the Grashof
number only:
Nu =f(Gr) for gases
Sometimes another dimension less parameter, called the Rayleigh. number (Ra),which is defined as
bg .L3 ( Tw - T¥ )
\Ra = Gr . Pr = Pr (6-28)
n2
Example 6-1. Estimate the heat transfer rate by natural convection from a 25 cm diameter sphere whose
surface temperature is maintained at 125°C while the out side ambient air is at 25°C and 0.1MPa,
(April/May1995 K.U)
125 + 25
Tf = = 75 o C
2
Properties of air at Tf.
1 1
r = 1.0145 kg / m 3 n = 20.66 x10 -6 b = = = 2.87 x10 -3 / K
4 75 + 273
k = 0.0301W / mK Pr = 0.693
3
gbDTD 9.81x 2.87 x10 -3 x( 125 - 25 )x0.25 3
Gr = = 2
= 10.32 x10 8
n2 ( 20.66 x10 -6 )
\Gr . Pr = 7.15 x107
Nu = 2 + 0.5( GrD . Pr)0.25 = 2 + 0.5( 7.15 x107 )0.25
hx0.25
Nu = 47.98 =
0.0301
h = 5.8W / m 2 K
Example.6-2. Engine oil is pumped with a mean velocity of 0.6 m/s through a bundle of 80 tubes each of
inside diameter 2.5 cm and length 10 m. Calculate the pressure drop across each tube and the total
power required for pumping the oil through 80 tubes to overcome the fluid friction to flow. The physical
properties of engine oil are r=868kg/m3,n=0.75x10-4. (July/Aug 1998 V.T.U)

112 + 42
Film temprerature T f = = 77°C Properties of air at 77°C
2
1 1
n = 2.076 x10 -5 m 2 / s Pr = 0.697 k = 0.03 W / mc b = = , L = 0 .5 m
77 + 273 350
æ 1 ö 3
9.81xç ÷ ( 112 - 42 )( 0.5 )
gbDTL3 è 350 ø
GrL = =
n2 ( 2.076 x10 -5 )2
= 5.7 x 10 8
118
1
Nu m = 0.14 ( GrL Pr ) 3
1
Nu m = 0.14 ( 5.7 x10 8 x0.697 ) 3
Nu m = 102.92
hmL
Nu um =
K
Nu m K 102.92 x0.03
hm = =
L 0 .5
= 6.18 w / m 2 k
Example 6-3.Calculate the rate of heat loss from the top and bottom of a flat 1m-square horizontal restaurant
grill heated to 227°C in ambient air at 27°C. (July/Aug 2005V.T.U)
Constant wall temperature

1 m Square hot plate, Ts = 227°c , T¥ = 27°c
Characteristics length = Area / Perimeter = L2 / 4 L = L / 4 = 0.25 m
1 1
T f = ( 227 + 27 ) / 2 = 127 say 130°c , b = = = 2.5 x10 -3 / K
T f 400
At 130°c n = 26.63 x 10 -6 m 2 / s
k = 34.14 x 10 -3 W / mK
Pr = 0.685
b g DTL3 9.81 x 200 x 0.25 3 x 0.685
Gr Pr = x Pr = = 7.403 x 107
g2 400 x ( 26.63 x 10 -6 )2
Ra L = 7.403 x 107
(i) Heated face upward
hLc
Nu = 0.54( Gr Pr )0.25 = 0.54( 7.403 x 107 )0.25 =
k
Nu .k 50.40x 34.14 x 10 -3
h= = = 6.84 W/m 2 °c
L 0.25
Qt = hADT = 6.84 x1x 200 = 1368.2W
(ii) Heated surface downward
N u = 0.27( Gr Pr )0.25 = 25.2
Nu .k 25.2x34.14 x 10 -3
h= = = 3.42 W/m 2 °c
L 0.25
Qb = hADT = 3.42 x1x 200 = 683.9W
(iii) Total heat dissipated = Qt + Qb = 1368.2 + 683.9

= 2402.8 W
119
Example. 6-4. A horizontal pipe 0.3m in diameter is maintained at a temperature of 250°c in a room where
the ambient air is at 15°c. Calculate the free convection heat loss per meter of length.
Solution: Given data: (July/Aug 2005V.T.U)

d = 0.3m , Ts = 250°C , T¥ = 15°C , L = 1m
Fluid is air Free convection across cylinder
T f = ( 250 + 15 ) / 2 = 132.5°C , Say 130°c
1 1
b= = ,
T f 405.5
At 130°C , n = 26.63 x 10 -6 , k = 34.14 x10 -3 W / m°C , Pr = 0.685
b g DTL3 9.81 x ( 250 - 15 ) x 0.3 3 x 0.685
Gr Pr = x Pr =
n2 405.5 x ( 26.63 x 10 -6 )2
= 1.45 x 10 8
From table C = 0.125 , m = 0.333
N u = C ( Gr Pr )m
N u = 0.125 ( Gr Pr )0.333
= 65.26
k 34.14 x 10 -3
h = Nu = 65.26 x = 7.46 W / m 2 °c
D 0.3
Q = h pdL ( Ts - T¥ )
= 7.46 x p x 0.3 x 1 x ( 250 - 15 )
= 1653.5 W
2
é 0.387( Ra )0.167 ù
Nu D = ê0.6 + 0.5625 0.296 ú
ëê [ 1 + ( 0.559 Pr) ] ûú
2
é 0.387( 1.45 x 10 8 )0.167 ù
Nu D = ê0.6 + 0.5625 0.296 ú
ëê [ 1 + ( 0.559 0.685 ) ] ûú
hD
Nu D = 63.85 = =
k
k 34.14 x 10 -3
h = Nu = 63.85 = 7.3W / m 2 °c
D 0.3
Q = h pdL ( Ts - T¥ )
Q = 7.3 x p x 0.3 x 1 x ( 250 - 15 )
Q = 1612 W
Example. 6-5. A vertical cylinder 3cm in diameter and 20cm in height and whose surface maintained at a
uniform temperature of 100°C is exposed to quiescent air at 20° C. Determine the total heat transfer
rate from the cylinder to air. (Jan/Feb 2006 New Scheme V.T.U)
d = 0.03m , L = 0.20 m , Tw = 100°C , T¥ = 20°C
Tw + T¥ 100 + 20
Mean temperature = Tm = = = 60 °C
2 2
120
Properties of air at 60°C

k = 0.02896W/m o C , n = 1.896 x10 -5 m 2 / s
1 1
Pr = 0.696 , b= = 3.003 x10 -3
( 60 + 273 ) K
gbDTL3 9.81x3.003 x10 -3 x( 100 - 20 )x( 0.20 )3
GrL = =
n2 ( 1.896 x10 -5 )2
= 5.245 x107
Ra L =GrL Pr = 5.245 x107 x0.7202 = 3.65 x107
1
\ Nu m = 0.59 x ( 3.777 x107 ) 4
h L
= 46.25 x = m
k
46.25 x0.02808
\hm = = 6.494 W / m 2 K
0.20
Total heat transfer Q = hmpDLDT
= 6.494 x p x 0.03 x0.20 x[100 - 20 ]
= 9.8W
Example. 6-6. A nuclear reactor with its core constructed of parallel vertical plate 2.2 m high and 1.4 m wide
has been designed on free convection heating of liquid bismuth. The maximum temperature of the plate
surface is limited to 960°C while the lowest allowable temperature of bismuth is 340°C. Calculate the
maximum possible heat dissipation from both sides of each plate. Use the following correlation
0.33
Nu = 0.13(GrPr)0 Take the following physical properties for bismuth :r= 104 kg/m3, m = 3.66 x 10-4
kg/ms, cp = 150.7 J/kg°C, k= 13.02 W/m°C,b = 1.08 x 10-3 K-1. (May/June 2006 V.T.U)
Solution: Given data: mc p

Pr = = 4.24 x10 -3
k
l 3 r 2 g bDT
Gr = = 5.22 x10 16
m2
Gr . Pr = 5.22 x10 15 x 4.24 x10 -3 = 2.21x10 14
hL
NhI = = 0.13(Gr . Pr )1.333 = 7142
k
13.02 o
h= x0.13( 2.21x10 14 )0.33 = 41678W / m 2 C
2.2
Heat dissipated from both sides of the plate
Q = 2x 41678 x( 2.2 x1.4 )( 960 - 340 )
Q = 159.2 MW
Example 6-7. A vertical cylinder 1.8m high, 7.5 cm diameter is maintained at a temperature of 90°C in an
atmospheric environment of 30°C. Calculate the heat loss by free convection from this cylinder. For
this calculation, the cylinder may be treated as vertical plate. (July 2006 V.T.U)
Solution: Given data: Properties of air at mean film temp

T + To 90 + 30
Tf = W = = 60°c
2 2
121
n = 18.97 x10 -6 m 2 / s , Pr = 0.696 , k = 0.02896W / mK
1 1
b= = = 3 x10 -3 K -1
T f 273 + 60
gbDTLc 3 9.81x3 x10 -3 ( 90 - 30 )x1.8 3
Gr = =
n2 ( 18.97 x10 -6 )2
Gr = 2.865 x10 10 x0.696 = 1.994 x10 10 > 10 9
\The flow is turbulant
This is the case of constant wall temperature,
Nu L = 0.1( Gr Pr)0.333 = 0.1( 1.994 x10 10 )0.333 = 269
Nu L k 269 x0.02896
hm = = = 4.33W / m 2 K
L 1 .8
\ Heat loss
Q=hm ADT
= 4.33 xpx0.075 x1.8( 90 - 30 )
Q = 110 .14W
Example 6-8. A steam pipe 100 mm in diameter maintained at 170°C is exposed to air at 30°C, The length
of the pipe is 2 m and is kept horizontal. Determine the heat lost by the pipe per hour. (May 2007 V.T.U)
Solution: Given data: Properties of air at

170 + 30
Tf = = 100°C are
2
V = 23.13 x 10 -6 m 2 / s
k = 0.0321W / m - K
Pr = 0.688 , b = 2.681 x 10 -3 K -1
gbDTD 3 9.81 x 2.681 x 10 -3 x 140 x0.13
GrD = =
n2 ( 23.13 x 10 -6 )2
6
= 6.88 x 10
\ GrD Pr = 6.88 x 10 6 x 0.688 = 4.74 x 10 6
From Table ; C = 0.48 , m = 0.25
\ Nu D = C( GrD Pr)m = 0.48( 4.74 x 10 6 )0.25 = 22.4
Nu D k 22.4 x 0.0321
h= = = 7 .2 W / m 2 K
D 0.1
\ Heat lost , Q = hpDL(DT )
= 7.2 x ( p x 0.1 x 2 )( 140 )
Q = 632.4 W or 632.4 x 3600 = 2276.7 kJ / hr
Example 6-9. A vertical cylinder 1.8 m height, 7.5 cm in diameter is maintained at a temperature of 90°C in
an atmospheric environment of 30°C. Calculate the heat loss by free convection from this cylinder. The
cylinder may be treated as vertical plate. (July 2007 V.T.U)
Solution: Given data: Pr operties of air at T f = 60°C

n = 18.97 x 10 -6 m 2 / s , Pr = 0.696
1
k = 0.02896 W / m °C , b= = 3 x10 -3 K -1
T f + 273
122
gbDTL3 9.81 x 3 x10 -3 x60 x1.8 3

Gr = =
n2 ( 18.97 x10 -6 )2
GrL = 2.865 x 10 10
GrL Pr = 2.865 x 10 10 x0.676 = 1.99 x10 10 > 10 9
The flow is turbulant
Nu . k
\N uL =0.1( Gr Pr)0.333 = 269 Þ h = = 4.33W / m 2 °C
L
The rate of heat transfer,
Q = hAΔh
= 4.33xpx0.075x1.8x60
= 110W
Example 6-10. A nuclear reactor with its core constructed of parallel plates 2.2m high and 1.45m wide have
been designed on free convection heating of liquid bismuth. The maximum temperature of the plate
surface is limited to 960°C, while the lowest temperature of bismuth is 340°C. Calculate the maximum
possible heat dissipation from both sides of each plate. For the convection coefficient the appropriate
correlation is Nu =0.13(GrPr)1/3, where the properties at mean film temperature of 650°C for
bismuth are: ρ=104 kg/m3,=3.12kg/m-h, CP=150.7J/kg.K, K=13.02W/mK. (Dec 07/Jan 08. V.T.U)

Liquid Metal : Bismuth
r = 10 4 kg / m 3 , m = 3.12 kg / m. h = 8.67 x 10 -4 kg / m - s
c p = 150.7 J / kgK , k = 13.02W / mK ,
m 1 1
\n = = 8.67 x 10 -8 m 2 / s , b = = = 1.083 x 10 -3 K -1
r Tf 650 + 273
mCp 8.67 x 10 -4 x 105.7
Pr = =
k 13.02
Pr = 0.01
gbDTL3 9.81x1.083 x10 -3 ( 960 - 340 )x 2.2 3
Gr = =
v2 ( 8.67 x10 -8 )2
15
= 9.33 x10
1
\ N u = 0.13( Gr Pr) 3
1
= 0.13( 9.33 x10 15 x0.01 ) 3
= 5896.2
Nu x K
\h =
L
5896.2 x 13.02
=
2.2
= 34894.6 W / m 2 K
Total heat Transfer ,
Q = 2 hADT
= 34894.6 x ( 2.2 x 1.45 )( 960 - 340 )x 2
Q = 138 MW
123
Review Questions:
6-1 A vertical plate 0.3 m high and I m wide, maintained at a uniform temperature 24°C, is exposed to
quiescent atmospheric air at 30°C.
(a) Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient for free convection.
(b) Find the total heat transfer rate from both surfaces of the plate by free convection into the air.
Answer: (a) 5.38 W/(m °C); (b) 303.4 W
6-2 Calculate the heat transfer rates by free convection from a 0.3m by 0.3m whose one surface is insulated
and whose other surface is maintained at Tw=100°C. and exposed to quiescent atmospheric air at
T¥ =30°C. for the following condition.
(a) The plate is vertical
(b) The plate horizontal with the heated surface facing upward.
(c ) The plate is horizontal with the heated surface facing down.
Answer: (a)36.2, (b)39.8, (c)16.5W
6-3 An electrically heated vertical plate 0.25 m by 0.25 m is insulated on one side and dissipates heal from
the other surface at a constant rate of 600 W/m2 by free convection into quiescent atmospheric air at 30°
C. Determine the surface temperature of the plate.
Answer: 120.5°C
6-4 A thin electric strip heater of width H 20 cm is placed with its width oriented vertically. It dissipates
heat by free convection from both of its surfaces into atmospheric air at T¥ = 20°
C. If the surface of the heater should not exceed 225°C, determine the length of the strip in order to
dissipate 1000 W of energy into the room.
Answer: L = 1.73 m
6-5 A plate 0.75 m by 0.75 m is thermally insulated on one side and subjected to a solar radiation flux q, =
800 W/m2 on the other surface, which has an absorptivity ax = 0.9 for the solar radiation. The plate
makes an angle q= 60° with the vertical, so that the hot surface is facing upward. If the surface is
exposed to quiescent atmospheric air atT¥ = 300 K and the heat transfer is by pure free convection only,
calculate the equilibrium temperature of the plate.
Answer: 126°C
6-6 A 5-cm-OD, 1.5-m-long vertical tube at a uniform temperature Tu = 100°C is exposed to quiescent
atmospheric air at Tx = 20°C. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the tube to the surrounding air.
Answer: 101.8 W
6-7 An electric heater of outside diameter D = 2.5 cm and length L = 1 m is immersed horizontally inside a
large tank containing engine oil at 20°C. If the surface temperature of the heater is 140°C, determine
the rate of heat transfer to the oil.
Answer: 1.614 kW
6-8 A hot gas at 220°C flows through a horizontal pipe of outside diameter D = 1.5 cm. The pipe has an un
insulated portion of length L = 3 m which is exposed to atmospheric air at temperature T¥ = 30°
C. Assuming the outside surface of the pipe is also at 220°C, determine the rate of heat loss into the
atmosphere.
Answer: 296.5 W
6-9 An uninsulated, horizontal duct of diameter D = 20 cm carrying cold air at 10°C is exposed to quiescent
atmospheric air at 35°C. Determine heat gain by free convection per 1-m length of the duct. 9-27 A 5-
cm-diameter horizontal pipe with outer surface at 225°C is exposed to atmospheric air at 25°C.
Calculate the heat transfer rate per meter length of the pipe by free convection. 9-28 A 2.5-cm-diameter,
1.5-m-long vertical cylinder maintained at a uniform temperature of 140°C is exposed to atmospheric
air at 15°C. Determine the free-convection heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer rate.
Answer: 6.69 W/(m2 °C), 98.5 W
124
6-10 A 5-cm-diameter sphere whose surface is maintained at a uniform temperature of 120°C is submerged
into quiescent water at 30°C. Determine the heat transfer rate by free convection from the sphere to the
water.
Answer: 642.2 W
6-11 A 1.5-cm-diameter, electrically heated sphere is placed in a quiescent body of air at 20°C. Calculate the
amount of heat to be supplied by the electric heater in order to keep the surface temperature of the sphere
at 100°C. Answer: 0.74 W
6-12 A large vertical plate 5 m high is maintained at 100°C and exposed to air at 30°C. Calculate the
convection heat transfer coefficient. Answer:2.63W
6-13 A vertical flat plate maintained at 100°C and exposed to air at 25°C. At a distance of 30 cm from the
leading edge of the plate the boundary layer thickness is 3 cm. Estimate the thickness of the boundary
layer at a distance of 50 cm from the leading edge. Answer:0.034m
6-16 A vertical plate 2 m x 2 m is maintained at 80°C and exposed to air at 10°C and atmospheric pressure.
Calculate the heat lost by convection from the plate. Answer 1.407kW
6-17 If the plate of Problem 6-16 is exposed to helium at the same conditions, determine the heat lost by the
plate. Answer:2.018kW
6-18 A large vertical plate 2 m high is maintained at 100°C. This plate is exposed to air at 10°C. Determine the
heat transfer coefficient at heights of 0.5 m, 1.0 m, and 2 m . Also calculate the average heat transfer
coefficient for the plate. Answer:.3.77W/m2K, k=3.17W/m2K, 2.66W/m2K, 3.55W/m2K6
6-19 A horizontal rod of 5 cm diameter is maintained at a constant surface temperature of 70° C by

submerging it in water at 20° C. Calculate the heat lost by free convection per unit length of the rod.
Answer:6.848kW/m
6-20 A copper wire of 1 mm diameter is maintained at a constant temperature of 75°C by passing electric
current. The wire is exposed to atmospheric air at 25°C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer by
convection, per meter length of the wire. Answer. 3.9W/m
6-21 Steam is flowing through a horizontal pipe of 3 cm OD which is exposed to atmospheric air at 20° C.
The surface temperature of the pipe is 150° C. Calculate the heat lost by free convection per metre
length of pipe. Answer. 129W/m
6-22 Condensing steam at 120°C is to be used inside a 5 cm diameter horizontal pipe to provide heating in a
room where the ambient air is at 5°C. The total heating requirement is 3 kW. What length of pipe would
be required to provide the necessary heating? Answer. 18.7m
FORCED CONVECTION
Chapter -Seven
125
7
7- 0 FORCED CONVECTION
7-1 Introduction:
The flow over the flat plate is not very common in engineering application except few. The flow
through the tube and ducts is very common in all fields of engineering as refrigeration, air conditioning,
power engineering and so on. . Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid moving
over it. The energy transfer in convection is predominantly due to the bulk motion of the fluid particles,
though the molecular conduction with in the fluid itself also contribution to some extent. If this motion is
mainly due to the density variation associated with temperature gradients within the fluid, the mode of heat
transfer is said to be due to free or natural convection. The motion observed when a pot of water is heated by
an electric coil or the motion of air in the desert on a calm day after sunset are examples of free convection.
When the motion is caused by some external energy, such as a pump or a blower, we speak of forced
convection. The cooling of an automobile radiator by the air blown over it by the fan is an example of forced
convection.
7-2 APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS FOR FORCED CONVECTION:

To find heat the heat transfer coefficient across a heated tube or across a flat plate, let us consider the
following particular variable like heat transfer coefficient h, density r , length L or diameter D, kinematic
viscosity m , velocity V, specific heat and thermal conductivity k.
Then
h = ( r , L ,v , m ,c p , k )
\ f ( h , r , L ,v , m ,c p , k ) = 0 (7-1)
Therefore this problem is controlled by 7 physical quantities containing 4 fundamental dimensions.

Hence according to Buckingham p theorem this problem is controlled by (7-4)=3 non dimensional factor,
which are known as p terms.
\ f ( p 1 ,p 2 ,p 3 ) = 0
According to Buckingham theorem, terms marked in Eq.(7-1), which contain all four fundamental
dimensions must form a non-dimensional group with each remaining term.
p 1 = m ( h )a ( r )b ( L )c ( u )d = M o L0T oq o
( ML-1T -1 )( MT -3q -1 )a ( ML-3 )b ( L )c ( LT -1 )d = M o L0T oq o

Note: Students can take any four function as a group from Eq.(7-1) provided the group must contain all
fundamental dimensions controlling the physical phenomenon.
Equating the power of M, L, T and q of both sides, we get the following equations:
1+ a + b = 0
- 1 - 3b + c + d = 0
- 1 - 3a - d = 0
-a =0
\Solving the above equations, we get the following values
a=0 b = -1 c = -1 d = -1
126
p 1 = m ( h )a ( r )b ( L )c ( u )d
p 1 = m ( h )0 ( r )-1 ( L )-1 ( u )-1
m
p1 = (7-2)
rLu
Similarly
b
p 2 = c p ( h ) a1 ( r ) 1 ( L )c1 ( u ) d 1 = M o L0 T oq o
( L2T - 2q -1 )( MT - 3q -1 ) a1 ( ML- 3 )b1 ( L )c1 ( LT -1 ) d 1 = M o L0 T oq o
Equating the powers of M, L, T and of both side, we get the following

a1 + b1 = 0
2 - 3b1 + c1 + d 1 = 0
- 2 - d 1 - 3 a1 = 0
-1- a = 0
\ Solving the above equations, we get the following values
a1 = -1 b1 = 1 c1 = 0 d1 = 1
p 2 = c p ( h ) a1 ( r )b1 ( L )c1 ( u ) d 1
p 2 = c p ( h ) - 1 ( r )1 ( L )0 ( u )1
c p rv k
p2 = Put h =
h l
c p rvL (7-3)
p2 =
k
a b c d o 0 o o
Similarly p 3 = k ( h ) 2 ( r ) 2 ( L ) 2 ( u ) 2 = M L T q
( MLT - 3q -1 )( MT - 3q -1 ) a 2 ( ML- 3 )b2 ( L )c 2 ( LT -1 ) d 2 = M o L0 T oq o
Equating the powers of M, L, T and q of both sides, we get the following

1 + a 2 + b2 = 0
1 - 3b2 + c 2 + d 2 = 0
- 3 - 3a 2 - d 2 = 0
- 1 - a2 = 0
\ Solving the above equations, we get the following values
a 2 = -1 b2 = 0 c 2 = -1 d2 = 0
p 3 = k ( h ) a1 ( r )b1 ( L )c1 ( u ) d 1
p 3 = k ( h ) - 1 ( r )0 ( L ) - 1 ( u )0
k
p3 = (7-4)
hL
According to Buckingham theorem

p 3 = f ( p 1p 2 )
k æ m c p rLv ö
= f çç , ÷
hL è rLv k ÷ø
n' m'
k æ m ö æ c p rLv ö
\ = f çç ÷÷ çç ÷
÷
hL è rLv ø è k ø
where n' and m' are constant
127
Assuming n' > m' , we can write the above equation in
the following form
n' n' - m' m'
k æ m ö æ m ö æ c p rLv ö
= f çç ÷÷ çç ÷÷ ç ÷
hL ç k ÷
è rLv ø è rLv ø è ø
n' - m' m'
k æ m ö æ m c p rLv ö
= f çç ÷÷ ç ÷
hL ç rLv , k ÷
è rLv ø è ø
n m
k æ m ö æ m cp ö
=f çç ÷÷ çç ÷
÷ Hence substituting n'-m' = n and m' = m
hL è rLv ø è k ø
Nu = f (Re)n (Pr)m
Nu = C(Re)n (Pr)m (7-5)
Where C,n and m are constants and Nu, Re and Pr are known as Nusselt, Re nolds and Pr andtl
Constants are calculated with help of experiments.

The value of C, n and m are co-related for different flow condition and different geometric
configuration.
(a) Flow of fluid over a flat surface at constant temperature is
Nu = 0 .664 Re0.5 Pr 1 / 3 (7-6)

This equation is valid for laminar flow over the flat plate for which the required condition is
Re < 2 x10 5
If the flow condition on the flat plate is partly laminar and partly turbulent then the heat flow for the
turbulent region is given by the following equation.
Nu = 0 .036 Re 0.8 Pr 1 / 3 Which is valid for ( 2 x10 5 < Re < 107 ) (7-7)
The properties of fluid should be calculated at the temperature (Tp+Tf )/2, where Tp is the plate surface
temperature and Tf is the fluid temperature.
The characteristics length L to be used in the above Eqs. (7-6) and .(7-7) is the length of the plate
parallel to the flow of the fluid.
(b) Fluid is flowing inside the tube or through the annulus.
Nu = 0 .023 Re0.5 Pr 0.4 (7-8)

4
Where 2300 < Re < 12x10
and
L
0.7 < Pr < 120 < 60 and
D
Eq.(7-8) can be used for heating an wall or for cooling the fluid passing through the tube or annulus.
The properties of the fluid should be taken at the mean temperature of the fluid Tf , Which is defined as
T s + Tm T + T0
Tf = Where Tm = 1
2 2
Ti and T0 are the inlet and outlet temperature of the fluid and Ts is the surface temperature of the tube
128
The characteristics length is the diameter of the tube d for the tube and (D-d )/4 for the annulus.
When the pipe is cross-flow to the pipe then the heat transfer coefficient are given by the following
equations.
For inline pipe
Nu = 0 .145 F (Re)0.654 (Pr)0.31 (7-9)
For staggered pipe
Nu = 0 .175 F (Re)0.68 (Pr)0.31 (7-10)
Wherer F is the factor to be taken from the following Table.7 - 1 according

to the number of tubes when the tubes are in the line in both cases are
less than ten
Table 7-1
Number
of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tubes
Factor F 0.64 0.76 0.83 0.87 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.99
(c) Heat transfer from the hot sphere to the flowing gas is given by the equation as
(7-11)
Nu = 0 .37 (Re)0.6 (Pr)1 3
If the flow is through the packed bed of sphere then the heat flow equation is given by
(7-12)
Nu = 0 .8 (Re)0.7 (Pr)1 2
The characteristic length is the diameter of the sphere.
Heat transfer from the hot sphere to the flowing gas is given by the Eq.(6-7) and (7-12) gives the
average heat transfer coefficient.
Note: Use of various correlation for hydrodynamically and thermally developed flows inside a duct
for more details students are advised to refer to heat transfer data hand book.
7-3 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIMENSION LESS PARAMETERS
The dimension less parameters, such as

1) Reynolds number
2) Prandtl number
3) Nusselt number
4) Stanton number
These dimension less number are introduced and the physical significance of these dimension less
parameters in the interpretation of the conditions associated with fluid flow or heat transfer is discussed in
detail.
129
1) Reynolds Number
Reynolds number based on a characteristic length L, rearranged in the form
u¥ L u2 L Inertia Force
Re = = ¥ 2 = (7-13)
n n u¥ L Viscous Force
Then the Reynolds number represents the ratio of the inertia to viscous force.
This result implies that viscous forces are dominant for small Reynolds numbers and inertia
forces are dominant for large Reynolds numbers. Recall that the Reynolds number was used as the
criterion to determine the change from laminar to turbulent flow.
As the Reynolds number is increased, the inertia forces become dominant and small disturbances
in the fluid may be amplified to cause the transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
2) Prandtl Number
The Prandtl number can be arranged in the form
cpm mr n Molecular diffusivity of momentum

Pr = = = = (7-14)
k k rc p a Molecular diffusivity of heat
Thus it represents the relative importance of momentum and energy transport by the diffusion process.
Hence for gases with Pr @ 1, the transfer of momentum and energy by the diffusion process is
comparable.
For oils.
Pr > 1, hence the momentum diffusion is much greater than the energy diffusion.
For liquid metals.
Pr < 1, hence the momentum diffusion is much lesser than the energy diffusion.
The development of velocity and thermal boundary layers for flow along a flat plate, the relative
thickness of velocity and thermal boundary layers depended on the magnitude of the Prandtl
number.
3) Nusselt number
Consider the Nusselt number, based on a characteristic length L
hL hDT Heat transfer by convection

Nu = = =
k k DT L Heat conduction across the fluid layer of thickness L (7-15)
where DT is the reference temperature difference between the wall surface and fluid temperatures.
Then the Nusselt number may be interpreted as the ratio of heat transfer by convection to
conduction across the fluid layer of thickness L.
Nu=1, Implies that there is no convection, the heat transfer is by pure conduction.
Nu >1, Implies enhanced heat transfer by convection.

130
4) Stanton number
Stanton number can be rearranged as

h hDT Heat transfer by convection
St = = = (7-16)
rc p u m rc p u m DT Mass heat flow rate
where AT is a reference temperature difference between the wall surface and the fluid.
The numerator represents heat flux to the fluid, and the denominator represents the heat transfer
capacity of the fluid flow.
Review Questions:
Example 7-1 The main trunck duct of an air conditioning unit is of (450 mm x 850 mm) cross-section and is
a rectangular duct. Air at 0.1 MPa and 20°C flows through it at a velocity of 10 m/s. Estimate the heat
leakage per metre length per unit temperature difference. (April/May 1995 K.U)
Solution: Given data Properties of air at 20 o C :
r = 1.205 kg / m 3 , n = 15.06 x10 -6 m 2 / s
Pr = 0.703 k = 0.0259 W / mK
Reynold's number
VDL 10 x0.585 x1 4 Ac 4 x0.85 x0.45
Re = = Since Dh = =
n 15.06 x10 -6 P 2 [ 0.45 + 0.85 ]
Dh = 0.588 m
Re = 3.09 x10 5 Flow is turbulent
Using the relation
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.3
Nu = 0.023( 3.09 x10 5 )0.8 ( 0.703 )0.3
Nu = 615.6
hL
= 615.6
k
\ h = 27.12 W / m 2 K
Rate of heat leakage
Q
= hP = 27.12 x 2 [ 0.45 + 0.85 ]
L.DT
= 70.5 W / m K
Example 7-2. Engine oil is pumped with a mean velocity of 0.6 m/s through a bundle of 80 tubes each of
inside diameter 2.5 cm and length 10 m. Calculate the pressure drop across each tube and the total
power required for pumping the oil through 80 tubes to overcome the fluid friction to flow. The
physical properties of engine oil are r=868kg/m3 n=0.75x10-4m2/s. (July/Aug 1998 K.U)
U m = 0.6 m / s n = 80tubes D = 2.5cm L = 10 m
n = 0.75 x10 -4 m 2 / s r = 868 kg / m 3
u D 0.6 x0.025
Re = m = = 200
n 0.75 x10 -4
The flow is laminar, hence friction factor is
131
64 64
f= = = 0.32
Re 200
The pressure drop across a tube
2
L ru m
DP = f
D 2
2
æ 10 öæç 868 X 0.6 ö
÷
= 0.32ç ÷ç
è 0.025 øè 2 ÷
ø
» 2 x 10 4 N / m 2
64 64
The flow rate through 80 tubes f= = = 0.32
Re 200
The pressure drop across a tube
2
L ru m
DP = f
D 2
2
æ 10 öæç 868 X 0.6 ö
÷
= 0.32ç ÷ç
è 0.025 øè 2 ÷
ø
» 2 x 10 4 N / m 2
The flow rate through 80 tube
æp D2 ö
M = nç ÷u
ç 4 ÷ m
è ø
p
= 80x ( 0.025 ) 2 ( 0.6 )
4
= 2.356 x10 - 2 m 3 / s
The pumping power requires
W = DP.M = ( 2 x10 4 )( 2.356 x10 - 2 )
= 471.2 N - m / s
= 471.2 W 0 tube
Example 7-3. Air at 0°C and a free stream velocity of 20 m/s, flows over a flat plate of 1.5m long, which is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 50°C, Calculate the following ;
i) The average heat transfer coefficient over the region where the boundary layer is laminar
assuming the critical Reynold's number Rec = 2 x 105
ii) Average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of plate.
iii) The total heat transfer rate from the plate to air per unit width of plate. Jan/Feb 2006 V.6T.U)
Re = 2 x 10 5 , u ¥ = 20 m / s , T¥ = 0°C , Tw = 50°C
Properties of air at mean film temp is :
Tw + T¥ 50 + 0
Tf = = = 25°C
2 2
r = 1.185 kg / m 3 ,n = 15.53 x 10 -6 m 2 / s , k = 0.02634 W / m - K , Pr = 0.702
Reynolds no. at the trailing edge is given by
u L 20 x 1.5
R e,L = ¥ = -6
= 19.32 x 10 5 > 2 x 10 5
V 15.53 x 10
\ It is turbulant at the end of the plate
132
(i) Laminar length from leading edge is
Re L V 2 x 10 5 x 15.53 x 10 -6
Lc = = = 0.1553m.
u¥ 20
\ Avg. heat transfer coefficient for the laminar region is given by
k
h= x 0.664 Re0.5 . Pr0.333
Lc
0.02634 x 0.664
h= x ( 2 x 10 5 )0.5 x 0.702 0.333
0.1553
h = 44.77 W / m 2 - K
(ii.) Average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of plate for the
combined laminar turbulant constant wall temperature case is given
by :
K
h = { Pr0.333 ( 0.037 Re0,.L8 - A ) }
L
0.02634
\h = { ( 0.702 )0.333 [ 0.037 ( 19.32 x 10 5 )0.8 - 347.3 ] }
1.5
h = 56.29 W / m 2 - K
(iii.) Total drag force on the plate on one side of it is
1 2
FD = C fl x rU 10 A
2
0.455 A
where C fl = 2.584
-
( Log 10 ReL ) Rel
As the vlue of A for R ec = 2x10 5 is not available in the table, one can take
the value corresponding to Re = 3x10 5
\ A = 1050
0.455 1050
Hence C fl = 5 2.584
- = 0.0718
( Log 10 19.32 x 10 ) 19.32 x 10 5
1
\FD = 0.07184 x x 1.185 x 20 2 x ( 1.5 x 1 ) = 25.54 N / unit width / side
2
Example 7-4 Consider the flow of water of a rate of Q,Q15kg/s through a square duct 2cm by 2cm whose
walls are maintained at a uniform temperature of 100°C Assuming that the flow is thermodynamically
and thermally developed, determine the length of the duct required to heat water from 30° C to 70°C.
Solution: Given data: (Jan/Feb 2006V.T.U)
a = b = 0.02 m. T fi = 30°C , T fo = 70°C , Tw = 100°C
m = 0.015 kg / s of water ; To find ' L'
T fi + T fo 30 + 70
Bulk mean temp. of water Tf = = = 50°C
2 2
Properties of water at 50°C : n = 0.568 x10 -6 m 2 / s , C p = 4.1814 kJ / kg k
Pr = 3.68 , k = 0.6395W / mK , r = 990.025 kg / m 3
4a 2
hydraulic diameter Dh = = a = 0.02 m
4a
m& 0.015
Avarage Velocity um = 2
= = 0.038 m / s
ra 990.025 x0.02 2
133
u m Dh 0.038 x0.02
Re = = = 1338
n 0.568 x10 -6
Flow is laminar
For finally developed laminar flow with constant
wall temperature & from tables, ( Nu = 3.608 for constant Q)
for constant Temp Nu = 2.976
h L
Nu m = m = 2.976
k
2.976 x0.6395
hm =
0.02
hm = 95.15W / m 2 K
Energy balance equation for the
heat supplied to wall fluid from the tube wall = energy removed by fluid by convection
\h m 2( a + b ) x L x DTm = m& C p ( T fo - T fi )
DT1 - DT2 ( Tw - T fi ) - ( Tw - T fo )
D Tm = =
æ DT1 ö é Tw - T fi ù
log e çç ÷÷ log e ê ú
è DT2 ø ëê Tw - T fo ûú
( 100 - 30 ) - ( 100 - 70 )
= = 47.21°C
æ 100 - 30 ö
log e ç ÷
è 100 - 70 ø
m& C p ( T fo - T fi )
L=
hav 2( a + b )DTm
0.015 x4.1814 x10 3 x( 70 - 30 )
=
95.16 x 2 x( 0.02 + 0.02 )x47.21
L = 7m
Example 7-5 Air at 20°C and at a atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3m/s. If the
plate is 30 cm length and at a temperature of 60°C, calculate
i) Velocity and thermal boundary layer thicknesses at 20 cm.
ii) Average heat transfer coefficient,
iii) Total drug force on the plate, per unit width.
Take the following properties of air :r = 1.18 kg/m3, n = 17 x 10-6 m2/ss k = 0.0272 W/mK,
Cp=1..007kJ/kgK, Pr=0.705. (May/June 2006V.T.U)
(i) Velocity thickness ( δ v )
dv 5 .0 Lu 0.3 x 3
= , Re x = ¥ = = 5.29 x10 4
L Re x v 17 x10 -6
d v = 0.5 . L (Re x )-0.5 = 0.5 x0.2 x( 5.29 x10 4 )-0.5 = 5.3mm
Thunder boundary layer thickness (d t )
1
dv
\ = Pr3
dt
d 5 .3
\d t = 1 3 = = 5.98 mm
Pr ( 0.705 )1 3
134
(ii) Local heat transfer coefficient (h L )
k
hL = 0 .332 ReL 0 .5 Pr 0 .33
L
0 .0272
hL = x 0 .332( 5.29 x 10 4 )0 .5 ( 0 .705 )0 .33
0 .3
hL = 6 .16 W/m 2 K
hm = 2 hL = 2 x6 .16 = 12.32W/m 2 K
Total drag force on the plate(F)
ru 2
F = AC m = AC m
2
1.18 x3 2
= ( 0.3 x1.0 )x0.00578 x
2
-3
F = 9.19 x10 N / unit Width
Example 7-6 Water at 20°C with a flow rate of 0.015 kg/s enters a 20mm inside diameter tube, which is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 90°C Determine the thermal entry length. Assuming
hydrodynamically and thermally fully developed flow, determine the convection heat transfer
coefficient and tube length required to heat the water to70°C. (July 2006 V.T.U)
Properties of water at Bulk mean temperature
T + T 20 + 70
Tm = o i = = 45°c
2 2
r = 992.5 kg / m 3 , n = 0.6123 x10 -6 , k = 0.6338W / mK
Pr = 4.01, c p = 4.179 kJ / kgK
VD 4 m& 4 m&
Renoylds No, Re = = =
n pDrn pDm
4 x0.015
Re =
px0.02 x( 992.5 x0.6123 x10 -6 )
= 1571.4 < 2300
\ The flow is laminar
(i) Thermal entry length,
x f = 0.04 D Re0 Pr = 0.04 x0.02 x1571.4 x4.01
x f = 5.041m
(ii) convection heat transfer coefficient for constant wall temp.

under laminar condition
hD
N u = 3.66 =
k
3.66 xk 3.66 x0.6338
h= = = 115 .98 » 116 W / m 2 K
D 0.02
(iii) Length of the tube required(L )
By energy balance
m& C p ïì æ TW + To ö üï 0.015 x4179 ì é 90 - 70 ù ü
L= í - ln çç ÷ ý=
÷ í ln ê ú -1 ý
hP ïî è TW + Ti ø ïþ 116 xpx0.02 î ë 90 - 20 û þ
L = 10.77 m
135
Example 2-7 Air at 200 C and velocity 5 m/s flows over a plate of 1.5 m long. The plate is maintained at a
uniform temperature of 100°C. The average heat transfer coefficient is 7.5 W/m K. Calculate the drag
force exerted on the plate per 0.75 m width by using Reynolds Colburn analogy. (May 2007 V.T.U)
Properties of air at 150°C are :

T +T 300
Tf = w ¥ = = 150°C
2 2
r = 0.8345 kg / m 3 ,n = 28.945 x 10 -6 m 2 / S
Pr = 0.683 , k = 0.03565 W / mK , C p = 1015 J / kgK
VL 5 x 1.5
Now, Reynolds no., Re = = = 2.59 x 10 5 < 5 x 10 5
n 28.945 x 10 -6
\It is Laminar flow
C fL
Now, Stanton number, St =
2 Pr 2 3
h C fL
x Pr 2 3 =
r cp u 2
7.5 C fL
x ( 0.683 )2 3 =
0.8345 x 1015 x 5 2
C fL = 2.7465 x 10 -3
1
Drag force / side of plate, f D = C fL x ru 2 x A p = 0.0322 N / side
2
Example 7-8 Atmospheric air at mean temperature of 300 K and a bulk stream velocity of 10 m/s flows
through a tube with 2.5 mm inside diameter. Calculate the pressure drop for100 m length of the tube for
i) A smooth tube ii) Commercial steel tube. (July 2007 V.T.U)
Properties of air at T f = 300 K , r = 1.177 kg / m 3 ,n = 15.718 x 10 -6 m 2 / S

uD 10 x 2.5 x10 -3
Re D = = = 1590.5 < 2000 \ It is laminar
V 15.718 x 10 -6
(i) Smooth tube :
64 64
friction factor, f = = = 0.04
Re D 1590.5
1 fL
\ Pressure drop, DP1 = r u2
2 D
1 0.04 x 100
= x x 1.177 x10 2
2 0.25 x 10 -4
= 94.72 kPa
Since the flow is laminar, friction factor is not a function of roughness of pipe
\ DP for commercial pipe = 94.72 kPa
136
Example 7-9 Water flows with a velocity of 0.6 m/s through a tube of inside diameter 60 mm and length 3.5
m. Find the heat transfer rate by forced convection. Mean water temperature is 50°C and tube wall
surface temperature is 70°C Use the empirical correlation Nu = 0.023(Re)-0.8 (Pr)-4 (July 2007 V.T.U)
Properties of water at T f = 50°C
r = 987 kg / m 3 , m = 528 x 10 -6 Pas
k = 0.645 K / mK , Pr = 3.42
ruD 987 x0.6 x0.6
Red = =
V 528 x 10 -6
Red = 67300 \Flow is turbulent
0 . 8 0 .4
\ N u = 0.023 Red Pr = 274
N u x K 274 x 0.645
\h = = = 2945.5 W / m 2 °C
D 0.06
Heat transfer rate, Q = ( pDL)h(Tw - T¥ )
= ( p x0.06 x 3.5)2945.5(70 - 50 )
Q = 38.865 kW
Example 7-10 Air at 20°C is flowing along a heated flat plate at 134°C at a velocity of 3 m/s. The plate is 2 m
long and 1.5 cm wide. Calculate the thickness of hydrodynamic boundary layer and the skin friction
coefficient at 40 cm from the leading edge of the plate. The kinematic viscosity of the air at 20°C is
15.06 x 10-6 m2/s. Also calculate the local heat transfer co-efficient at x = 0.4 m and the heat transferred
from the first 40cm of the plate. (Dec. 60/Jan.07 V.T.U)
W = 0.015 m
T - Tw
Tf = ¥ = 77°c
2
Properties of air a are
r = 1.0087 kg / m 3 , v = 60.769 x10 -6 m 2 / s
Pr = 0.6926 , k = 0.0302W / m - k
(i) Reynolds No. at x = 0.4 ,
u¥ x 3 x 0 .4
Re x = = -6
= 57778.4 < 5 x 10 5
n 20.769 x 10
\ The flow is laminar
\ Hydro dynamic boundary layer thickness,
d hx = 5 x Re x-0.5 = 5 x0.4 x ( 57778.4 )-0.5
d hx = 8.32 mm
Average skin friction factor
C fl = 1.328 Re x-0.5 = 1.328( 57778.4 )-0.5 = 5.52 x 10 -3
(ii) Local heat transfer coefficient,
N ux = 0 .332 Re x-0 .5 Pr 0 .333
= 0.332( 57778.4 )-0.5 ( 0.6926 )0.333
hx
= 70.62 =
k
137
70.62 x k 70.62 x 0.0302
\h = = = 5.33 W / m 2 K
x 0 .4
(iii.) Heat transferred for x = 0.4m
h = 2 h(x )1 = 2 x 5.33 = 10.66 W / m 2 K
\Q = h ADT = h ( L x W )( Tw - T¥ )
= 10.66 ( 0.4 x 0.015 )( 134 - 20 )
Q = 7.304W / s
Example 7-11 Assuming that a man can be represented by a cylinder 30 cm in diameter and 1.7 m high with a
surface temperature of 30°C. Calculate the heat he would lose while standing in a 36 km/h wind at
10°C (Dec. 60/Jan.07 V.T.U)
30 + 10
Tf = = 20°c Properties of air at 20°C are
2
n = 15.06 x10 -6 m 2 / s , Pr = 0.703 , k = 0.02593W / mK
u¥ D 10 x 0.3
Re o = = = 199203.2
n 15.06 x 10 -6
From the table ,
C = 0.0266 & m = 0.805
0.333
\ Nu D = C Re o pr = 0.0266 ( 199203.2 )0.085 ( 0.703 )0.333 = 436.4
436.4 x K 436.4 x 0.02593
\h = = = 37.72W / m 2 K
D 0 .3
Rate heat loss to the surroundings is
Q = hADT = 37.72 x ( p x0.3 x 1.7 )( 30 - 10 )
Q = 1208.6W
Example 7-12 Atmospheric air at T¥ =400 K flows with a velocity of u¥ = 4m/s along a flat plate L =1m
long maintained at a uniform temperature Tw = 300K. The average heat transfer coefficient is
determined to be hm = 7.75 W/m2 °C. Using Reynolds - Colburn analogy, estimate the drag force
exerted on the plate per 1m width. Take ρρ = 0.998 kg/m3, Cp = 1009 J/kg °C , Pr = 0.697.
Solution: Given data: Stanton No, h (Dec. 07 /Jan.08 V.T.U)
St =
r cpU 100
7.75
=
0.998 x 1009 x 4
St = 1.92 x 10 -3
2 2
Also, C f L = 2 st Pr 3 = 2 x 1.92 x 10 -3 ( 0.697 ) 3
C f L = 3.025 x 10 -3
Now, Drag force on each side,
1
FD = C f L rU ¥2 A
2
1
= 3.025 x 10 -3 x x 0.998 x 4 2 ( Lx1 )
2
= 0.0242 N / side
Total drag, FD = 2 x0.0242 = 0.0484 N
138
Review Question
7-1 Atmospheric air at 27°C flows along a flat plate with a velocity of u¥ = 8 m/s. The critical Reynolds
number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow is Re = 5 x 105.
(a) At what distance from the leading edge of the plate does transition occur?
(b) Determine the velocity boundary-layer thickness and the local drag coefficient at the location
where the transition occurs.
(c) Determine the average drag coefficient over the distance where the flow is laminar.
Answer: (a) 0.98 m; (b) 7 mm, 0.00094; (c) 0.00188.
7-2 Consider a flat plate of length L 1 m in the x direction and width w = 3 m in the y direction. Air at T¥
= 27°C and atmospheric pressure flows along this plate in the x direction with a velocity of u¥ = 2
m/s. Calculate the total drag force exerted on the plate. What would the drag force be if the air flow
were in the y direction?
Answer: 0.0263 N, 0.0152 N
7-3 Atmospheric air at 27°C flows with a free-stream velocity of u¥ = 10 m/s along a flat plate L = 4 m
long. Compute the drag coefficient at 2 and 4 m from the leading edge. Assuming an all-turbulent
boundary layer, determine the drag force exerted per 1-m width of the plate.
Answer: 3.56 x 10-3, 3.1 x 10-3,0.91 N.
7-4 Air at 27°C flows with a free-stream velocity of u¥ = 40 m/s along a flat plate L = 2 m long. Calculate the
boundary-layer thickness at the end of the plate for air at (a) ½, (b) 1, and (c) 2 atm.
Answer: (a) 3.18, (b) 3.07, (c) 2.82 cm
7-5 Determine the velocity and the thermal boundary-layer thicknesses L = 0.5 m from the leading edge of a
flat plate at 74°C for flow at T¥ = 80oC and atmospheric pressure with a velocity of u¥ = 3m/s of air,
hydrogen, and helium, respectively. Compare the ratiodt/d
Answer: d= 9.2, 24.1, 25.8 mm; dt = 9.5, 24.8. 26.4 mm.
7-6 Engine oil at 40°C flows with a velocity of u¥ = 1 m/s over a 2-m-long flat plate whose surface is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 80°C. Determine the average heat transfer coefficient over the 2-
m length of the plate.
Answer: 74.4 W/(m2 °C)
7-7 Mercury at T¥ = 80°C flows with a velocity of u¥ = 0.1 m/s over a flat plate maintained at Tw = 120°C.
Assuming that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow takes place at Re = 5 x 105, determine the
average heat transfer coefficient over the length of the plate where the flow is laminar.
Answer: 2300 W/(m2 °C)
7-8 Ethylene glycol at a mean temperature of 80oC flows over a 0.5-m-long flat plate with a velocity of u¥ =
2 m/s. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of the plate.
.
7-9 Atmospheric air at 20°C flows with a velocity of 2 m/s over the 3 m by 3 m surface of a wall which absorbs
solar energy flux at a rate of 500 W/m2 and dissipates heat by convection into the airstream. Assuming
that the other surface of the wall has negligible heat loss, determine the average temperature of the wall
under equilibrium conditions.
Answer; 180°C
7-10A fluid at 27°C flows with a velocity of 10 m/s across a 5-cm-OD tube whose surface is kept at a uniform
temperature of 120°C. Determine the average heat transfer coefficients and the heat transfer rates per
meter length of the tube for (a) air at atmospheric pressure, (b) water, (c) ethylene glycol.
Answer: (a) 58.3, (b) 31,800, (c) 10,628 W/(m2 °C).
7-11 Engine oil at 20° C flows with a velocity of 1 m/s across a 2.5-cm-diameter tube which is maintained
at a uniform temperature 100°C. Determine the average heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer
rate between the tube surface and the oil per meter length of the tube.
139
Answer: 3206 W/(m2 °C), 20.14 kW/m
7-12Atmospheric air at 20°C flows with a free-stream velocity 5 m/s over a 2-m-diameter spherical tank
which is maintained at 80°C. Compute the average heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer rale from
the sphere to the air.
Answer: 63.2 W/(m2 °C), 29.8 W
7-13Air at atmospheric pressure and 27°C flows over a tube bank consisting of D = 1cm-diameter tubes 10
rows deep. The flow velocity before the air enters the tube bundle is 1 m/s. Determine the average heat
transfer coefficient for the following two cases: (a) Tubes are in equilateral-triangular arrangement with
ST /D = SD /D = 1.25. (b) Tubes are in square arrangement with ST /D = SL /D = 1.25.
Answer: (a) 106, (b) 101 W/(m2 °C).
7-14 Air at atmospheric pressure and 27°C flows over a tube bank consisting of D = 1cm-diameter tubes 10
rows deep. The flow velocity before the air enters the tube bank 1.5 m/s. Determine the average friction
factor and the pressure drop for the following configurations:
(a) Tubes are in equilateral-triangular arrangement with ST /D = SD /D = 1.25. (i) Tubes are in a square
arrangement with ST /D = SL /D = 1.25.
Answer: (a)f = 0.6, Dp = 198.7 N/m2; (b) f = 0.53, Dp = 175.5 N/m2
7-15 Mercury at 200°C flows over a tube bank consisting of 1.25-cm-OD tubes arranged in equilateral-
triangular arrangement with a pitch-to-diameter ratio of 1.375. There are 60 rows in the direction of
flow, and the flow velocity just before the fluid enters the tube bank is u¥ = 0.07 m/s. Determine the
friction factor and the pressure drop for flow across this tube bank.
Answer: 0.25; 6.5 kN/m2
7-16 Liquid sodium at 425°C flows across a tube bank consisting of 1.25-cm-OD tubes 50 rows deep in the
direction of flow and having an equilateral-triangular arrangement with a pitch-to-diameter ratio of 1.5.
The flow velocity before the liquid enters the tube bank is 0.3 m/s, and the tubes are at a uniform
temperature of 200°C. Determine the average heat transfer coefficient.
Answer: 62.84 kW/(m2 °C)
HEAT EXCHANGER
Chapter -Eight
140
8
HEAT EXCHANGERS
8-1 INTRODUCTION:
A heat exchanger is a device which transfers thermal energy from a high-temperature fluid
to a low-temperature fluid with both fluids moving through the device . Therefore ‘A device
which transfers heat from one fluid to another fluid is called a heat exchanger’. Examples of
heat exchangers are the base board heater in a home, the automobile radiator, and the domestic hot
water heater.
Heat exchangers are widely used in chemical industries and power plants. In an open feed
water heater, a stream of steam is directly mixed with cold water and the mixture leaves the unit at
a uniform temperature. There are several types of devices or heat exchangers in which one fluid
is separated from the other by a wall or partition through which heat flows.
The simplest type of heat exchanger is a double-pipe heat exchanger in which one fluid
flows through the inner pipe while the other fluid flows through the annular space between the
inner and outer pipes. The temperature range, the phases of the fluids (liquid or gaseous), the
quantity of thermal energy to be transferred, and the permissible pressure drops for the hot and
cold fluids determine the heat exchanger configuration for a given application. In the design of a
heat exchanger one should take into account the following important factors:
The thermal analysis. In this phase of design one is primarily concerned with the estimation of
heat transfer area for the transfer of heat at a specified rate for the given flow rates and
temperatures of the fluids.
The mechanical design. In this phase of design one takes into account the operating
temperatures, pressures, corrosive nature of the fluids, pressure drop, thermal stresses, etc.
The design for manufacture. In this phase of design one concentrates on the selection of
material, seals, enclosures, cost of manufacturing and the manufacturing procedures.
We limit our discussion to heat exchangers in which heat is transferred by conduction and
convection only. In order to achieve maximum economy, the heat exchangers are usually selected
from the available standard items in the market. The selection of the heat exchanger has to be
based on the thermal analysis, cost, physical size and corrosive nature of the fluids.
8-2 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers can be classified in many different ways. One way is to base the
classification on the relative directions of the flow of the hot and cold fluids, giving rise to terms
like parallel flow, when both the fluids move in the same direction; counter flow, when the
fluids move in parallel but in opposite directions; and cross flow, when the directions of flow are
mutually perpendicular.
These configurations are shown in Figures 8-1 to 8-3.

141
Parallel- and Counter-Flow Heat v Exchanger
The parallel- and the counter-flow modes usually involve two concentric tubes with one fluid flowing
in the central tube and the other flowing in the annulus. In practical applications, one seldom finds a truly
parallel- or counter-flow-type exchanger. The configuration shown in Figures 8-1 and 8-2 is often called a
double-pipe heat exchanger since it involves two concentric pipes.
Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger
In Figure 8-3, there are a number of parallel paths for the fluid flowing in the x-direction (in the tubes),
and each path is physically separated from its neighboring paths. The fluid in the tubes is said to be unmixed.
If we examine the Figure, we find that there are no channels for the fluid flowing in the y-direction. In cross
flow exchanger the fluid is said to be mixed. Cross-flow heat exchangers are further classified as 1) those
with both fluid mixed, 2) those with both fluid unmixed, 3) those with one fluid mixed and other unmixed.
Figure 8-1.parallel flow heat exchanger. Figure 8-2.Counter flow heat exchanger.
Figure 8-3. Cross flow heat exchanger.
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger
The shell-and-tube heat exchangers shown in Fig. 8-4 to Fig. 8-7 are widely used in chemical process
industries. One fluid flows through the inside tubes while the other fluid flows through the shell. This type of
heat exchanger has fixed tube plates at each end and the tubes are welded into the plates. The shell-and-tube
heat exchangers can be used for small temperature differences between the hot and cold fluids because they
cannot withstand high thermal stresses. To ensure that the shell-side fluid flows across the tubes to enhance
the heat transfer rates, baffles are placed in the shell.
Depending on the arrangement at the ends of the heat exchanger, one or more tube passes can be
utilized. A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two tube passes and one shell pass is shown in Fig. 8-6.
142
Cold fluid Hot fluid

in let in let
Shell
Tube sheet
Water box Water box
Tubes
Cross Hot fluid Cold fluid
baffle out let out let
Fig 8-4 Shell and Tube Pass Heat Exchanger with One Tube and One Shell Pass
Fluid 2 Fluid 1
inlet oulet
Cross Fluid 2 Fluid 1

baffle outlet inlet
Fig 8-5 Shell and Tube Pass Heat Exchanger with Two Tube and One Shell Pass
Fluid 2
Fluid 1
Fluid 2
Fig 8-6 Two Tube and One Shell Pass

143
Fluid 2
Fluid 1
Fluid 1
Fluid 2
Fig. 8-7 Four Tube Passes and Two Shell Pass.
If the two fluids flowing along the heat transfer surface move at right angles to each other, then the heat
exchanger is of the cross-flow type. The cross-flow heat exchangers are usually used in air or gas heating and
cooling applications. A schematic of the cross-flow heat exchanger is shown in Fig.8-3 and Fig. 8-8 in which
a gas flows across a tube-bank, while another fluid flows through the tubes. The fluid in the tubes is said to be
an unmixed stream because the fluid is contained in separate tubular channels and the fluid cannot mix with
itself while it is in the heat exchanger.
A different type of cross-flow heat exchanger which is also in common use is one in which both the streams
are unmixed. A schematic of a cross-flow heat exchanger with both streams unmixed is shown in Fig. 8-8. In
this type of cross-flow heat exchanger, a gas flows across a finned tube bank and remains unmixed. Such heat
exchanger is used in air-conditioning equipment.
Cold fluid Hot fluid

out let out let
Hotfluid
inlet
Hotfluid Cold fluid

inlet inlet Cold fluid
(a) (b) inside tube
Fig. 8-8 Cross Flow arrangement a) Both fluid unmixed b) Cold fluid unmixed
144
8-3 OVER ALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT, U
Take a plane metal wall having thermal conductivity k and thickness L as shown in the Fig.2-13 the
wall separates hot fluid of temperature Ti and cold fluid of temperature To. Let us denote the surface
temperature of wall as T1 and T2. The temperature of the fluid and wall is changed in the direction ‘x’ axis only.
Let the coefficient of heat transfer of hot and cold sides are hi and ho at left and right side of the plane wall
respectively.
Consider a plane metal wall in between two fluid having thermal conductivity k and thickness L. If the
fluids are maintained at constant temperatures, Th and Tc, the amount of heat transferred ,Q
Q æ T -T ö
= hi ( Ti - T1 ) = k ç 1 2 ÷ = h0 ( T2 - T0 ) (8 - 1)
A è L ø
Q
=
(Ti - T0 ) Þ q=
(Ti - T0 )
T1 A 1 1 L 1 1 L
+ + + +
hi h0 k hi h0 k
Hot fluid, The rate of heat flow can be written as
Cold fluid,
Ti,hi
T2 To,ho A(Ti - T0 )
Q = UA(Ti - T0 ) = (8 - 2)
K 1
U
x where U is known as overall heat transfer coefficient
L equating equations
1 1 1 L
Fig.8-9 Plane slab = + + (8 - 3)
U hi h0 k
For ' n' number of slabs
n=n
1 1 1 Ln
= + + å
U hi h0 n =1 k n
(8 - 4)
The overall heat transfer coefficient for heat exchangers depends not only on the convective heat
transfer coefficient hi and ho, but also on the surface areas, Ai and Ao of the inside and outside of the tubes.
L
Cold fluid,
To,ho
Hot fluid,
k Ti,hi
r2 r1 T1
T2
R
Q
T1 T2
Fig.8-10 Hollow cylinder

2p kL( T1 - T2 )
Q = 2p ri L hi ( Ti - T1 ) = = 2p ri L hi ( T2 - T0 ) (8 -5)
ln( ro ri )
A + Ao
Ao = 2p ro L , Ai = 2p ri L and Am = i
2
145
Considering the heat flow under steady state condition and simplify the above equation
We get
é Ti - To ù
Q=ê ú (8 - 6)
ë 1 Ai hi + L Am k + 1 Ao ho û
Over all heat transfer coefficient based on outside area of the cylinder
Q = U o Ao ( Ti - T0 ) (8 - 7)
Equating Eq.8 - 6 and Eq.8 - 7
Q = AoU o ΔT
We get
1 1 L 1
= + +
U o Ao Ai hi kAm Ao ho
1 A 1 L Ao 1
= o + +
Uo Ai hi k Am ho
1 d 1 p do L 1
= o + +
U o d i hi æ di + do ö ho
p Lçç ÷÷ Am
è 2 ø
1 d 1 L 2 do 1
= o + +
U o d i hi k ( d i + d o ) h o
Put 2 L = (d o - d i )
1 d 1 (d - d i ) d o 1
= o . + o . + (8 - 8)
U o d i hi ( d i + d o ) k h o
Where U o is overall heat transfer coefficient refferred to A o
Similarly for ' n' number of cylinder the over all heat transfer coefficient
rn +1
n = n ln
1 1 1 rn
= + +
U hi ri h0 rn +1 n =1 k n å (8 - 9)
and for ' n' composite layer for sphere

n=n
1 1 1 1 rn - rn +1
= + +
U hi ri 2 h0 r 2 n + 2 k n å r .r
n =1 n n +1
(8 - 10)
8-4 Fouling Factors
After a period of operation, the heat transfer surface in a heat exchanger in a process industry gets
coated with various deposits. Hence the performance of heat exchangers which are in use for some time
cannot be predicted from a thermal analysis. The deposits on the heat transfer surface may be rust or scale or
anything else, and this coating presents an additional resistance to the heat flow. The coating results in a
decrease in the performance of the heat exchanger. The effect is usually referred to as fouling. The heat
exchanger manufacturer can specify the performance of a clean heat exchanger only. The thermal resistance
of the deposit or the fouling resistance can be obtained only from actual tests. If performance tests are made
on a clean heat exchanger and the test is repeated after the unit has been in service for a sufficiently long time,
the fouling resistance fouling factor or therefore can be determined from the relation.
146
1 1
= Rf +
U foul U clean
The fouling factors for various applications have been compiled by the Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association and a few representative factors are presented in Table 8.1.
Table 8-1. Normal fouling factors

2
Type of fluid Fouling factor m k/W
Sea water below 50°C 0.00009
Sea water above 50° C 0.002
Treated boiler feed-water above 50° C 0.0002
Fuel oil 0.0009
Steam 0.00009
Industrial air 0.0004
Refrigerating liquid 0.0002
Alcohol vapors 0.00009
8-5 ANALYSIS OF A HEAT EXCHANGER

The main objective of analyzing a heat exchangers is to be able to express the total amount of heat
transferred, Q, from the hot to the cold in terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient U, the surface area
of the heat exchangers A and the inlet and the exit temperature of the hot and the cold fluids. An energy
balance on the two fluids gives
Energy lost by the hot fluid = Energy lost by the cold fluid
Or
m& h ch [ Thi - Tho ] = Q = m& c cc [ Tco - Tci ] ( 8 - 11 )
Where
m& h = Mass flow rate of the hot fluid
m& c = Mass flow rate of the cold fluid
ch = Specific heat at constant pressure for hot fluid
cc = Specific heat at constant pressure for cold fluid
Thi = Inlet temperature of hot fluid
Tho = oulet temperature of hot fluid
Tci = Inlet temperature of cold fluid
Tco = outlet temperature of cold fluid
The product ( m& c ) appears frequently in the analysis of heat exchangers and is often called as
heat capacity C. It is valid for all types of exchangers.
LMTD For Parallel flow heat exchanger
In analyzing the parallel flow exchanger, we note that the properties are no longer constant along the
length of the tube, since both the fluids experience either a loss or a gain of energy and the fluid temperature
change. The quantity U, as a first approximation may be treated as a constant quantity. Let us consider a small
length dx of the tube as shown in the Fig.8-11.
147
Thi
Th
DTx=0 Tho
qi=Thi-Tci DT=(Th-Tc)=q DTx=L qo=Tho-Tco
Tco
Tc
Tci
x =0 dQ x =L
Hot fluid L
Thi
Cold fluid
Cold fluid
Tci
Tco
x dx Hot fluid
Tho
Figure 8-12.Temperature distribution in a
parallel flow heat exchanger
The following assumptions are made for the derivation of LMTD.
1) The over all heat transfer coefficient U is constant.

2) The mass flow rate of each fluid is constant.
3) The specific heat of each fluid is constant.
4) There is no phase change either of the fluid during the heat transfer.
5) External heat losses are negligible.
If the flow length is L and the temperature distribution for hot and cold fluid will as shown Fig.8-12.
Considering an element dx at a distance x as shown , the temperature difference between the two fluids at
a distance x is given by
q = Th - To (8-12)
If the hot fluid travels from x to (x+d), the decrease in temperature is dTh and similarly increase in
temperature of cold fluid is dTc
148
By energy balance equation,
(Heat lost by hot fluid due to travel of distance dx) = (Heat gained by cold fluid due to travel of
distance dx) = (heat transferring area from hot to cold fluid by an element area dA )
Assuming dQ is the quantity of heat transferred in the element dx or elemental area dA then
(8-13)
dQ = - Ch ( dTh ) = - Co ( dTo ) =U .d A.q
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, from Eq.(8-12).

q = Th - To
\ dq = dTh - dTc
Substituting the values of (dTh) and (dTc) from the Eqs. (8-13)
U q .dA U q . dA
dq = - - Temperatur e increase is + ve, decrease is - ve
Ch Cc
æ 1 1 ö
= - U q .dAçç + ÷÷
è C h Cc ø
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ = - U . dAçç + ÷÷
q C
è h C c ø
Integrating the above equation in the limit q i to q o where
q i = Thi - Tci and q o = Tho - Tco
qo A
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ ò
qi
q
= U çç + ò
÷÷ dA
è C h Cc ø 0
Where A is the total area of the heat exchanger.

q æ 1 1 ö
\log e o = - UA çç + ÷÷ (8 - 14)
qi C
è h C c ø
But
Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
\Q = Ch ( Thi - Tho ) = Cc ( Thi - Tci ) (8 - 15)
Substituting the values of C h and C o from Eq. (8 - 15) into the equation we get Eq.(8 - 14), we get
æq ö é ( T - Tho ) ( Tco - Tci ) ù
\log e çç o ÷÷ = - U ê hi + úA
q
è iø ë Q Q û
æq ö UA
\log e çç o ÷÷ = - [ ( Thi - Tci ) - ( Tho - Tco ) ]
è qi ø Q
UA
= [ qi - qo ]
Q
æ q -qo ö
Q = U A çç i ÷÷ (8 - 16)
è log e q i q o ø
149
\ Q = U A.DTm
Comparing Eqs. (21.1) and (21.7), we get
DTm =
( qi - qo )
æq ö
log e çç i ÷÷
è qo ø
This expression for the mean temperature, is known as Log Mean Temperatur e Difference
and is denoted by q ln or LMTD
q
q m can be generally used insted of q ln provided i < 2
qo
LMTD For Counter flow heat exchanger
If the flow length is L for a counter flow heat exchanger, then the temperature distribution for hot and cold
fluid will be shown in Figure. 8-13.
Consider an element dx at a distance at x as shown .
q o = Th - To (8-17)
For steady flow condition
(Heat lost by hot fluid due to travel of distance dx) = (Heat gained by cold fluid due to travel of
distance dx) = (heat transferring area from hot to cold fluid by an element area dA )
Thi
(qi=Thi-Tci) DTx=0
Th
Tco
DT=(Th-Tc)=q Tho
DTx=L (qo=Tho-Tco)
Tc
Tci
Hot fluid
x =0 LdQ x =L
Thi
Cold fluid
Tci
Cold fluid
Tco
x dx Hot fluid
Tho
Figure 8-13.Temperature distribution in a
parallel flow heat exchanger
150
Assuming dQ is the quantity of heat transferred by the elemental area dA

\ dQ = - C h .d Th = -Cc .d Tc = U .d .A.q (8-18)
From Eq.(8-17)
Substituting the values of dTh and dTc from the Eq. (8-18). We get
Uq d .A Uq d .A
dq = - +
Ch Cc
dq æ 1 1 ö÷
=U ç - d .A
q ç Cc C ÷
è h ø
Integrating the above equation in the limit q t to q c .
q o dq æ 1 1 ö÷ A
\ ò =U ç - d .A ò dA
q ç Cc C ÷ o
è hø
where A is the total area of the heat exchanger,
q æ 1 1 ö÷
\log e o = Ucç - A
qi ç Cc C ÷
è h ø
Q = C h ( Thi - Tho ) = C c ( Tco - Tci ) (8-19)
Substituting the values of Ch and Cc from Eq. (8-19)
q é ( Tco - Tci ) ( Thi - Tho ) ù

log e o = UA ê - ú
qi ëê Q Q ûú
é ( Tho - Tci ) - ( Thi - Tco ) ù
\Q = U ê ú
ëê log e q o q i ûú
é ( T - Tco ) - ( Tho - Tci ) ù
= U ê hi ú
êë log e q i q o úû
é q -q o ù
= UAê i ú
êë log e q i q o úû
q i -q o
\ q in =
log e q i q o
If q i = q o , then the exp ression for LMTD becomes
q i -q o 0
LMTD (counterflow)= = (8-20)
log e q i q o 0
which is undetermined quantity,
The limiting value of q i - q o / log e q i q o can be calculated as follows
The limiting value of LMTD

d dq o ( 0i - q o )
as θ o is changing and approaching to as θ ,
d
dq
[log e q i q o]
151
d
(q i -q o )
dq o 0 -1
=- = =qo
d 1
[log e ( q i ) - log( q o ) 0 -
dq o qo
Therefor LMTD is equal to AMTD when θ o = θ i
This means that the temperature difference causing the heat flow
along the heat exchanger remain constant
\ LMTD = AMTD
In more general study of heat exchangers, it is always desirable to use Negle’s charts, therefore it is
necessary to express LMTD (qln) in terms of the quantities.
Thi - Tho
R= (8 - 21)
Tco - Tci
Tco - Tci
P= (8 - 22)
Thi - Tci
By re - arrangement of the expression of LMTD
for counterflow heat exchanger we can unite the
expression interms of R and P as
( T - Tci )( R - 1 )
LMTD = co
æ 1- P ö
log e ç ÷
è 1 - R.P ø
8-6 EFFECTIVENESS METHOD (N.T.U. METHOD)
The log-mean temperature difference approach to heat exchanger analysis is useful when the inlet
and outlet temperatures are known or are easily determined. The LMTD. is then easily calculated and the heat
flow surface area or overall heat transfer coefficient may be determined.
When the inlet and outlet temperatures are to be determined for a given heat exchanger, the analysis
frequently involves a trial and error procedure because of the logarithmic function in the LMTD. In these
cases, the analysis is performed more easily by utilizing a method based on the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger. The effectiveness method also offers many advantages for analysis of problems in which a
comparison between various types of heat exchangers must be made for purpose of selecting the type best
suited to accomplish a particular heat transfer objective. The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as :
Actual heat transfer
Î=
Maximum possible heat transfer
The actual heat transfer may be computed by calculating either the energy lost by the hot fluid or the
energy gained by the cold fluid.
Consider the parallel and counter flow heat exchangers shown in Fig. 8-12 and 8-13.
for parallel and for counter-flow also.
Q = C h ( Thi - Tho ) = C c ( Tco - Tci ) for parallel and for counter - flow also.
152
To determine the maximum possible heat transfer for the exchanger, we first recognize that this
maximum value could be attained if one of the fluid were to undergo a temperature change equal to the
maximum temperature difference present in the exchanger, which is the difference in the entering
temperatures for the hot and cold fluids.
The fluid which might undergo the maximum temperature difference is the one having the minimum
value of (mCp), since the energy balance requires that the energy received by one fluid with the larger value of
(mCv) go through the maximum temperature difference greater than the maximum, and this is impossible, so
maximum possible heat transfer is expressed as
Q max = ( m.C p )min ( Thi - Tci ) = C min ( Thi - Tci )
Effectiveness for the Parallel Flow Heat Exchangers
By Referring to parallel flow heat exchanger as shown in Fig.8-12,
Considering an element dx at a distance x
C h ( Thi - Tho ) C (T -T )
Î= = c co ci (8 - 23)
C min ( Thi - Tci ) C min ( Thi - Tci )
Q = C h ( Thi - Tho ) = Cc ( Tco - Tci )
by considering an element dx at a distance x
q = Th - To
\ dq = dTh - dTc (8 - 24)
dQ = -C h ( dTh ) = Cc ( dTc ) = U .dA.q (8 - 25)
Substituting the values of dTh and dTc from Eq.(8 - 25) in to Eq.(2 - 24)
Uq .dA Uq .dA
dq = - - Temperatur e increase is + ve , decrease is - ve
Ch Cc
æ 1 1 ö
= - Uq .dAçç + ÷
÷
è Cc Ch ø
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ = - U . dAçç + ÷
÷
q è Cc Ch ø
q i = Thi - Tci and q o = Tho - Tco
qo A
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ ò = U çç + ÷ dA
÷ ò
q è Ch Cc ø 0
qi
Tho - Tco
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ ò = U çç + ÷
÷ ò dA
q C
è h C c ø
Thi - Tci
Tho - Tco æ 1 1 ö
log e = -UA çç + ÷
÷
Thi - Tci è Ch Cc ø
æ 1 1 ö
-UA çç + ÷
Tho - Tco C C ÷
=e è h cø (8 - 26)
Thi - Tci
153
\ The values of Tho and Tco are taken from the equation(8 - 23)
C
Tho = Thi - min (Thi - Tci ). Î
Ch
C min
Tco = Tci - (Thi - Tci ). Î
Cc
Subtracting one from the other, we get
æ 1 1 ö
Tho - Tco = ( Thi - Tci ) - C min (Thi - Tci ).çç + ÷. Î
÷
C
è c C h ø
é æ 1 1 öù
= ( Thi - Tci )ê1- Î .C min çç + ÷ú
÷
ëê è C c C h øûú
( Tho - Tco ) æ 1 1 ö
= 1- Î .C min çç + ÷
÷
( Thi - Tci ) C
è c C h ø
Substituting this value in Eq.(8 - 26), we get
æ 1 1 ö
-UA çç + ÷
æ 1 1 ö ÷
1- Î .C min çç + ÷ = e è Cc C h ø
÷
è Cc Ch ø
æ 1 1 ö
-UA çç + ÷
÷
è Cc C h ø
1- e
Î= (8 - 27)
æ 1 1 ö
C min çç + ÷
÷
è Cc Ch ø
If C c is assumed minimum then
C c > C h and therefore C c = C min and C h = C max
Substituting this in Eq.(8 - 27)
UA æ C min ö
- ç 1+ ÷
C min ç C ÷
1- e è max ø
Î= (8 - 28)
æ C ö
ç 1 + min ÷
ç C ÷
è max ø
If C h < Cc , then Ch = Cmin and Cc = Cmax
Then substituting these values in Eq.(8 - 27) again we get the same result
as given in Eq. (8 - 28)
The following two important cases are considered.
Case - I
C
In the case of gas turbine, min » 1
Cmax
1
\Î= [ 1 - e - 2 NTU ] (2 - 29)
2
UA
Where NTU = and it is known as Number of Transfer Units
Cmin
In this case, no matter how large the exchanger is or how large the overall heat transfer coefficient is,
the maximum effectiveness for a parallel flow heat exchanger is only 50%. For counter flow, this limit is
100%. For this reason, a counter flow unit is usually more advantageous for gas turbine heat exchanger.
154
Case - II
C min
For boiler and condenser , »0
C max
\Î= 1 - e - 2 NTU (2 - 30)
Effectiveness for Counter Flow Heat Exchangers
By referring to the Fig. 8-13 and considering an element dx at a distance

by considering an element dx at a distance x
q = Th - To
\ dq = dTh - dTc (8 - 31)
dQ = -C h ( dTh ) = -Cc ( dTc ) = U .dA.q (8 - 32)
Substituting the values of dTh and dTc from Eq.(8 - 32) in to Eq.(2 - 31)
Uq .dA Uq .dA
dq = - + Temperatur e increase is + ve , decrease is - ve
Ch Cc
æ 1 1 ö
= - Uq .dAçç - ÷
÷
è Cc Ch ø
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ = - U . dAçç - ÷
÷
q è Cc Ch ø
q i = Thi - Tco and q o = Tho - Tci
qo A
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ ò = U çç - ÷ dA
÷ ò
q è Cc Ch ø 0
qi
Tho - Tci A
dq æ 1 1 ö
\ ò = U çç - ÷ dA
÷ ò
q C
è c C h ø0
Thi - Tco
Tho - Tci æ 1 1 ö
log e = UA çç - ÷
÷
Thi - Tco è Cc Ch ø
T - Tco æ 1 1 ö
log e hi = -UA çç - ÷
÷
Tho - Tci è Cc Ch ø
æ 1 1 ö
-UA çç - ÷
Thi - Tco C C ÷
\ =e è c hø (8 - 33)
Tho - Tci
\ The values of Tho and Tco are taken from the Eq.(8 - 23)
C
Tho = Thi - min (Thi - Tci ). Î
Ch
C min
Tco = Tci - (Thi - Tci ). Î
Cc
Substituting the values in Eq. (8 - 33)
155
C min
( Thi - Tci ) - (Thi - Tci ). Î -UA çç
æ 1 1 ö
- ÷
Cc C C ÷
=(e) è c h ø
C
( Thi - Tci ) - min (Thi - Tci ). Î
Ch
C min
1- .Î æ 1 1 ö
-UA çç - ÷
Cc C C ÷
=(e) è c h ø
C
1 - min . Î
Ch
é æ 1 1 öù
-UA çç - ÷
æ 1 1 ö
-UA çç - ÷
ê C min C min è Cc C h ÷ø ú ÷
è Cc C h ø
Îê - (e) ú = 1 - ( e )
C Ch
êë c úû
æ 1 1 ö
-UA çç - ÷
÷
C C
1-( e ) è c h ø
\Î=
é æ 1 1 öù
-UA ç - ÷
ê C min - C min ( e ) çè Cc Ch ÷ø ú
ê C Ch ú
êë c úû
UA æ C ö
- ç 1- min ÷
C min çè C max ÷ø
1-( e )
Î= (8 - 34)
é -
UA æ C min ö ù
ç 1- ÷
ê1 - C min ( e ) Cmin çè Cmax ÷ø ú
ê C ú
max
êë úû
The grouping of terms UA/Cmin is called the Number of Transfer Unit (NTU), since it is indicative
of the size of the heat exchanger.
The following two important cases are considered.
Case -I In case of boiler and condenser
Cmin
In the case of gas turbine, »0
Cmax
UA
\Î (Parallel flow) = 1 - e C min = [ 1 - e - NTU ] (8 - 35)

UA
C min
\Î (Parallel flow) = 1 - e = [ 1 - e - NTU ] (8 - 36)
When a phase change occurs on one side of the heat exchanger surface, it does not matter which flow
arrangement is used as parallel or counter flow as it gives the same result.
Case -I In case of boiler and condenser C
For boiler and condenser , min » 0
Cmax
1
\Î (Parallel flow) = [ 1 - e - 2 NTU ] (8 - 37)
2
Î for counter flow arrangement the value becomes un determinant, so it is solved by using
mathematical technique. If the value of NTU=1/2, then Î=1 and heat exchanger becomes 100% efficient.
It should be noted that the equation developed for the heat exchanger effectiveness are independent of
the terminal temperature of the fluid. This enables one to plot Î verses NTU for selected values of Cmin/Cmax
156
Example 8-1. Find the length of the tube required for the following heat transfer where air is heated by
exhaust gases. Q=9300 W is side diameter di and outside diameter do of the tube are 5cm and 6cm respectively,
hi= 116 W/m2oC , ho=186W/m2 oC, Thi=400 oC, Tho=150oC, Tci=50oC, Tco=100oC. Neglecting the tube is made
counter then what is the percentage saving in the tube length. (July/Aug 2005 V.T.U)

( Thi - Tci ) - ( Tho - Tco )
LMTD (parllel flow)=
æ T - Tci ö
log e çç hi ÷÷
è Tho - Tco ø
( 400 - 50 ) - ( 150 - 100 ) 350 - 50
= = = 154 o C
æ 400 - 50 ö ln 350 50
log e ç ÷
. è 150 - 100 ø
The overall heat transfer coefficient referred to the outer surface of the tube is given by
1 do 1 1
\ = + 400OC
U d i hi ho
1 6 1 1
= . +
U 5 116 186 150OC
o
\U = 63.6 W / m 2 C 100OC
O
50 C
Q = AU( LMTD )
9300 =pdo LxUx( LMTD ) = px0.06 xLx63.3x154.2
9300
L= = 5.03m
px0.06 x55.2x154.2
If the flow is counter flow then the LMTD for the counter flow arrangement is
( T - Tco ) - ( Tho - Tci )
LMTD (counter flow )= hi
æ T - Tco ö
log e çç hi ÷÷
è Tho - Tci ø
300 - 100
= = 182 o C
æ 300 ö
log e ç ÷
Length of the counter flow è 100 ø
Q = AU ( LMTD )
9300 = pd o LxUx( LMTD ) = px0.06 xLx63.61x182
9300
L= = 4.262 m
px0.06 x63.61x182
% saving in length
5.02 - 4.262
= x100 = 15.2%
5.02
Example 8-2. Air enters a cooler at 115OC and at 3 atm and is brought to 45OC by passing through tubes of
10mm ID surrounded by water which enters the cooler at 15OC and leaves at 30OC. Assuming the heat
exchanger is counter flow, find the mean temperature difference. Take heat transfer coefficient ho=71
2
W/m OC. Neglect the tube resistance and assume water side heat transfer coefficient is 200 W/m2 OC .
Take mass of air 5.25kg/h.
157
If the flow is counter flow then the LMTD for the counter flow arrangement is
( T - Tco ) - ( Tho - Tci )
æ T - Tco ö
log e çç hi ÷÷ Thi=140 OC
è Tho - Tci ø
115 - 30 Tco=30OC
o
= = 63.4 C Tho=15OC
æ 115 ö
log e ç ÷
è 30 ø
The over all heat transfer coefficient is given by Tci=15OC
1 1 1
\ = +
U hi h o
1 1 1
= + Þ U = 52.5W / m 2 o C
U 71 200
Heat lost by the air per hour is given by
Q = m a c p ( DT ) = 5.25 x0.24( 100 ) = 126 kW / h
But Q = AU (LMTD )
As thickness of pipe is not considered
Q = p d o L.U (LMTD )
126 = p x 0.001x63.4 x52.5 xL
L = 1.21m
Example 8-3. Ethylene glycol at a flow rate of 0.5 kg/s through a thin walled copper tube of 1.25 cm
diameter. 0.375 kg/s of water flows in the opposite direction through the annular space formed by this
tube and a tube diameter of 2 cm. The ethylene glycol, which enters at 100°C is required to leave at 60°
C, while the water enters at 10°C. Calculate the length of the tube required. Also calculate the length of
the tube required if the water flows in the same direction as ethylene glycol.
The properties of water and ethylene glycol for the bulk temperature are listed below :
Property Ethylene Glycol at 80°C Water at 27°C
3
r (kg/m ) 1078 995
m (kg/m-s5) 3200x10-6 853x10-6
Cp ( J/kg K) 2050 41 80
k (W/mK) 0.261 0.164
The outlet temperature of water can be calculated by using an energy balance:
mh c ph ( Thi - Tho ) = = mo c po ( Tco - Toi )

Thi
0.5 x 2650 (100 - 60 )
= 0.375 x4180(Tco - 10 ) Tco
1325 x 40
\Tco = + 10
4180 x 0.375 Tho
= 43.8°C Tci
Glycol
p
m = d 2Vr
4
158
p 2
m= d Vr
4
4m 4 x0.5
\V = = = 3.78 m / s
pd 2 r p x (0.0125 )2 x1078
pdV 1078 x0.0125
Re = = x3.78 = 15800
m 3200 x 10 - 6
\ Re0.8 = (15800 )0.8 = 2280
mc p 3200 x10 - 6 x 2650
Pr = = = 32.6
K 0.261
\ Pr 0.4 = (32.6 )0.4 = 4.03
hd
\ Nu = i = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4
K
0.261
= x 0.023 x 2280 x 4.03 = 4410 J / s m 2 K
0.0125
Water
4m 4 x0.375
V= = = 1.97 m / s
p ( d 02- d i2 )r éæ 2 ö æ 1.25 ö 2 ù
2
p êç ÷ -ç ÷ ú x995
êëè 100 ø è 100 ø úû
rL V 995 x(d o - d i )x1.97
Re = c =
m 853 x10 - 6
995 x( 0.75 / 100 )x1.97
= 17200
853 x10 - 6
Re0.8 = ( 17200 )0.8 = 2400
mc p 853 x10 - 6 x4180
Pr = = = 5.81
K 0.614
Pr 0.4 = 5.810.4 = 2.04
ho Lc
Nu = = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4 = 0.023 x 2400 x 2.04 = 102
K
K 0.614
\ho = x102 = x102 = 8300 J / s m 2 - K
Lo (0.75 / 100 )
1 1 1
\ = + as the thickness of the inner tube and film resistance are neglected.
U hi ho
1 1 1 4410 + 8300
\ = + =
U 4410 8300 4410 x8300
4410 x8300
\U = = 2900 J / s m 2 - K
12710
( T - Tco ) - ( Tho - Tci )
æ T - Tco ö
log e çç hi ÷÷
è Tho - Tci ø
56.2 - 50 6 .2
= =
æ 56.2 ö 0.13
log e ç ÷
è 50 ø
= 47.5 o C
159
( Thi - Tci ) - ( Tho - Tco )
LMTD (parllel flow)=
æ T - Tci ö
log e çç hi ÷÷
è Tho - Tco ø
( 100 - 10 ) - ( 60 - 43.8 )
= = 43
æ 100 - 10 ö
log e ç ÷
è 60 - 43.8 ø
The heat transfer for counter flow is given by Thi
Q = UA( LMTD )counter
= UxpdLx( LMTD ) Tho
1.25
\0.5 x 2650 x( 100 - 60 ) = 2900 x p x x L x 47.5 Tco
100
100 x0.5 x 2650 x40 Tci
L= = 9.8 m
2900 xpx1.25 x47.5
The length of the tube for parallel flow arrangement
( LMTD )parallel
L parallel = Lcounter x
( LMTD )counter
47.5
= 9.8 x = 10.8 m
43.0
Example 8-4 3000 kg/hr. of furnace oil is heated from 10° to 90°C in a shell and tube type heat exchanger.
The oil is to flow inside the tube while the steam at 120°C is to flow through the shell. The tubes of 1.65
cm ID and 1.90 cm OD are used.The heat transfer coefficients of oil and steam sides are 85 W/m2KR
and 7420 W/ m8 K. Find the number of passes and number of tubes in each pass. If the length of each
tube is limited to 2.85m due to space limitations. The velocity of the oil is limited to 5m/s to keep the
pressure drop low. r=900kg/m3, cp(oil)=1970J/kgK.
Solution: Given data: The required rate of heat transfer is given by

3000
Q= x1970 x(90-10 )= 131000 J/s
3600
The over all heat transfer coefficient is given by
1 1 do 1
= + .
U ho d 1 h1
1 1 .9 1
= + x
7420 1.65 85
\U = 7205 J/s m 2 K .
( 120 - 90 ) - ( 120 - 10 )
LMTD = = 16.5 o C
æ 30 ö
log eç ÷
è 110 ø
Q = UA.( LMTD )
13100 = 72.5 x A x 61.5
131000
\A = = 29.5 m 2
72.5 X 61.5
Assuming the number of tubes ' n' in each pass, we can write
m = n.( r Av )
160
p 2
m= d .nrxn
4
3000 p 1.65 2 5
= x x x900 xn
3600 4 100 100
\n = 87
surface area of each tube
1.9
a = πd o L = px x 2.85 = 0.17 m 2
100
If there are p passes then
p xn x a = A
A 29.5
p= = »2
n.a 87 x0.17
Example 8-5. A tubular beat exchanger consists of 200 tubes each 20 mm OD and 5 m length. Hot fluid flows
inside the tube and cold over it and opposite direction to hot fluid. The overall heat transfer coefficient
based on OD is 320 J/s m2 K. Determine the outlet temperatures of both fluids and total heat transfer
using the data given below :
Thi=120°C,Tci=20°C, mh=20 kg/s, m=5 kg/s Cph=2000 J/kg K, Cpc=4000 J/kg K.
Ch = mh C ph = 20 x 2000 = 40000 J / s K
Cc = mc C pc = 5 x4000 = 20000 J / s K
UA 320 xpx0.02 x5 x 200
NTU = = »1
Cmin 20000
C 20000
and R = min = = 0.5
Cmax 40000
1 - e - NTU (1- R )
(a) Î( counter flow) =
1 - R e - NTU (1- R )
1 - e - 0 .5
= = 0.565
1 - 0.5e - 0.5
C
Tco = Tci + min (Thi - Tci ). Î
Cc
= 20 + 1x( 120 - 20 )x0.565 = 76.5°C
Considering the energy balance
C h ( Thi - Tho ) = C c ( Tco - Tci )
C
Tho = Thi - c (Tco - Tci )
Ch
= 120 - 0.5( 76.5 - 20 ) = 91.75°C
The total heat transfer

Q = Î Qmax =Î xCmin ( Thi - Tci )
= 0.565 x 20000( 120 - 20 ) = 0.565 x 2 x10 6 J / s
= 0.565 x 2 x10 3 KJ / s = 1.13 x10 3 KW = 1.13 MW
(b) For parallel flow
1 - e - NTU (1+ R ) 1 - e - 1.5
Î= = 0.52
1+ R 1 .5
161
Repeating the same procedure used for counterflow, we get
Tco = 72°C , Tho = 94°C , Q = 1.04 MW
Example 8-6.. In a parallel flow heat exchanger, engine oil enters a heat exchanger at 150°C and leaves at
80°C. The cooling water enters at 30°C and leaves at 65°C.If the fluid flow rates and inlet conditions are
unchanged, find (a) exit temperature of each stream in counter flow exchanger. (b) Lowest temperature
to which the oil may be cooled in (i) parallel flow (ii) counter flow by increasing the length of the
exchanger.
( a ) Parallel flow
Ch Tco -Tci 65 - 30
= = = 0. 5
Cc Thi -Tho 150 - 80
As Ch < Cc
T T 150 - 80 70
Î= hi - ho = = = 0.583 (1)
Thi -Tci 150 - 30 120
1 - e NTU ( 1+ R )
Î=
1+ R
Cmin
R= = 0 .5
Cmax
1 - e - 1.5 NTU
\Î= (2)
1 .5
Equating the equations (1)and (2 )
1 - e - 1.5 NTU
= 0.583
1. 5
\ NTU = 1.385
Counter Flow. As the flow rates and inlet conditions are same in counter flow exchanger we can assume
that U remains unchanged, and therefore NTU remains constant. The Î of the counter flow heat exchanger is
given by
1 - e- NTU (1- R )
Î= (a)
1 - Re- NTU (1- R )
1 - e-1.335(1-0.05) 1 - 0.5
= -1.385(1-0.5 )
= = 0.67
1 - 0.5e 1 - 0.25
But
T -T
Î= hi ho = 0.66
Thi - Tci
\Tho = Thi - 0.66( Thi - Tci )
= 150 - 0.66( 150 - 30 ) = 70°C
C
Tco = Tci + h ( Thi - Tco ) = 30 + 0.5( 150 - 70 ) = 70°C
Cc
In paraliel flow heat exchanger, the minimum exit temperature of oil that can be reached as the length of
the exchanger is increased Indefinitely or NTU ®¥
1 - e - NTU ( 1+ R ) 1
Î parallel = = as NTU ® ¥ which is limiting case.
(1+ R ) 1+ R
1
= = 0.67
1 + 0.5
162
which is the same as the effectiveness of a counter flow exchanger with NTU=1.386. Therefore, the
minimum exist tempera-tare of the oil in parallel flow is 70°C.
In case of counter flow, as the length is increased, and NTU®¥ the Î approaches to unity as per
equation (a). Therefore, the minimum exit temperature of the oil is equal to the inlet temperature of water, that
is 30°C.
Example 8-7. . Fuel oil at the rate of 1.1 kg/s is heated passing through the annulus of a counter flow double
pipe heat exchanger from 10°C to 20°C by using hot water available from the engine at 71°C. The water
flows through a copper tube (OD= 2.13 cm and ID=1.86 cm) with a velocity of 0.76 m/s The oil passes
through the annulus formed by inner copper tube and outer steel pipe (QD= 3.34 cm and ID=3 cm).
' fw (Fouling factor water side)=0.0004 m2-°C/W.
f0(Fouling factor oil side)=0.0009 m2-°C/W.
Take the following properties of water and oil.
Properties Water Oil

r (kg/m3) 982 854
Cp (kJ/kg-°C) 4.187 1.884
k (W/mOC) 0.657 0.138
n (m2/s) 418x10-7 7.43x10-6
Neglect the resistance of copper tube.
2 Thi
p æ 1.86 ö
mw = rU m Ac = 982 x0.76 x ç ÷ = 0.2 kg / s
4 è 100 ø Tco Water
Heat lost by water = Heat gained by oil Oil Tho
mwC pw ( Thi - Tho ) = mo C po ( Tco - Tci )
0.2 x4.187 x10 3 ( 71 - Tho ) = 1.1x1.884 x10 3 x( 20 - 10 ) Tci
1.1x1.884 x10
Tho = 71 - = 71 - 25 = 46°C
0.2 x4.187
q -qo ( 71 - 20 ) - ( 46 - 10 )
LMTD = i = = 43.5°C
æ qi ö æ 71 - 20 ö
ç
log e ç ÷ ÷ log e ç ÷
è qo ø è 46 - 10 ø
water side
d v 0.0186 x0.76
Rew = i = = 33.82 x10 3
v 4.18 x10 -7
rvc p 982 x4.18 x10 -7 x4.187 x10 3
Prw = = = 2.6
K 0.657
The average heat transfer coefficient of water side is given by
hd
Nu a = i i = 0.023 Rew0.8 Prw0.3
K
0.657
\hi = 0.023( 33.82 x10 3 )0.8 ( 2.6 )0.3 x = 4550 W / m 2 °C
0.0186
Fuel Oil Side
De ( Equivalent diameter ) = 3 - 2.13 = 0.87 cm
163
DeU mr De æ G ö æ De öæ G ö
Reo = = .ç ÷ = ç ÷ç ÷
m m è A ø çè vr ÷øè A ø
Where G is the mass flow per second and A is the area of annulus through which oil flows.
0.87 x10 - 2 1 .1
Reo = x = 4300
7.43 x10 x854 p ( 0.03 - 0.0213 2 )
-4 2
c p rv 1.884 x10 3 x854 x7.43 x10 - 6

Pro = = = 86.6
K 0.138
The overall heat - transfer coefficient reffered to outside surface of copper tube is given by
1 æ do 1 do ö æ1 ö
= çç x + fw ÷÷ + çç + fo ÷÷
U è d i hi d i ø è hi ø
1 do æ1 ö æ1 ö
\ = çç + fw ÷÷ + çç + fo ÷÷
U di è hi ø è hi ø
2.13 æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
= ç + 0.0004 ÷ + ç + 0.0009 ÷
1.86 è 4550 ø è 1750 ø
= 0.00071 + 0.00147 = 0.00209.
\U = 480W / m 2 °C
Q = UA( LMTD ) = Ux( pd o L )x( LMTD )
Q = Heat gained by oil
= 1.1x1.884 x10 3 ( 20 - 10 ) = 20700W
æ 2.13 ö
\20700 = 480ç px xL ÷ x43.5
è 100 ø
20700 x100
L= = 15 meters
480 xpx 2.13 x43.5
Example 8-8. Determine the beating surface of an economizer in which the hot gas and water are in
counter flow. For the following given data :
Thi = 420OC, mh=220 tons/hr-(gas), Cpg = 1.045 kJ/kg-°C.
Tci=135°C, mc= 120 tons/hr-(water), Cpw=4.187kJ/kg.°C.
Q (Heat transferred from gas to water)=13.5 MW.
U (Overall beat transfer coefficient from gases to water)= 80 W/m2-°C
Determine the area required if the flow is made parallel.
220 x1000
Cmin = Ch = mh .C ph = x1045 = 64000 J / s °C
3600
120 x1000
Cmax = C = mc .C pc = x4187 = 140 ,000 J / s °C
3600
Q = 13.5 MW = 13.5 x10 6 W = 13.5 x10 6 J / s
UA C 64000
NTU = , R = min = = 0.456
Cmin Cmax 140 ,000
Q =Î Cmin ( Thi - Tci )
\ 13.5 x10 6 =Î x64000( 420 - 105 )
13.5 x10 6
\Î = = 0.507
6.4 x4.15 x10 6
164
For the known value of R and Î, we can find the value of NTU from the graph as
NTU = 0.7
UA
NTU = = 0 .7
Cmin
0.7 X 64000
\A = = 560 m 2
80
( a ) For parallel flow
NTU = 1
1x64000
\A = = 800 m 2
80
Example 8-9. Water to water heat exchanger of a counter flow arrangement has heating surface area of 2m2
Thi= 85OC, hh= 2000 kg/h, cpw= 4187 J/kgOC , Tci= 25OC and mc=1500 kg/h . Determine the amount of heat
transferred from hot to cold water and their final temperature if the overall heat transfer coefficient
U=1400W/mOC.
Solution: Given data: 2000
C max = C h = m h .C ph = x4187 = 2330 J / s °C
3600
1500
C min = C c = m c .C pc = x4187 = 1740 J / s °C
3600
UA 1400 x 2
NTU = = = 1.61
C min 1740
C 1740
R = min = = 0.745
C max 2330
For the known values of NTU and R, we can find Î from the graph
\Î= 0.65
Q =Î C min ( Thi - Tci ) = 0.65 x1740( 85 - 25 )
= 68000W = 68 kW
Q = m h C ph ( Thi - Tho ) = m c .C pc ( Tco - Tci ) = 68 x10 3
68 x1000 68 x1000
\Tho = Thi - = 85 - = 85 - 29 = 56°C
m h .C ph 2330
68 x1000 68 x1000
And Tco = Tci + = 25 + = 25 + 39 = 64°C
m h .C ph 1740
Example 8-10. A heat exchanger has 17 5 m2 area available for heat transfer. It is used for cooling oil at 200°C
by using water available at 20°C. The mass flow and specific heat of oil are 10000 kg/hr and 1.9 kJ/kg
K and the mass flow and specific heat of water are 3000 kg/hr. and 4.187 kJ/kg K. [f the overall heat
transfer coefficient is 300 W/m2 K, estimate the outlet temperatures of oil and water for parallel flow and
counter flow arrangements (a) by using LMTD method and (b) NUT method.
10000
Ch = mh .C ph = x1900 = 5280 = Cmax
3600
3000
Co = mo .C ph = x4187 = 3480 = Cmin
3600
mh .C ph ( Thi - Tho ) = mo .C po ( Tco - Tci )
5280( 200 - Tho ) = 3480( Tco - 20 )
Tco = 322.6 - 1.513Tho (a)
165
This equation is valid for parallel as well as for counter flow.
A. LMTD Method
i) Parallel Flow
é q -qo ù
Q = m h C ph ( Thi - Tho ) = UAê i ú
ë log e q i q o û
é 180 - ( Tho - Tco ) ù
\ 5280( 200 - Tho ) = 300 x17.5 ê ú (b)
ë log e 180 Tho - Tco û
Substituting the value of Tco from equation (a) into the (b) and simplifying
é 180 ù æ 200 - Tho ö

log e ê ú = 1.01x 2.513çç ÷÷ = 2.54
ë ( 2 . 513 Tho - 322 . 6 ) û è 200 - Too ø
180
\ = e 2.54 = 12.68
2.513Tho - 322.6
\ Tho = 134 o C .
\Too = 322.6 - ( 1.513 x134 ) = 120 o C
( ii ) Counter Flow
é (q1 - q o ) ù
m h C ph ( Thi - Tho ) = UAê ú
ë log e ( q 1 / q o ) û
é ( 200 - Tho ) - ( Tho - 20 ) ù
5280( 200 - Tho ) = 300 x17.5 ê ú
ë log e ( 200 - Tho ) ( Tho - 20 ) û
B. NTU - Method
C min 3480
= = 0.66 = P
C man 5280
UA 300 x17.5
NTU = = = 1.5
C min 3480
The value of NTU is also independent of flow direction.
(i) Counterflow
1 - e - NFU ( 1+ P ) 1 - e - 1.5 X 1.66
Î= = = 0.55
(1+ P ) 1 + 0.66
T - Toc
Î= co
Thi - Tci
T - 20
\ 0.55 = co
200 - 20
\ Tco = 20 + 0.55( 200 - 20 ) = 120 o C
Using equation (a)
120 = 322.6 - 1.513Tho
\Tho 134 o C
(ii) Counterflow
1 - e NTU ( 1- P )
Î=
1 - P e NTU ( 1- P )
166
1 - e -1.5 x0.34
= = 0.67
1 - 066 e -1.5 x0.34
T - Tci
Î = ho
Thi - Tci
\ Tho = Tci + Î ( Tho - Tci )
= 20 + 0.67( 200 - 20 ) = 140 o C .
Again using the equation (a)
140 = 322.6 - 1.513 Tho
\ Tho = 120 o C .
Note: When NTU and (Cmin/Cmax) values are known, then we can directly read the value of Î from the graphs
instead of analytical calculation.
Example 8-11. A crossflow heat exchanger is used to heat air [cp=1.0 kJ/(kg K)] with water [cp=4.18 kJ/(kg
K)]. Both the fluids are unmixed. Air enters at 20°C at the rate of 2.5 kg/s while water enters at 95°C at the rate
of 0.3 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/(m2K) and the area of heat transfer * 8.5 m2. Find the
exit temp, of both water and air and also the total heat transfer rate.
(April/may1995 K.U)
Solution: Given data: m& h = m& w = 0.3kg / s , Thi = 95°C
C ph = C pn = 4.18 kJ / kg ° K
m& h = m& w = 2.5 kg / s Tci = 20°C
C pc = C pa = 1.0 kJ / kg ° K
U = 250 w / m 2 ° K
A = 8.5 m 2
Tho = Tco = ? q =?
m& h C ph = 0.3 x 4.18 = 1.254 kJ / s K
m& h C pc = 2.5 x 1.0 = 2.5 kJ / s K
\m& h C ph < m& c C pc
\Cmin = m& h C ph = 1.254 kJ / sK
As exit temperature are not known, NTU method is adopted,
C min 1.254
C= = = 0 .5
C max 2 .5
UA 250 X 8.5
N = NTU = = = 1.69
C min 1.254 X 10 3
From graph for both fluid unmixed :
effectiness, Î = 0.685 , Also, we know,
m& h C pn ( Thi - Tho ) 95 - Tho
Î= = = 0.685
C min ( Thi - Tci ) 95 - 20
Tho - 0.685 Tci = 30 \Tho = 43.6°C
m& c C pc ( Tco - Tci ) 2.5 ( Tco - 20 )
& Î= = = 0.685
C min ( Thi - Tci ) 1.254 95 - 20
\Tco = 45.77°C
\ q = m& h C pn ΔTn = 1.254 ( 95 - 43.6 )
q = 64.5 kW
167
Example 8-12. A square plate of size 0.5 m x 0.5 m with one surface insulated and the other surface
maintained at 112°C is placed in still air at a temperature of 42°C.Calculate the average heat transfer
coefficient when the plate is kept horizontal with hot surface facing up. (July/Aug 1998 K.U)
A = 17.5 m 2 Thi = 200°C m h = 2.77 kg / s c h = 1.9 kJ / kghr

m c = 0.83 kg / s Tci = 20°C h = 300 W / m 2 K
m h c h = 2.99 x1.9 x10 3 = 5263 w / k m c c c = 0.83 x187 x10 3 = 3475 w / k
UA 300 x17.5 C min 3475
NTU = = = 1.51, = = 0.66
C min 3475 C max 5263
i) For parallel flow Î= 0.58
Tco - Tci
For C c < C h Î=
Thi - Tci
Tco = Î ( Thi - Tci ) + Tci
Tco = 0.58( 200 - 20 ) + 20 = 124.4°C
m h c h ( Thi - Tho ) = m c c c ( Tco - Tci )
m c
Tho = Thi - c c ( Tco - Tci )
mh ch
1 - e - NTU (1+ C )
Î=
1+ C
1 - e -1.51(1+0.66 )
=
1 + 0.66
Î = 0.553
ii) For counter flow Î= 0.68
T - Tci
For C c < C h Î = co
Thi - Tci
Tco = Î ( Thi - Tci ) + Tci
= 0.68( 200 - 20 ) + 20
= 142.4°C
m c
Tho = Thi - c c ( Tco - Tci )
mh ch
= 200 - 0.66 ( 142.4 - 20 )
= 119 .216°C
1 - e - NTU (1-C )
Î counter Î =
1 - Ce - NTU (1-C )
-1.51(1-0.66 )
1- e
=
1 - 0.66 e -1.51(1-0.66 )
Î= 0.664
Example 8-13. A tubular heat exchanger consists of 200 tubes each 20mm O.D and 5m length. Hot fluid
flows inside the tube and cold over it and in opposite direction to the hot fluid. The overall heat transfer
coefficient based on outside diameter is 320 W/m2K. Determine the outlet temperatures of both fluids
and the total heat transfer from the following data
168
Inlet temperature of hot fluid = 120°C
Inlet temperature of cold fluid = 20°C
Rate of flow of hot fluid is = 20 kg/s
Rate of flow of cold fluid is = 5 kg/s
specific heat of hot fluid = 2000 J/kg K
Specific heat of cold fluid = 4000 J/kg K, (Jan/Feb 2006 V.T.U)
n = 200 , d o = 0.02 m , L = 5 m / s
U o = 320W / m 2 - K , Thi = 120°c ,Tci = 20°c
m& n = 20 kg / s , m& c = 5 kg / s , c ph = 2000 J / kgK
c pc = 4000 J / kgK
Since both the fluids exit temperatures are not known, Î -NTU is appropriate.
m& c C pc = 5 x 4000 = 20 ,000 J / kgK = C min

m& n C ph = 20 x 2000 = 40 ,000 J / kgK
Total heat transfer area, A = npd o L =200 x p x 0.02 x 5

A = 62.83m 2
UA
Now, N = NTU =
C min
320 x 62.83
= = 1.005
20 ,000
C 20000
& C = min = = 0.5
C max 40000
From graph : Î= 0.560
Q m& c C pc ( Tco - Tci )
Now,Î= act =
Qideal C min ( Thi - Tci )
é Tco - 20 ù
Þ 0.56 = 5 x 4000 ê ú
ë 20000 x ( 120 - 20 ) û
\Tco = 76°c
40000 é 120 - Tho ù
for hot fluid , 0.56 =
20000 êë 120 - 20 úû
Þ Tho = 92°c
The rate of heat transfer

Q = m& c C pc ( Tco - Tci )
20000
= ( 76 - 20 ) = 1120 kW
1000
OR
40000
Q = m& n C pn ( Thi - Tho ) = ( 120 - 92 ) = 1120 kW
1000
169
Example 8-14. A heat exchanger is required to cool 55000 kg/hr of alcohol from 66°Cto 40°C using 40000
kg/hr of water entering at 5°C. Calculate the following:
i) The exit temperature of water,
ii) Surface area required for parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers.
Take U = 580 W/m2K, cp alcohol = 3760 J/kg°K, cpw = 4180 J/kg°K. (May/June 2006 V.T.U)
Find the exit temperature of water
m& n C pn ( Thi - Thw ) = m
& c C pc ( T¥ - Tci )
55000 4000
x3760( 66 - 40 ) = x4180( Tco - 5 )
3600 3600
Tco = 37.16°C
Surface area required
i ) parallel flow
q i = 66 - 5 = 61°C
q o = 40 - 37.6 = 2.84°C
q -q o 61 - 2.84
LMTD = i = = 18.96
ln q i q o ln 61 2.84
\ = 13 ,5.47 m 2
ii ) For counter flow
35 - 28.4
LMTD = = 31.82 °C
ln 35 28.4
Q = UALMTD
R 1.49 X 10 6
A= = = 80.7 m 2
. UALMTD 580 X 31.82
Example 8-15.A one shell pass, two tube pass heat exchanger is used to heat water from Tci=25°C to
Tco=80°C, at a rate of m=1.5 kg/s, with a pressurized water entering the tube at Thi=200 °C and Tho=100
°C. The over all heat transfer coefficient is =1250 w/m2 °C. Calculate the heat transfer surface area
required. (July 2006 V.T.U)
Tci = 25°c = t1 , Tco = 80°c = t 2 , m& c = 1.5 kg / s , Thi = T1 = 200°c

Tho = T2 = 100°c , U = 1250W / m 2 °c
Since inlet & out temperatures of both cold and hot fluids are
knownLMTD method can be adopted :
Amount of heat transfer,
Qc = m& c C pc ( Tco - Tci ) = 1.5 x4187( 80 - 25 ) = 3.454 x10 5 W
For multipass cross flow
Q = FUADTm (i )
( T - t ) - ( T2 - t1 ) ( 200 - 80 ) - ( 100 - 25 )
DTm = 1 2 = = 95.74°c
æ T1 - t 2 ö é 200 - 80 ù
lnçç ÷÷ ln ê 100 - 25 ú
è T2 - t1 ø ë û
170
From graph
t 2 - t1 80 - 25
P= = = 0.314
T1 - t1 200 - 25
T -T 200 - 100
R= 1 2 = = 1.82
t 2 - t1 80 - 25
F » 0.90
\ In eqn ( i ), 3.454 x10 5 = 0.9 x1250 xAx95.74
\ Area required . A = 3.21m 2
or
By Î -NTU method
Q& 3.454 x10 3
m& n = = = 0.825 kg / s
C pn ( T1 - T2 ) 4187( 200 - 100 )
Cc = ( m& C p )c = 4187 x1.5 = 6.281x10 3 = cmax
Ch = ( m& C p )h = ( 4187 x0.825 ) = 3.45 x10 3 = cmin
cmin 3.455 x10 3
\C = = = 0.55
cmax 6.281x10 3
m& n C pn é T1 - T2 ù é 200 - 100 ù
& effectiveness, E = ê ú = 1x ê ú = 0.57
cmin ë T1 - t1 û ë 200 - 25 û
From graph , for C = 0.55 & E = 0.57
NTU = N » 1.16
UA Ncmin 1.16 x3.45 x10 3
Also, N = Þ A= = A = 3.2 m 2
cmin U 1250
Example 8-16. A cross flow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed, having heat transfer area A = 8.4 m2 is
to heat air [Cp= 1,005 kJ/kgK] with water [Cp = 4.180 kJ/kgK]. Air enters at 15 °C and mair = 20 kg/s.
Water enters at 90°C and water flow rate is 0.25 kg/s. The overall heat transfer co-efficient is Um = 250
W/m2 °C. Calculate the exit temperature of both air and water, as well as the total heat transfer rate.
Solution: Given data: (July 2007 V.T.U)

2 2
A = 8.4 m , U = 250W / m °C
Cold fluid Air Hot fluid Water
C pc = 1.005 KJ / kg °C C ph = 4.18 KJ / kg °C
m& c = 20 kg / s m& h = 0.25 kg / s
t1 = 15°C t1 = 90°c
Cc = C pc m& c = 20.1 x 10 3 J / s °C = cmax
Ch = C ph m& h = 4.18 x 0.25 = 1.045 x 10 3 W / °C = Cmin
C
C = min = 0.052
Cmax
UA 250 x8.4
& N = NTU = = =2
Cmin 1.045 x10 3
for crossflow ,both fluids unmixed
171
ì exp( - NC n ) - 1 ü
Î = 1 - exp í ý n = N - 0.22 = 0.859
î Cn þ
Î = 0.853
Heat transfer ,Q=Î Cmin ( T1 - t1 ) = 0.853 x1.045 x10 3 ( 90 - 15 ) = 66.82 x10 3 W
Exit temperatures ,
Q 66.82 x10 3
T2 = T1 - = 90 - = 26.06°c
Cn 1.045 x10 3
Q 66.82 x10 3
t 2 = t1 + = 15 + = 18.32°c
Cc 20.1x10 3
Example 8-17. A certain heat exchanger has a total outside area of 15.82 m2I it is to be operated for cooling
oil at 110°C (cp = 1900 J/kg- K°) flowing at a rate of 170.9 kg/min. Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is
available at 35°C as a cooling agent. If the overall heat transfer co-efficient is 320 W/m2 -K. calculate
the outlet temperature of oil and water for counter flow arrangement. (Dec.06/Jan.07 V.T.U)
Ao = 15.82 m 2 ,Thi = 110 °c ,C pn = 1900 J / kgK , m& h = 170.9 kg / min = 2.848 kg / s
vo = 320W / m 2 K ,Tci = 35°c ,C pc = 4187 J / kg - K , m& c = 68 kg / min = 1.133kg / s
Cn = m& n C pn = 2.848 x 1900 = 5411 .2 Cmax
Cc = m& n C pc = 1.133 x 4187 = 4745.3 Cmin
UA
NTU = N = = 320 x 15.82 / 4745.3 = 1.0668
Cmin
C
& C = min = 4745.3 / 5411 .2 = 0.877
Cmax
From graph, Î » 0.53
Q Q
Also , Î= =
Qmax Cmin ( Thi - Tci )
Total heat transfer ,Q = Î Cmin ( Thi - Tci ) = 0.53 x 4745.3( 110 - 35 )
Q = 188.63kW
outlet temperature of hot fluid,
Q 188.63
Tho = Thi - = 110 - = 75.14°c
( m& n C p )n 5.4112
Exit temp. of cold fluid,
Q 188.63
Tco = Tci + = 35 + = 74.75°c
CC 4.745
Example 8-18. An oil cooler for a large diesel engine is to cool engine oil from 60 to 45° C using sea water at
an inlet temperature of 20°C with a temperature rise of 15°C. The design heat load is Q = 140 kW, and
the mean overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer surface area of the tubes is 70 W/m2 °C.
Calculate the heat transfer surface area for single pass counter flow and parallel flow arrangements
Solution: Given data: (Dec.07/ Jan .08 V.T.U)

Q = 140 x 10 3 W ,Vo = 70W / m 2 - °C ,Tho = 45°C , TCi = 20°C ,
Tco = Tci + DTc = 20 + 15 = 35°C
172
Parallel flow
DTc i = Th i - Tc i = 60 - 20 = 40°C
DTo = Th o - Tc o = 45 - 35 = 10°C
DT - DTo 40 - 10
DTm = i = = 21.64°C
DTi ln( 4 )
ln
DTo
Counter flow
DTi = Thi - Tc o = 60 - 35 = 25°C
DTo = Tho - Tc i = 45 - 20 = 25°C
DT - DTo 25 + 25
DTcw = i = = 25°C
2 2
Q 140 x10 3
Ao = =
Vo DTav 70 x 25
Ao = 80 m 2
Review Questions:
8-1. Water at T¥ = 25°C and a velocity of um = 1.5 m/s enters a brass condenser tube L =6 m long, 1.34-cm ID,
1.58 cm OD, and k = 110 W/(m °C). The heat transfer for condensation at the outer surface of the tube is
h0 = 12,000 W/(m2 °C). Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U0 based on the outer surface.
8-2. Hot water at a mean temperature Tm = 80°C and with a mean velocity um =_0.4 m/s flows inside a 3.8-
cm-ID, 4.8-cm-OD steel tube [k = 50 W/(m °C)]. The flow is considered hydrodynamically and
thermally developed. The outside surface is exposed to atmospheric air at Tm = 20°C, flowing with a
velocity of ux = 3 m/s normal to the tube. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U0 , based on the
outer surface of the tube.
8-3. Engine oil at Tio = 50°C and a mean velocity of um = 0,25 m/s enters a brass [k = 110 W/(m°C,)]
horizontal tube with Di = 2.22 cm ID and r = 0.17 cm thick. Heat is dissipated from the outer surface by
free convection into an ambient at Tm = 20°C. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U0, based on
the tube's outer surface.
8-4. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient U0 based on the outer surface of a brass tube with Dt = 2.5
cm and Da = 3.34 cm k = 110 W/(m°C)] for the following conditions: The inside and outside heat transfer
coefficients are, respectively, ht = 1200 and h0 = 2000 W/(m2-°C); the fouling factors for the inside and
outside surfaces are F, = F0 = 0.00018 m2 °C/W.
Answer: 481.3 W/m2
8-5. A counterflow heat exchanger is to be used to heat mc = 2.5 kg/s of water from Tci = 20°C to Tco = 80°C by
using hot exhaust gas cp = 1000 J/(kg °C) entering at Thi = 220°C and leaving at Tho = 90°C. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is Um = 250 W/(m2 °C). Calculate the heat transfer surface required.
Answer: 5.94m2
8-6. Engine oil at a mean temperature Ti = 80°C and mean velocity um = 0.2 m/s flows inside a thin-walled,
horizontal copper tube with an ID of D = 1.9, cm. At the outer surface, atmospheric air at T¥ = I5°C and a
velocity of Um = 5 m/s flows across the tube. Neglecting the tube wall resistance, calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat loss to the air per meter length of tube.
Answer. 18.5 W/(m2 °C), 71.8 W/m
173
8-7. The steam condenser at Th=60°C on the shell side of the steam condenser while cooling water flows
inside the tubes at a rate of m=3kg/s. The inlet and outlet water temperature are Tci=20°C and Tco=50°C ,
respectively. The overall heat transfer coefficient U=300W/m2°C. Calculate the surface area required.
Answer: 8.7m2
8-8. A two shell pass, four tube pass heat exchanger of flow arrangement is to be used to heat water with oil.
Water enters the tubes at a flow rate of mc = 2 kg/s and temperature t1 = 20°C and leaves at t2 = 80°C. Oil
enters the shell side at T1 = 140°C and leaves at T2 = 90°C. Calculate the heat transfer area required for an
overall heat transfer coefficient of Um = 300 W/(m2 °C) [cpc = 4180 J/(kg.°C)].
Answer: 26.6 m2
8-9. A one shell pass, two tube pass heat exchanger of flow arrangement to heat water from T1 = 25°C to T2 =
80°C at a rate of mc = 1.5 kg/s with pressurized water entering the tubes at t1= 200°C and leaving at t2 =
100°C. The overall heat transfer coefficient is Um = 1250 W/(m2 °C). Calculate the heat transfer surface
A required [cpc = 4180 J/(kg °C)].
Answer: 7.45 m2
8-10. A finned-tube, single-pass, cross-flow heat exchanger, with both fluids unmixed is to heat the air with
hot water. The total heat transfer rate is 200 k W. The water enters the tubes at t1 = 85°C and leaves at t2 =
30°C, while the air enters the shell side at T1 = 15°C and leaves at T2 = 50°C. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is Um = 75 W/(m2 °C). Calculate the heat transfer surface A required.
Answer: 150.7m2
8-11. A cross-flow heat exchanger of flow arrangement is to heat water with hot exhaust gas. The exhaust gas
enters the exchanger at Th i = 250CC and leaves at Th o = 110°C. The cold water enters tci=25oC and leaves
at tco=100oC with a flow rate of mc=2kg/s. The over all heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be
U¥ =150W/m2 OC. Calculate heat transfer surface area required.
Answer: 40.2m2
8-12. A two shell pass, four tube pass heat exchanger of flow arrangement is used to cool processed water
from t1 = 75°C to t2 = 25°C on the tube side at a rate of mh= 5 kg/s, with cold water entering the shell side
at Ti = 10°C at a rate of mc = 6 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is Um = 750 W/(m2 °C).
Calculate the heat transfer surface and the outlet temperature of the coolant water.
Answer: 125 m2, 51.7°C
8-13 A cross-flow heat exchanger of flow arrangement is used to heat water with an engine oil. Water enters
at Tci= 30°C and leaves at Tco = 85°C at a rate of mc = 1.5 kg/s, while the engine oil [cp = 2300 J/(kg °C)]
enters at Thi = 120°C at a flow rate of mh = 3.5 kg/s. The heat transfer surface is A = 30 m2. Calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient Um by using the e-NTU method.
8-14. A two shell pass, four tube pass heat exchanger is to be used to heat mc = 1.2 kg/s of water from Tci =
20°C to Tco=80°C by using mh = 2.2 kg/s of oil entering at Thi = 160°C. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is Um = 300 W/(m2 °C), and the specific heat of oil is cpo= 2100 J/(kg °C). Determine the
heat transfer surface required.
Answer: 13.9m
8-15. A counter flow heat exchanger of flow arrangement is to heat cold fluid entering at Tci = 30°C and mc.
cp = 15,000 W/°C with the hot fluid entering at Thi = 120°C with mhcph = 10,000 W/°C. The overall heat
transfer coefficient is Um = 400 W/(m2 °C), and the total heat transfer surface is A = 20m2. Calculate the
total heat transfer rate Q and the outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids.
Answer: 430.2 kW, 77°C, 58.7°C
174
.
8-1 6. A cross-flow heat exchanger of flow arrangement is to heat water with hot exhaust gas. The exhaust gas
enters at Th in = 200°C and mh = 2.5 kg/s while the water enters at Tci = 30°C and mc = 1.5 kg/s. The
overall heat transfer coefficient is Um = 150 W/(m2 °C). Calculate the total heat transfer rate and the
outlet temperatures of water and exhaust gas. Take heat transfer area A = 17.5 m2, cph = 1050 J/(kg °C),
and cpc = 4180 J/(kg °C). Answer: 214 kW, 118.4°C, 64.2°C
8-17 A counter flow heat exchanger of flow arrangement is to heat air with the exhaust gas from the turbine.
Air enters the exchanger at Tci = 300°C and leaves at Tco= 500°C and mc = 4 kg/s; the exhaust gas enters at
Thi = 650°C and mh = 4 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is Um = 80 W/(m2 °C). The specific heat
for both air and the exhaust gas can be taken as cpc = cpg = 1100 J/(kg °C). Calculate the heat transfer
surface A required and the outlet temperature of the exhaust gas.
Answer: 77 m2, 450.5°C
8-18 A single-pass, counter flow, tube-and-shell heat exchanger has a heat transfer area A= 20 m2 based on the
outer surface of the tubes. Hot oil [cp = 2000 J/(kg °C)] entering the tubes at Thi = 120°C and mh = 3 kg/s.
is to be cooled with water entering the shell side at Tci = 20°C and mc= 0.75kg/s, the over all heat
transfer coefficient is Um=350 W/m2OC. Calculate the heat transfer rate and the exit temperature of the
oil and water.
Answer: 250.8kW, 78.2OC
Radiation Heat Transfer
Chapter - Ten
200
10
NATURE OF THERMAL RADIATION
10-1. INTRODUCTION:
In conduction, heat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature within a
medium. In conduction heat transfer, the energy is transmitted by direct molecular communication. In
contrast to this, radiation is a process in which heat flows from a high temperature body to a low temperature
body when the two bodies are separated from each other in space, even when a vacuum exits between them.
The term radiation is generally applied to all kinds of electromagnetic phenomena. Actual mechanism of
radiation is not fully understood, but theories are proposed to explain the propagation process.
According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, radiation is treated as, , magnetic waves, while
Max Planck’s concept treats radiation as photons or quanta of energy. Both the concept have been utilized to
describe the emission and propagation of radiation.
The results obtained from the electromagnetic theory have been used to predict radiation properties
of materials. While results from Planck’s concept have been employed to predict the magnitude of
radiation energy emitted by a body at a given temperature. It is known , however that radiation travels
8
within the speed of light, C1 equal to about 3 x 10 m/s in a vacuum.
Thermal radiation
Solar Radiation
~0.1-100mm ~0.1- 3mm
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
l 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Wave length (mm)
n 10
11
10
12 13
10
14
10 10
15
10
16 17
10 10
18
Frequency (s-1)
~0.1-100mm Ultraviolet
Thermal radiation ~0.4 - 10-2 mm
Visible range
~0.4 - 0.7mm
Fig.10. Typical spectrum of electromagnetic radiation due to temperature of a body
10-2 BASIC THEORY OF RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER:
The transmission of heat by radiation does not require any medium and it has been found that it is
more effective in vacuum than in a medium. There are two theories which explain the transfer of heat by
radiation.
Wave theory
According to this theory, 'A' is assumed that all the space in the universe is filled up by a hypothetical
medium called ether. It was stated that the radiation heat transfer takes place because of propagation of
electromagnetic waves through the ether. The shorter waves travel at lower frequency and longer waves travel
201
at higher frequency so that all electromagnetic waves travel with same speed. A hot body emits
electromagnetic waves to the vibration of molecules and gives out its stored energy. There waves travel
through space until they strike another body where part of their energy is absorbed and reconverted back into
external energy. The amount of energy converted into heat out of energy carried with electromagnetic waves
depend on the characteristic of the material and its surface on which they fall. The radiation in form of
electromagnetic waves causes a decrease in internal energy of the emitting body unless the heat is generated
within that body equivalent to the decrease in internal energy. Whenever the electromagnetic waves fall on
the another body then the part of that energy converts into internal energy and it is stored in the body on which
they fall.
Quantum Theory
Max plank postulated the quantum theory a radiation in 1900. His theory is explained in short as
follows. Some of the atoms and molecules of a solid body are raised to excited states when they are heated
and there is tendency for these atom and molecules to return to lower energy levels spontaneously. During this
process, energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation is emitted. The emitted radiation is distributed over a
wide range of energy values. The further mentioned that the energy emitted by a radiator is continuous but in
the form of successive and separate quantities called quanta. The size of quanta's is also different. The
energy of the quantum is given by the following equation.
E=hf (10-1)
Where, h = Plank's constant
f = frequency of vibration
Eq.(10-1) states that the quantum will have more energy if the frequency of the quantum is higher.
The frequency of the quantum is also proportional to the temperature of the emitter.
The term photon is commonly used in electromagnetic wave theory for the quantum mentioned above. It is
assumed that the photon has no mass but carries energy equal to h f.
The true nature of radiation and its transport mechanism is not completely known to the scientist
neither of the two theories explained more can give the satisfactory answer to the radiation heat transfer
process, however, both of them are useful in explaining the uncertain and unknown phenomenon of radiation.
10-3 RADIATION PROPERTIES OF SURFACES
Radiation is the property of all substances and each emits energy and amount of energy emitted
depends upon the temperature level.
In general, radiation energy falling on a body is partly reflected, partly transmitted and partly
absorbed. If the total incident energy Qi is falling on as object as shown inFig.10-1 and Qa is absorbed Qr is
reflected and Qt is transmitted.
In
ed
Qi
cid
ct
fle
en
Qg Qi = Qa + Qg + Qt
Re
tr
ad
Qa Qg Qt
iat
Therefore 1= + +
io
n
Qi Qi Qi (10-2)
Qa
Absorbed 1= a+g+t
Transmitted Where a = Absorptivity,
Qt g = reflectivity,
Fig.10-1 Reflection, Incident and absorption of radiation t = Transmissi vity
202
For a particular wave length, the amount of reflected energy depends upon the type of the material,
the surface finish and the angle of incidence and for a given finish, the portion reflected also depends on wave
length.
The values of a, g and t vary from 0 to 1 for most of the solids and liquids t =0 except few ;
Then a+ t =1
The bodies which do not transmit any radiation energy are known as opaque bodies. All engineering materials
are considered opaque.
If g = 0 & t = 0, then a=1, This means that incident energy is entirely absorbed by the body. Such a body is
called a black body.
If a = 0 & t = 0, then g =1, This means that entire incident radiant energy is reflected by the body and such a
body is called a white body.
If a = 0 & g= 0, then t=1, This means that entire incident radiant energy posses through the body and such
bodies are called transparent bodies.
There are no absolutes, black, white and transparent bodies in nature.
10-4 BLACK BODY AND MONOCHROMATIC RADIATION:

A Blackbody is one which absorbs all the incident radiation and none is reflected or transmitted. In
other words a black body is one where absorption is 100%. In reality a perfect black body does not exist but
this concept of black body is very important in radiation heat transfer. It is also assumed that the black body
has maximum emissive power at a particular temperature compared with other bodies.
The concept of a black body is an idealization. Perfect black body does not exist. A black body may
be approximated very accurately in the following way.
A cavity is constructed as shown in Fig.10-2. so that it is large composed with the size of the opening
provided. An incident ray through opening is reflected many times on the inside before finally escaping from
the opening. With each reflection, there is a fraction of energy absorbed corresponding to the absorptivity of
the surface of the cavity. After many absorptions practically all of the incident radiation is absorbed.
Reflected radiation
From source
Fig.10-2 Multiple reflection in a circular cavity
The energy emitted by the surface at a given wave length in all the direction is known as
monochromatic emissive power of the surface and it is evaporated in the units W/m2/h. The total energy
emitted by the surface at a given temperature is the addition of radiant energy at all wave length and it is
known as total emissive power of the surface at a given temperature. The total emissive power of a blackbody
can also be calculated by adding all radiant energies at all wave length (0 to ¥ ) at a particular temperature.
203
The amount of energy emitted by a black body varies with wave length as shown in Fig.10-3. and
distribution of radiation energy among the different wave length varies with temperature as shown in
Fig.10-4.
350
bl
300
600
Monochromatic Emissive Power, E
0K
320
16
250
0K
Emissive Power, Ebl
12
200
28
00
K
8 150
20
00
K
4 100
50
0K
0 1 2
dl
3 4 170
l 0
Fig.10-3. Emissive Power v/s Wave Length 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wave Length l, mm
Fig.10-4. Monochromatic Emissive Power
v/s Wave Length
The amount of energy emitted per unit time and per unit area of black body in the spectral range l to
(l +dl ) is given by (Ebldl) which is area under the curve and as shown in Fig.10-3. Therefore the total
emissive power of the black body is given by the expression.
¥
(10-3)
Eb = ò (Eo
bl ) dl
Where Ebl = f (l )
At a particular temperature wavelength of a black body radiates much more energy at higher
temperature than at a lower temperature and at any temperature, the amount of energy emitted varies with
wavelength, it can also be seen from Fig.10- 4. that the energy of thermal radiation is almost negligible for
extremely long wave length.
10-5 STEFAN BOLTZMANN EQUATION & BLACK BODY EMISSIVE POWER
The relationship known as Stefan Boltzmann equation for black body emissive power is given
by.
Eb = sT4 (10-4)
Where s is a constant which is equal to 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 and Eb is the total emissive power.
The total emissive power or the emissive power is defined as the total thermal radiation emitted from
a surface, per unit time and per unit area
204
.Stefan Boltzmann law state that the amount of radial energy emitted per unit amount of radial energy emitted
per unit time from unit area of a black body is proportional to the foult power of its absolute temperature.
From Planck Law, monochromatic emissive power of a black body is
C1
E bl ( T ) = 5 c2 l T (10-5)
l (e -1)
Hence, the radiation energy emitted by a black body at an absolute temperature T overall wavelength
per unit time per unit area can be determined by integrating the above Eq.(10-5), .from l = 0 to l= ¥ .
Therefore,
¥
ò
Eb = Ebl dl
o
¥ C1
Eb =ò 5 C2 l T
dl
o l (e -1)
C2 C2 æ -C ö
Let = x, then =l or dl = ç 2 2 ÷ dx
lT xT çx T÷
è ø
and the unit changes as
at l = 0 , x = ¥ , at l = ¥ , x = 0
Hence the above equation become

¥ x 5T 5 C 2
Eb = - C1 ò0 C5( ex
2 - 1 ) x 2T
dx
C1 T 4 ¥
Eb = ò x 3 ( e x - 1 )-1 dx
C24 0
C1 T 4 ¥
=
C24 ò 0
x3
-1
[e -x
+ e - 2 x + e -3 x + - - - ] dx
The above integral is of the form
¥ n!
ò x n ( e -ax )dx =
0 a n +1
Hence
C1 T 4 é 3! 3! 3! ù
Eb = ê + + +---- ú
C24 ë 1 2 4 34 û
C1 T 4
= x 6.48
C24
Substituting the value of C1 & C 2
3.7415 x 10 -16 T 4
Eb = x 6.48
( 1.4388 x 10 -2 )4
Eb = 5.657 x10 -8 T 4
4
æ T ö 4 2 4
= 5.657 x ç ÷ =sT W /m K (10-6)
è 100 ø
205
10-6 KIRCHHOFF'S LAW OF RADIATION
This law was stated by Kirchhoff in 1860 which is one of the most important laws of radiation. this
law states that the ratio of emissive power to absorptivity is constant for all substances which are in thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding. This can be written in mathematical form for three bodies as;
E1 E2 E3
= = (10-7)
a1 a 2 a 3
Assume one body among three is black body say, third one then.
E1 E2 Eb
= = (10-8)
a1 a 2 a b
But a b = 1 for black body, therefore
E1 E2
or = = Eb
a1 a 2
E1 E2
or = a1 and = a2
Eb Eb
But accordingly to the emisivity definition, we can write

E1 E1 (10-9)
=Î1 & =Î2
Eb Eb
There fore, by comparing the above two equation we have

Î1 = a 1 and Î2 = a 2
or in general we can write Î= a (10-10)
Therefore, the Kirchhoff's law states that the emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptive when the
body remains in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings.
10-7 PLANCK LAW OF RADIATION
The total emissive Power of a black body varies with wavelength at a given temperature and also varies with
temperature. Therefore it can expressed as
Eb = f ( l, T )
In 1900, max Planck developed the quantum theory of electromagnetic waves and with the help of this, he
has suggested the following formula for the monochromatic emissive power (Ebl) of a black body which is
based on his theoretical analysis and it is given by (Eq.10-5).
C1
Ebl ( T ) = 5 C2 l T
(10-11)
Where, l (e - 1)
Ebl = monochromatic emissive power at wave length and temperature T, W/m2/m
l = wave length, m
C1 = first radiation constant = 3.7415 x 10-16 W-m2 or ( kcal-m2/hr)
C2= second radiation constant = 1.4388 x 10-2 m-K
206
lmax
T1
T2
T1>T2>T3>T4>T5
T3
Ebl
T4
T5
l
Fig.10-5 Spectral black body emissive power at different temperature max
This distribution for general temperature is shown in Fig.10-5. The distribution has a maximum
value at same wave length. As the temperature increases, the maximum value is found to occur at lower
wavelength. The area below any one curve given the total emissive power at the corresponding temperature.
The wave length at which the maximum value of Ebl occurs at any given temperature can be
determined by differentiating the Eq.(10-11) with respect to and equating to zero. This gives the value of
lmax (T) = 2.898 x 10-3 m K (10-12)
This relationship is known as Wein's displacement law. It is seen that max decreases an T increases
substituting this value in Eq.(10-11). We get,
Ebl (max)T= 12.87 x 10-6 T5 W/m3 (10-13)
10-8 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAWS:
The monochromatic emissive power of a black body for different temperature are plotted Fig.10-4.
According to the monochromatic emissive power of black body given by Plank's law. Fig.10-4, shown that
emissive power at a particular temperature is zero at l=0, then increases with increase in l and reaches its
maximum at a certain l m and then decreases and finally becomes zero at l=¥ . Another characteristic of
this Fig.10-4. is that the wave length at which the monochromatic emissive power is maximum shifts towards
shorter wave length with increasing temperature.
The Wien's law relation T and lmax by the expression given by

lmaxT = 2.89 mm- K (10-14)
Alternately the value of l max T can be found at the peak of the distribution curve given in Fig.10-4 in which
we also see that for a given value of lT, the ratio of ( Ebl/T5 ) is the same for all temperature.
207
Another form of Wien’s law, is therefore ,
Ebl max
= 1.307 x 10 -5 W / m 2 k 5 (10-15)
T5
10-9 GRAY BODY AND EMISSIVE POWER OF GRAY BODY
If the surface of a solid body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation waves irrespective
of their wave length , the body is known as Grey body. Its absorption lies always between zero and one. When
the absorption of a body varies with wave length of radiation waves, the body is known as coloured body.
The emissive power of a gray body is always less than that of a black body in same proportion at all
wave length at a given temperature as shown in Fig. 10-6. This further states that the ratio of emissive power
of gray body to that of a black body at given temperature is constant for all wave length.
T=Constant Black body
Gray body
El
Real surface
l
Fig.10-6. Emissive power of Black body, Gray body and Real surface
The total emissive power of a grey body is always less than the total emissive power of a black body
at the same temperature and this behaviour of a gray body is taken into account by a factor known as
emissivity.
Then, the emissivity of a gray body is defined as

Emissive power of a gray body at temp. T °C
Emissivity =
Emissive power of a black body at temp. T °C
Eg
=
Eb (10-15)
10-10 SOLID ANGLE AND INTENSITY OF RADIATION
The radiation from an elemental area dA1 in a plane stream out over the entire hemisphere along all
directions and ultimately it reaches to the other surface spaced any where. We are interested to find out the
amount of energy received by finite area A2 situated at finite distance from dA1 when dA1 is emitting the
energy in all direction. The amount of energy received by finite area A2 from dA1 can be calculated by
introducing a term solid angle.
208
The unit solid angle is defined as the angle covered by unit area on a surface of a sphere of unit radius
when joined with the center of the sphere and it is measured in steradian.
According to this definition and referring to the Fig.10-7. The solid angle is given by
dA
w= (10-16)
R2
Where dA is the area on a surface of sphere of radial R which is cut out by a cone issuing from the
centre of a sphere
dA
dA
dw =
R2
Fig. 10-7. Emission of radiation from a surface dA.
The intensity of radiation is defined as the rate of emission of radiation in a given direction from a
surface per unit solid angle and per unit projected area on a radiating surface on a plane perpendicular to the
direction of radiation.
Now consider an elemental area dA1 located at the centre of hemisphere of radial as shown in
Fig.10-8. The amount of radiation falling on an area dA2 which is on the surface of the sphere as shown in
Fig10-8 is given by.
r
dA2
Rdf
R
f
r.dy
df
y
dy
dA1
Fig.10-8. Geometrical data referring to diffused radiation into the hemispherical space
dE = Intensity of radiation of the (area dA1 x projected area of dA1 ) and (dA2 x solid angle made by
the area dA2) with the centre of the area dA1
209
dE = IbdA1, cos x solid angle
where Ib is known as areal intensity of radiation of black body (areal intensity of radiation is
proportional to the density of total emission of the black surface dA1)
As one solid angle made by the area dA2 is
dA
dw = 22
R
Total emission from the area dA1 towards the area dA2 is given by.
2
dEb = Ib(dA1 cosf) (dA2 /R ) (10-17)
From Fig. 10-8

dA2=(Rdf) (rdy)
But r = R sinf
Therefore dA2=R2 sinf df dy (10-18)
Substituting Eq.(10-18) in Eq. (10-17), we get
d Eb = Ib dA1( cosf). (sinf) df dy (10-19)
According to Eq.(10-19), total amount of energy emitted by dA1 is given by the following expression,
2p p 2
I b dA1 ò ò sinf cos f d f dy
0 0
As the total energy emitted by dA1 is falling on only hemisphere, therefore,
2p p 2
dA1 Eb = I b (dA1 ) ò ò sinf cos f d fdy
0 0
2p p2
ò ò
Eb = I b dy sinf cos f d f
0 0
p
As ψ change from 0 to 2π and f change from o to , then
2
p2
sin 2f
Eb = I b 2 p
0
ò 2
df
p2
Eb = I b p ò sin 2f d f
0
p2
Since ò sin 2f d f = 1
0
Eb = p I b (10-20)
210
10-11 LAMBERTS COSINE LAW (Radiation heat exchange between two finite surfaces)
The diffused radiation is defined as an equal distribution of radiant flux density to all direction of the
space. An element dA1 of a diffused radiating surface is shown in Fig.10-9.
N
M
q dw2
Solid angle
R
dA1
Fig.10-9 Geometrical data for the derivation of Lambert’s Law
The Lambert's Cosine law states that total energy radiated by dA1 in the direction OM is proportional
to the cosine of the angle q between OM and ON the normal to dA1. This is because, M as eye point, a surface
dA1 cosq appear as bright as the area dA1 seen from N.
This can be stated mathematically as Eo α cosq and En α cos0
Where En and Eo are the emissive powers along ON and OM. Therefore,
Eo cos q
=
E n cos 0
(10-21)
Eo = E n cos q
But dA1 En =IndA1dw
Where dw is the solid angle through which the radiation equal to dA1 En is passing therefore
En = In dw (10-22)
The rate of radiation from dA1 along the direction OM is given by dA1 Eb but it is equal to
IodA1cosq dw.
Therefore dA1 E0 = I0 dA1 cosq dw
Therefore
E0 = I0 cosq dw (10-23)
Dividing Eq.(10-23) by Eq .(10-22), we get

Eo I 0 cos θ dw
=
En I n dw
I
= 0 cos θ
In
Substituting the value of E o from Eq.1 we get
E n cos θ I 0 cos θ
=
En In
Therefore, I n = I0
This further states that the intensity of radiation along any direction is same for diffused surfaces
211
10-12 RADIATION HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO INFINITE BLACK SURFACES.
The element dA1 is radiating heat to the other element dA2, which are temperatures of T1 and T2 as
shown in Fig.(10-10). The distance between the two elements is ‘S’.
dA2 at T2
Normal q2
S
q1
Normal
dA1 at T1
Fig.10-10. Radiation heat transfer between two black bodies

Heat radiated from element dA1 towards dA2
dQ( 1- 2 ) = Intensity of radiation dA1 x projected area of dA1 along
OP x Solid angle made by dA 2
æ dA cos q ö
dQ(1- 2 ) = I b1 ( dA1 cos q1 ) ç 2 2 2 ÷
è S ø
æ cos q1 cos q 2 ö
= I b1 dA1 dA2 ç ÷
è S2 ø
This is the total heat lost by dA1 and falling on dA2. Similarly heat radiated by dA2 which is at lower
temperature (T2 < T1) and falls on dA1 is given by equation
æ cos q1 . cos q 2 ö
dQ(2 -1) = I b 2 ( dA1 dA2 ) ç ÷
è S2 ø
dA1 and dA2 both are considered as black bodies. Therefore, net heat radiated by dA1 and given to dA2 is
dQ = dQ( 1- 2 ) - dQ( 2 -1 )
cos q1 cos q 2 (10-24)
= dA1 dA2 ( I b1 - I b 2 )
S2
Intensity of radiation is given by,
Îb s T 4
Ib = =
p p
212
Therefore,
cos q1 cos q 2 s
dQ = dA1 dA2 2
( T14 - T24 )
S p
In order to determining the total energy radiated from surface 1 to 2, it is necessary to sum the
radiation from each dA1 to all dA2. This is accomplished by integrating over A1 and A2. Therefore,
s cos q1 cos q 2 ( dA1 dA2 )

Q(1- 2 ) = ( T14 - T24 ) ò ò
p
A1 A2
S2
Where
Q1-2 is total heat radiated from A1. Then
Q1- 2 = F1- 2 A1 s ( T14 - T24 ) (10-25)

Where F1-2 is called the configuration factor or shape factor or view factor between the two radiating bodies
and is a function of geometry only. That is
Coq1 Coq 2
F1- 2 = ò ò
A1 A 2
A1 p S 2
dA1 dA2
The subscripts 1 and 2 signify that the configuration factor is from surface 1 to surface 2 the configuration
factor from 2 to 1 is given by
Coq1 Coq 2
F2 -1 = ò ò
A pS2
A1 A 2
dA1 dA2
1
(10-26)
The net energy lost by A1 must be equal to net energy gained by A2. Therefore,
Q1- 2 = - Q2 -1
That is F1- 2 A1s( T 4 1 - T 4 1 ) = - F2 -1 A2 s( T 4 2 - T 4 1 )
Therefore A1 F1- 2 = A2 F2 -1
This is known as reciprocal relation between the shape factor.
If area A1 is small compared with A2, then
Coq 1 Coq 2
F1- 2 = ò p S2
dA2 (10-27)
10-13 RADIATION HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO INFINITE PARALLEL GRAY

SURFACES
Following assumption are made for the analysis of radiant heat exchange between two parallel
planes.
i) The distance between the two surfaces are small and the surfaces have equal area such that all
radiation emitted by one surface falls on the other. The configuration factor or shape factor of both
surface becomes unity.
ii) The surfaces are diffuse and are maintained at uniform temperature. The reflective and emissive
properties are constant over all the surface.
iii) The surfaces are separated by a non absorbing medium much as air.
213
Consider surface emitting radiant energy ED which strikes the surface C.
Fig.10-11 Radiation between two parallel surfaces
Surface D Surface C
aD aC
Considering the energy emitted by the body D

i) D emits the energy = Ed (10-28)
ii) C absorbs energy = Ed a c (10-29)
and reflects energy = E d ( 1 - ac ) (10-30)
iii) D absorbs energy = Ed ad ( 1 - ac ) (10-31)
and reflects energy= Ed ( 1- ac ) ( 1- ad ) (10-32)
iv) C absorbs energy = Ed ac ( 1 - ac ) ( 1 - ad ) (10-33)
and reflects energy= Ed ( 1 - ac )2 ( 1 - ad ) (10-34)
v) D absorbs energy = Ed ad ( 1 - ac )2 ( 1 - ad ) (10-35)
and reflects energy= Ed ( 1 - ac )2 ( 1 - ad )2 (10-36)
And on up to ¥ times
Considering the energy emitted by the body C
i) C emits energy = Ec (10-37)
ii) D absorbs energy = Ec a d (10-38)
and reflects energy= E c ( 1 - ad ) (10-39)
iii) C absorbs energy = Ec a c ( 1 - a d ) (10-40)
and reflects energy= Ec ( 1 - a c )( 1 - a d ) (10-41)
iv) D absorbs energy = Ec a d ( 1 - a c )( 1 - a d ) (10-42)
and reflects energy= Ec ( 1 - ad )2 ( 1 - ac ) (10-43)
v) C absorbs energy = Ec ac ( 1 - ad )2 ( 1 - ac ) (10-44)
and reflects energy = Ec ( 1 - ad )2 ( 1 - ac )2 (10-45)
And so on up to ¥ times
Considering equation Eq.(10-28), Eq.(10-31), Eq.(10-35), Eq.(10-39), Eq.(10-43) Net Energy lost by the
body D = Energy emitted - Energy absorbed
i.e q = E d - [ E d ( 1 - a c ) a d + E d ( 1 - a c )2 ( 1 - a d ) a d + ..........]
- [ E d a d + Ec ( 1 - a c ) ( 1 - a d ) a d + ............... ]
Let ( 1 - a c ) ( 1 - a d ) = K , Then
q = E d - E d a d ( 1 - a c ) [ 1 + K + K 2 + ............] - Ec a d [ 1 + K + K 2 + ...........]
But, ( 1 + K + K 2 + .....) = ( 1 - K )-1
Therefore q = E d - ( 1 - K ) -1 [ a d ( 1 - a c ) E d - E c a d ]
214
a d ( 1 - a c )E d - E c a d
= Ed -
(1- K )
E ( 1 - K ) - a d ( 1 - a c )E d + E c a d
= d
(1 - K )
Substituting the value of K = ( 1 - a c )( 1 - a d )
we have ( 1 - K ) = 1 - ( 1 - ad - ac + acad )
=( ad + ac - acad )
E d ( a d + a c - a c a d ) - a d ( 1 - a c )E d + E c a d
q=
ad + ac - acad
E d a d + E d a c - E d a c a d - E d a d + E d a d a c + Ec a d
q=
ad + ac - acad
E d a c - Ec a d
=
ad + ac - acad
If originally both bodies are at same temperature then q=0

Therefore
E d a c = Eca d
Assuming C as a black body, then αc=1

E d = Eca d = Eba d
E
or ad = d
Eb
Ed
But is the emissivity of the body D according to the definition of emissivity therefore
Eb
a d =Îd
Which is the statement of the kirchoff's law.
If both bodies are not at the same temperature
Then
Îd a c - Îc a d
qd -c =
a d + a c - a ca d (10-46)
But E d =Îd s T14 if D is at temperature T1

And E d =Îd s T14 If C is at temperature T2
Substituting these values in Eq.(10-46), we get
Îd Îc s T14 - Îc Îd T24
q D -c =
Îd + Îc - Îc Îd
q D -c =
s (T 4
- T24
1 )
1 1
+ -1
Îc Îd
215
Or in general, if plates are considered as 1 and 2, then
q1-2 =
s (T 4
- T24
1 )
1 1 (10-47)
+ -1
Î1 Î2
10.14 RADIATION SHIELDS
Generally, the shields are used for reducing the heat radiation from one plane to another plane. Let
the plane 3 is placed in between the two plates 1 and 2 as shown on Fig.10-12. Let the plates be at
temperature T1, T2 and T3 K.
1 3 2
Î1 T1 Î3T3 Î2 T2
Fig.10-12 Radiation shield between plates
A s ( T14 - T34 )
Q1-3 =
æ 1 1 ö (10-48)
çç + - 1÷÷
è Î1 Î3 ø
Since Fig.10 - 12
A s ( T34 - T24 )
Similarly Q3- 2 =
æ 1 1 ö
çç + - 1÷÷
Î
è 3 Î 2 ø
For steady state condition Q1-3 = Q3- 2
T1 - T34 T 4 - T24
= 3
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
Î1 Î3 Î2 Î3
If Î1 =Î2 =Î3
1
Then T34 = ( T14 + T24 )
2
Substituting this value in Eq.(10 - 48), we get
é 1 ù é ù
A s êT14 - ( T14 + T24 )ú ê 4 4 ú
ë 2 û=1ê A s( T1 - T2 )
Q1-3 = ú
1 1 2 ê 1 1
+ -1 + -1 ú
Î1 Î3 ê Î1 Î3 ú
ë û
216
If there is no sheild, then
As ( T14 - T24 )
Q1- 2 =
1 1
+ -1
Î1 Î2
If Î1 =Î2 =Î3 , then
4 4
æ 1 ö As ( T1 - T2 )
Q1-3 = ç ÷
è 2ø æ 2 ö
ç - 1÷
è Î ø
and
4 4
æ 1 ö As ( T1 - T2 )
Q1- 2 = ç ÷
è 2ø æ 2 ö
ç - 1÷
è Î ø
From the above two equation, we see that
1
Q1-3 (with sheild) = Q1- 2 without sheild
2
10-15 SOME SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE SHAPE FACTOR
It is possible to reduce the calculation of shape factor of some complex configuration by the
decomposition of configuration in to group of configuration for which the shape factor may be more readily
evaluated.
1. The shape factor is purely a function of geometrical parameters.

2. When only two bodies are radiating energy with each other, the shape factor relation is
given by
A1F1-2 = A2F2-1 (10-49)
3. The shape factor of convex surface or flat surface enclosing the first is always unity.
This is because all the radiation coming out from the convex surface is intercepted by the
enclosing surface but not vice versa.
4. A concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiation energy coming
out from one part of the surface is interrupted by another part of the same
surface. The shape factor of a surface with respect to itself is denoted by F1-1.
F1-1 for convex and flat surface.
If a surface of area A1 is completely enclosed by a second surface of area A2 and if A1 does

not see itself (F1-1 = 0) then F1-2 =1. Then substituting the value of F1-2 = 1 in the equation.
A1F1-2 = A2F2-1, we get F2-1 = A1 / A2 (10-50)
Radiant exchange between coaxial cylinder bodies placed in enclosures (sphere is kept in a
room or box) are examples of this solution.
5. If surface are taking part in radiation heat transfer, then the energy radiated by one is always
intercepted by the remaining (n-1) surface and by the surface itself also. Therefore
F1-1 + F2-1 + F1-3 +--- + F1-n = 1
217
F2-1 + F2-2 + F2-3 +--- + F2-n = 1
Fn-1 + Fn-2 + Fn-3 +--- + Fn-n = 1
In addition to the above equation, the reciprocal relation between any two surfaces also hold good
F1-2 A1 = F2-1 A2
or F1-3 A1 = F3-1 A2 and so on
6. The shape factor between the surface A1 and A2 is equal to the sum of the shape factors between the
surface A1 and the surface which make the surface A2.
This point is illustrated as shown in Fig.10-13 (a) and (b)
A2 =A3+A4+A5
A1
A4 A1
A3
A5
A3 A4
(b)
A1 (a)
Fig.10-13 Shape factors between the surfaces
This states that the amount of radiated energy by A1 and intercepted by A2 is equal to the sum of the radiated
energy intercepted by the areas A 3, A 4, A 5 as shown in Fig.10-13 (b).
Consider two surfaces A1 and A2 are radiating heat to each other as shown in Fig.10-13 (a). Let A1 be
subdivided into A3 and A4 (i.e. A2 = A3+A4) then the radial heat exchange between A1 and A2 is expressible as
Q 1-2 = Q 3-2 + Q 4-2
Considering the surfaces black
Since T3=T4=T1 and A3 and A4 are subdivision of A1, we get

A1 F1-2 = A 3 F3 - 2 + A 4 F4 -2
The above expression shows that

F2 -1 ¹ (F3 -2 + F4 -2 )
For radiant heat exchange from A 2 to A 1 (divided into A 3 and A 4) one gets
A 2 F 2 - 1 = A 2 F 2 - 3 + A 2 F2 - 4
or
F 2 - 1 = F 2 - 3 + F2 - 4
If A2 is divided into A 3, A 4 & A 5 (as shown in Fig.10-13 b) then shape factor relation is given by
F 1 - 2 = F 1 - 3 + F 1 - 4 + F1 - 5
This states that the amount of radiated energy by A1 and intercepted by A2 is equal to the sum of the radiated
energy intercepted by the areas A 3, A 4 & A 5.
218
10-16 SHAPE FACTOR FOR DIFFERENT CONFIGURATION
1. When radiation body are infinite parallel planes or surfaces:

A1 A2
(Q12)Net
A s ( T14 - T24 )
Q1- 2 =
1 1
+ -1
Î1 Î2
T1 T2
2. When radiation body are concentric cylinders: T1 >T2 A1=A2
T2
T1
A1 s ( T14 - T24 ) Q12

Q1-2 =
1 ( 1- Î2 ) r1
+ .
Î1 Î2 r2
T1 >T2
3. When radiation body are concentric spheres:
T2
Q12 T1
A1 s ( T14 - T24 ) r2
Q1- 2 =
1 ( 1- Î2 ) r12 r1
+ . 2
Î1 Î2 r2
T1 >T2
4. When radiation body lies inside a large enclosure:
A1 s ( T14 - T24 )
Q1- 2 =
1 ( 1- Î2 ) A1
-1+ . T2 A2
Î1 Î2 A2
A1
( 1- Î2 ) T1
Since A1 >> A2 , Therefore is neglected .
Î2
A1 s ( T14 - T24 )
Q1- 2 =
1
-1+1
Î1
Q1- 2 =Î1 A1 s ( T14 - T24 )
219
Example.10-1. It is observed that the intensity of radiation emitted by the sun is maximum at a wavelength of
0.5, assuming the sun to be black bod, y estimate its surface temperature and emissive power.
-2
Solution: Given data: lmax T = 2.99 mmK = 0.289 x 10 mK
According to Wien's displacement law, -2
0.289 x 10 0.289 x 10 -2
T= = = 5780 K
l max 0.5 x 10 -6
Then using stefan Boltzmann law
E b(sun) = s T 4
= 5.657 x 10 -8 (5780 )4
= 63.14 MW / m 2
Example10-2.Estimate the rate of solar radiation on a above normal to sun rays. Assume the sun to be
blackbody at a temperature of 5527C. The diameter of the sun, D = 1.39 x 106 km and its distance from the
earth is l = 1.5 x 108km and its distance from the earth is l=1.5 x 108 km
We know that
Eb = p I b
Eb s T 4
Ib = =
T p
(The rate of solar radiation per unit area is called density of solar radiation )
q 1
Also, Ib = =
A p dw
Where dw is the solid angle sustended by the sun at a unit area on the plane.
p d2 4 Pr ojected area
dw = 2
=
l l2
Q
= I b dw
A cos f
Q
= I b dw Since φ is very small
A
s -T 4 p D2
= x
p 4l2
5.567 x 10 -8 ( 5800 )4 p ( 1.39 x 10 6 )2
=
p x 4 ( 1.5 x 10 6 )2
= 1415 w / m 2
Example10-3. A metallic bar at 37oC is placed inside an oven whose interior is maintained at a temperature of
110 K the absorption of the bar (at 37oC) is a function of temperature of incident radiation and a few
representative values are.
Temp K 310 700 1100
a 0.8 0.68 0.52
Estimate the rate of absorption and emission by the metallic bar.
The bar is absorbing radiation from the interior of the oven at 110 K, so its absorption is 0.52.
220
The rate of absorption.

Q =a sT4=0.52 x 5.567x 10-8(1100)4
= 4.238 kW/m2
According to Kirchhoff's law, the emissivity of a surface is equal to its absorptivity at 37oC (310K).
That is
Î=0.8
The rate of emission is therefore

Eb = Îs T4 = 0.8 x 5.567 x 10-8(310)4
Eb = 0.4113 kW/m2
Example.10-4. A pipe carrying steam having an OD of 20cm runs in a large room and is exposed to air at a
temperature of 300 C. The pipe surface temperature is 4000 C. Calculate the loss of heat to surrounding per
meter length of pipe due to thermal radiation, if the emissivity the pipe surface is 0.8. What would be the
loss of heat due to radiation if the pipe is enclosed a 40 cm dia brick conduct of emissivity 0.91?
. (April 1997 K.U)
Solution Given data: Q =s A Î (T -T )4 4
2 1 1 1 2
éæ 400 4 ù
20 ö
= 5.657 x 10 -8 p x 0.8 êç + 273 ÷ - ( 30 + 273 ) 4 ú
100 ëêè 2 ø ûú
20 éæ 673 ö 4 æ 303 ö 4 ù
= 5.657 x 10 -8 p x 0.8 êç ÷ -ç ÷ ú
100 êëè 100 ø è 100 ø úû
= 5594 watts
When it is enclosed in a brick conduct of 40cm dia
20
5.657 x 10 -8 x p ( 673 4 - 303 4 )
s A1 ( T14 - T24 ) 100
= =
1 A1 æ 1 ö 1 20 æ 1 ö
+ çç - 1 ÷÷ + ç - 1÷
Î1 A2 è Î2 ø 0.8 40 è 0.91 ø
= 5381Watts
Example.10-5. A room has a radiating panel fitted along the entire length on one wall. The panel essentially
consists of a duct 20cm in dia through which hot air is flowing. The surface temperature is 2100 C and a
temperature is 200 C. calculate the heat loss per meter length of the duct by convection and radiation when
the duct is bare and when it is painted with paint.
Solution Given data: Î = 0.1, Î = 0.90
bare chart Painted duct
h = 11 .65W / m K (for both bare & painted duct )

2
Heat loss due to convection

Qc = hA ( T1 - T2 )
20
= 11 .65 p 1(210 - 20 )
100
= 1390.78 Watts
221
Example10-6. Determine the shape factor F1-2 between a small area A1 and a parallel horizontal circular disc
A2. A1 is located vertically above the centre of the disc A2 and the semi vertex angle of the cone formed with
the disc A2 as the base and A1 as the vortex is α.
Solution: cos f1 , cos f 2 d A1 d A 2
1 dA2
F1- 2 =
A1
A A
ò ò p L 2
dr r A
1 2 2
Now f1 = f 2 = f, g = H tan f
dr = H Sec 2 f d f
H f2
d A 2 = 2 p r d r2 L
N f1
2 2
= 2 p H tan f Sec f d f
L = H 2 + r 2 = H 2 + H 2 tan 2 f = H 2 Sec 2 f
2 A1
o
cos f1 cos f 2 dA2
\F1- 2 = ò Q A1 << A2
A
p L2
2
a
cos f cos f 2 p H 2 tan f Sec 2 f d f
= ò
0
p H 2 Sec 2 f
a a
ò ò
= 2 sin f cos f d f = 2 sin 2f df
0 0
a
é cos 2 f ù cos 2 a
= ê- =1-
ë 2 úû 0 2
(cos a + sin a ) - (cos 2 a - sin 2 a )
2 2
=
2
F1- 2 = sin 2 a
Example10-7. Determine the shape factor from a small area dA1 to a circular disc A2 of radius R which are
parallel to each other with a distance L between them.
Solution:
F1-2 = sin 2 a dq
r dr
An element are dA 2 is choosen as the circular ring of radius r
such that dA2 = x dq dx
The distance r between the two elemental surface is given by f2
L= r 2 + H 2 L H
and f1 =f2 =f
f1
cos f= H s
12 L = r2 + H 2
æ 2 2ö dA1
çç H + r ÷÷
è ø
The shape factor is given by
cos f1 cos f2 dA1dA2
dA1.FdA - A = 1 ò ò
1 2 pA A L2
2 1
or
cos f1 cos f2 dA1dA2
dA1.FdA - A =dA1 ò
1 2 A2 L2
222
Making the substitution for L and cosf and integrating.
2
1 R 2p éê H
ù
ú r .dq .dr
FdA - A = ò ò ê ú .
1 2 p r =0 0 êë ( r 2 + H 2 )1 2` úû æ 2 ö
2
ç r +H 2 ÷
ç ÷
è ø
q =2p r =R H2
FdA - A = 1 ò ò .r .dr
p
1 2 q =0 r =0 ( r 2 + H 2 )2
2
FdA - A = R
1 2 R2 + H 2
Example10.8.Two parallel plates are at a temperature of 4000 C and 2000 C both the plates have an emissivity
of 0.8. Another plate with an emissivity of 0.9 is interposed between the two plates. Determine the
percentage change in the rate of radiation heat transfer. (July/Aug 1991 K.U)
Solution:
Radiation between T1 and T2 without the shield T1=673K T3 T2=473K
s( T14 - T24 )
Q2 =
1 1
+ -1
Î1 Î2
5.657 x 10 -8 ( 6734 - 4734 )
=
1 1
+ -1
0.8 0.8
= 5848.96W
1 3 2
T14 - T34 T34 - T24 Î1=0.8 Î3=0.9 Î2=0.8
=
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
Î1 Î3 Î3 Î2
T14 - T34 T24 - T34

=
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
0 .8 0 .9 0 .9 0 . 8
T14 - T34 = T34 - T24

1 1
æ T 4 - T24 ö 4 æ 673 4 + 473 4 ö4
\T3 = ç 1 ÷ =ç ÷
ç 2 ÷ ç 2 ÷
è ø è ø
= 597.67° K
s ( T14 - T34 ) 5.657 x 10 -8 ( 673 4 + 597.67 4 )
Q withsheild = =
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
Î1 Î3 0 .8 0 .9
= 3225.57W
5848.98 - 3225.57
Percentage Reduction =
5848.96
= 0.448 or 44.8%
223
0 0
Example10-9.Two large parallel plates of equal areas are at temperature of 150 C and 40 C, while their
emissivities are 0.6 and 0.7 respectively. If a radiation shield of emissivity 0.04 is inserted in between the
plates, estimate the percentage reduction in heat exchange by radiation. (Jan/Feb 1990. K.U)
Solution:
Heat transfer between plates 1 to 2
T1=150oC T3 T2=4ooC
4 4
s ( T1 - T2 )
Q2=
1 1
+ -1
Î1 Î3
5.657 x 10 -8 ( 423 4 - 313 4 )
=
1 1
+ -1
0.6 0.7
Q 2 = 606.778W
Heat transfer with shield 1 3 2
Q3 = 3 Q2 Î1=0.6 Î3=0.04 Î2=0.7
T14 - T34 T 4 - T24
= 3
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
Î1 Î3 Îb Î2
T14 - T34 T34 - T24
=
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
0.6 0.04 0.04 0.7
T14 - T34 T 4 - T24
= 3
25 - 666 25 - 4285
1 1
æ T 4 - T24 ö4 æ 423 4 - 313 4 ö4
T3 = ç 1 ÷ =ç ÷
ç 2 ÷ ç 2 ÷
è ø è ø
T3 = 379.8° K
s ( T14 - T34 ) 5.657 x 10 -8 ( 423 4 - 379.8 4 )
Q3 = =
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
Î1 Î3 0.6 0.04
= 24.7 W
606.778 - 24.7
Percentage reduction =
606.778
= 0.959 or 95.9%
Example 10-10. Two concentric spheres 20m 30m in diameter are used to store liquid nitrogen at 120 K in a
room at 300 K. The space between the spheres is made perfect vacuum. The surface are highly polished to
attain an emissivity of 0.04. Find the rate of evaporation of liquid nitrogen per hour, if the latent heat of
nitrogen is 200kJ/kg. (Oct/Nov 2001K.U)
s A1 ( T14 - T24 )
Solution: Q=
1 A1 æ 1 ö
+ ç - 1 ÷÷
Î A2 çè Î2 ø
224
s 4 p g 12 ( T14 - T24 )
= 2
1 æg ö æ 1 ö
+ çç 1 ÷÷ çç - 1 ÷÷
Î1 è g 2 ø è Î2 ø
5.657 x 10 -8 x 4 p x 10 2 ( 120 4 - 300 4 )
= 2
1 æ 10 ö æ 1 ö
+ç ÷ ç - 1÷
0.04 è 15 ø è 0.04 ø
= - 15733.3 w
15733.3
Rate of evaporation = = 0.078 kg / sec
200 x 10 3
= 283.2 kg / hr
Example 10-11.Two metallic parallel plates of 5 m2 area are maintained at 900 K and 450 K respectively.
Compare the net heat exchange between the plates when (i) Both plates are black (ii) plates have an
emissivity of 0.4.
Solution:
i) Q = s A ( T14 - T24 )
= 5.657 x 10 -8 x 5 ( 900 4 - 450 4 )
= 173981.0 W
ii ) Q =Îs A ( T14 - T24 )
= 0.4 x 173981.0
= 69592.4 W
Examplem10-12. The average solar radiation received at noon on the earth's surface is 800 W/m2. The
transmissivity of the earth's atmosphere is assumed as 80%. The diameter of the sun = 1.392xl06 km. The
distance between the earth and sun is = l.5xl06 km. Assuming the sun to be a black body, estimate the
temperature of the sun. (April/May 1995 K.U)
Solution: dA1
Sun
t = 0 .8
Actual average solar radiation coming earth
dA cos q D=1.392x106
dQ1- 2 = I 1 dA1 cos q 1 2 2 2
S
dQ1- 2 I1 1
ò =
dA2 cos q 2 S 2 t
. dA1 cos q 1ò q1
S=1.5x106
q 1 = 0 (Qrays are parallel to eachother )
Q1- 2 E 1
= b2 dA1 ò
A2 p S t
sT 4 1 pD12
800 = x
p S2 t 4 q2
4 800 x p x ( 1.5 x 10 6 x 1000 )2 x 0.8 x 4
T =
5.7 x 10 -8 x p x ( 1.392 x 10 6 )2
\T = 477.87° K
DA2
Earth
225
Example 10-13. Determine the intensity of a solar radiation that is incident upon a plane normal to sun rays
and arranged outside the earth's atmosphere. Solar radiation is considered close to that of a black body
at a temperature of 6000°C. Given: D = diameter of the sun = 1.392xl06 km L = Distance from earth to sun
= l.5xl06 km, (April/May 1995 K.U)
Solution: D = 1.392 x 10 6 km
L = 1.5 x 10 6 km
Intensity of solar radiation incident on a earth surface is,
dQ1- 2 I E
= 1 dA1 cos q 1 = b 2 dA1
ò ò
dA2 cos q 2 S 2 pS
2
sT4 p Ds2 5.7 x 10 -8 ( 6000 + 273 )4 æ 1.392 ö
\q 1-2 = x = xç ÷
p S2 4 4x è 1 .5 ø
q 1-2 = 19 MW / m 2
Example 10-14. A pipe carrying steam having an outside diameter of 20 cms runs in a large room and is
exposed to air at a temperature of 27°C. The pipe surface temperature is 427°C. Calculate the loss of heat
to the surroundings per meter length of the pipe due to radiation. The emissivity of pipe surface is 0.8.
What would be the loss of heat due to radiation if the pipe is enclosed in a 40 cm diameter brick conduit of
emissivity 0.9 ? (July/Aug 1998 K.U)
Solution:
T1 = 427 + 273 = 700 K , T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ,Î1 = 0.8 , D1 = 0.2 m
s = 5.67 x10 -8 w / m 2 k 4
Heat radiated
Q12 = sA Î ( T14 - T24 )
= 5.67 x10 -8 x( px0.2 )x0.8 700 4 - 300 4( )
= 8265.15 W
When enclosed in conduit, D1 = 0.4m, D 2 = 0.2m, Î1 = 0.8, Î2 = 0.9
sA1 ( T14 - T24 )
Q12 =
1 A1 æ 1 ö
+ ç - 1 ÷÷
Î1 A2 çè Î2 ø
5.67 x( px0.2 )( 700 4 - 300 4 ) X 10 -8
=
1 0 .2 æ 1 ö
+ ç - 1÷
0 . 8 0 .4 è 0 . 9 ø
= 6330.8 W
Example 10-15. A spherical tank with diameter 40 cm is filled with a cryogenic fluid at 100K and placed
inside a spherical container of diameter 60 cm maintained at 300K. The emissivities of the two inner and
outer tanks are 0.15 and 0.2 respectively. A spherical radiation shield of diameter 50 cm and having an
emissivity of 0.05 on both sides is placed between the spheres. Calculate the rate of heat loss by radiation
and the rate of evaporation of fluid if hfg = 2.1 x 105 W.s/kg. (July/Aug 1998 K.U)
Solutions:
d 1 = 0.4 m d 2 = 0.6 m T1 = 300 K T2 = 100 K Î1 = 0.15 Î2 = 0.2

d 3 = 0 .5 m Î3 = 0.05 h fg = 2.1x10 5 W .s / kg
226
sA1 ( T14 - T24 )
Q1 =
1 A1 æ 1 ö A æ 1 1 ö
+ çç - 1 ÷÷ + 1 çç + - 1 ÷÷
Î1 A2 è Î2 ø A3 è Î3 ,1 Î3 ,2 ø
p ( 0.4 )2 ( 5.67 x10 -8 )( 300 4 - 100 4 )
=
1 æ 0.4 öæ 1 ö æ 4 öæ 1 1 ö
+ç ÷ç - 1÷ + ç ÷ç + - 1÷
0.15 è 0.6 øè 0.2 ø è 0.5 øè 0.05 0.05 ø
= 6.83 W
Rate of evaporation
Q 6.83
M = l = = 3.25 x10 -5 kg / s
h fg 2.1x10 5
Example 10-16. Two concentric cylinders having diameters of 10cm and 20cm have a length of 20cm
Calculate the radiation shape factor between the open ends of the cylinders.
(July/Aug 2005 V.T.U)
Solutions:
L 20
= = 2 .0 2
R2 10
r1 5 4 3
= = 0 .5 1
r2 10
From graph F2 -1 = 0.43 & F2 - 2 = 0.33
A1 F1- 2 = A2 F2 -1
d
\ F1- 2 = 2 x F2 -1
d1
20
= x 0.43 = 0.86
10
F2 -1 + F2 - 2 + F2 - 3 + F2 - 4 = 1.0 , F2 - 3 = F2 - 4
\2 F2 - 3 = 2 F2 - 4 = 0.24
\ F2 - 3 = F2 - 4 = 0.12
A2 F2 - 3 = A3 F3 - 2
p ( 0 .2 x 0 .2 )
\ F3 - 2 = x 0.12 = 0.64
p ( 0.2 2 x 0.12 ) / 4
F1- 2 + F1- 3 + F1- 4 = 1.0
\0.86 + 2 F1- 3 = 1.0 \F1- 3 = 0.07
A1 F1- 3 = A3 F3 -1
p x 0 .1 x 0 .2 )
\ F3 -1 = x 0.07
p ( 0.2 2 x 0.12 ) / 4
= 0.187
F3 -1 + F3 - 2 + F3 - 3 + F3 - 4 = 1.0
\ F3 - 4 = 0.173
Example 10-17. A 0.5m diameter pipe (Î= 0.9) carrying steam has a surface temperature of 500K. The pipe
is located in a large room at 300K. Determine the radiation heat loss from the pipe per unit length.
(July/Aug 2005 V.T.U)
Solutions:
227
Q = sA1 E1 ( T14 - T24 )
= 5.669 x 10 -8 x p d L x Î1 ( T14 - T24 )
= 5.669 x 10 -8 x p x 0.5 x 1 x 0.9 ( 500 4 - 300 4 )
= 4359.8 W
Example 10-18. The surfaces of a double walled spherical vessel used for storing liquid oxygen are covered
with a layer of silver having an emissivity of 0.03. The temperature of the outer surface of the inner wall is
-153°C and the temperature of the Inner surface of the outer wall is 27°C. The spheres are 21cm and 30
cm in diameter, with the space between them is evacuated. Calculate the radiation heat transfer through
the walls into the vessel and the rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen, if its rate of evaporation is 220
kJ/kg. (Jan/Feb 2006 V.T.U Old Scheme)
Î1 =Î2 = 0.03 , T1 = 153 + 273 = 120 K
Solutions:
T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K , h fg = 220 kJ / kg
Net radiation heat exchange both 1 and 2 is
A1 J ( T14 - T24 )
Q12 =
1 A1 æ 1 ö
+ çç - 1 ÷÷
Î1 A2 è Î2 ø
A1 = 4pR12 = 4p x ( 0.21 / 2 )2 = 0.1385 m 2
2 2
A1 æ R1 ö æ 0.21 ö
=ç ÷ =ç ÷ = 0.49
A2 çè R2 ÷ø è 0.3 ø
1 A1 æ 1 ö 1 æ 1 ö
+ ç - 1 ÷÷ = + 0.49 ç - 1 ÷ = 49.2
Î1 A2 çè Î2 ø 0.03 è 0.03 ø
\Q2 =
-8
(
0.1385 x 5.67 x 10 120 - 300 4 4
)
= 1.26 W
49.2
- ve Sign indicates that heat flows from 2 to 1
ii) Rate of evaporation is
&
Q 1.26
m& = =
h fg 220 x10 3
= 5.73 x 10 -6 kg / s or 0.0206 kg / h
Example 10-18. Two parallel plates at T = 900 K and T2 = 500 K have emissivities Î1 = 0.6 and Î2 = 0.9
I
respectively. A radiation shield having an emissivity Î31 = 0.15 on one side and emissivity Î32 = 0.06 on
the other side is placed between the plates. Calculate the heat transfer rate by radiation per square meter
with and without radiation shield (May/June 2006 V.T.U )
Solutions:
Given :T1 = 900 K ,T2 = 500 K ,Î1 = 0.6 ,Î2 = 0.9
Î31 = 0.15 , Î32 = 0.06
i ) without sheild
sA( T14 - T24 )
Q12 =
1 1
+ -1
Î1 Î2
= 1893.2 Watts
228
ii ) without sheild
sA( T14 - T24 )
Q13 =
æ 1 1 ö æ 1 1 ö
çç + - 1 ÷÷ + çç + - 1 ÷÷
è Î1 Î13 ø è Î32 Î2 ø
Q13 = 1396 Watts
Example 10-19. A spherical tank with diameter 50 cm filled with a cryogenic fluid at 70 K is placed inside a
spherical container of diameter 75cm and is maintained at 300°K. The emissivities of inner and outer
tanks are 0.1 and 0.2 respectively. Calculate the rate of evaporation of cryogenic fluid. Take hfg= 2.1X105
J/kg (July 2006 V.T.U )
D1 = 0.5 m \R1 = 0.25 m 2
Solutions: 1
D2 = 0.75 m \R2 = 0.375 m
T1 = 0.5° K T1 = 300° K
Î1 = 0.1, Î2 = 0.2 , h fg = 2.1 x 10 5 J / kg
2 2
A1 4p R12 æ R1 ö æ 0.25 ö
= =ç ÷ =ç ÷ = 0.444
A 2 4p R22 çè R2 ÷ø è 0.375 ø
The heat flow from the inner surface to outer surface is
A1s ( T14 - T24 )
Q12 =
é 1- Î1 ù 1 æ 1- Î2 ö A1
ê ú+ + çç ÷÷
ë Î1 û F12 è Î2 ø A2
4pR12s ( T14 - T24 )
=
é 1- Î1 ù 1 æ 1- Î2 ö A1
ê ú+ + çç ÷÷
ë Î1 û F12 è Î2 ø A2
Here F12 = 1
2px0.25 2 x5.67 x10 -8 ( 70 4 - 300 4 )
\ Q12 =
æ 1 - 0. 1 ö æ 1 - 0.2 ö
ç ÷ +1+ ç ÷0.444
è 0 .1 ø è 0 .2 ø
\ Q12 = - 15.27W
\ Q 21 = - 15.27W or J / s
The rate of evaporation of cryogenic fluid,
Q 15.27
& = 21 =
m = 7.27 x10 -5 kg / s or 0.262 kg / h
h fg 2.1x10 5
Example 10-20. Consider two large parallel plates, one at 1000 K with emissivity 0.8 and other is at 300 K
having emissivity 0.6. A radiation shield is placed between them. The shield has emissivity as 0.1 on the
side facing hot plate and 0.3 on the side facing cold plate. Calculate percentage reduction in radiation heat
transfer, as a result of radiation shield. (May 2007 V.T.U )
Solutions: ( i ) Qwithout shield , T1 = 1000 K , Î1 = 0.8

sA( T14 - T24 )
Q1 =
1 1
+ -1
Î1 Î2
229
Q1 s ( T14 - T24 ) 5.67 x 10 -8 ( 1000 4 - 300 4 )
q12 = = =
A 1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
Î1 Î2 0.8 0.6
q12 = 29.343 kW / m 2
( ii ) with shield
s ( T14 - T24 )
Q12 =
1 1 1 - E3 ,1 1 - E3 ,2
+ + +
E1 E 2 E3 ,1 E3 ,2
5.67 x 10 -8 ( 1000 4 - 300 4 )
=
ì 1 1 1 - 0.1 1 - 0.3 ü
í + + + ý
î 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.3 þ
q12 = 3.946 kW / mh 2
29.343 - 3.946
\ % reduction = x 100 = 86.55%
29.343
Example 10-21. A spherical tank with diameter 50 cm filled with a cryogenic fluid at 70 K is placed inside a
spherical container of diameter 75 cm and is maintained at 300 K. The emissivities of inner and outer
tanks are 0.1 and 0.2 respectively. Calculate the rate of evaporation of cryogenic fluid. Take hfg = 2.1 x 105
J/kg. (July 2007 V.T.U )
Solutions:
T2 = 300 K ,Î2 = 0.2 ,T2 = 70 K ,Î1 = 0.1
Heat gained by the cryogenic fluid,
sA1 ( T24 - T14 )
Q21 = Q12 =
1 A1 æ 1- Î2 ö
+ +ç ÷÷
Î1 A2 çè Î2 ø
5.67 x 10 -8 x 4 p( 0.25 ) ( 300 4 - 70 4 )
2
= 2
1 æ 0.25 ö æ 1 - 0.2 ö
+ç ÷ ç ÷
0 .1 è 0 . 5 ø è 0 . 2 ø
Q12 = 32.69 W
Rate of evaporation ,
Q 32.69
m& = = = 1.56 x 10 -4 kg / s or 0.56 kg / hr
h fg 2.1 x 10 5
Example 10-22. Two large parallel plates are at 1000°K and 800°K. Determine the heat exchange per unit
area when,
i) The surfaces are black.

ii) The hot surface has an emissivity of 0.9 and cold 0.6
iii) A large plate of emissivity 0.1 is inserted between them.
Also find the percentage reduction in heat transfer because of introduction of the large plate,
((Dec.06/Jan.07 V.T.U )
Solution:
230
( i) When the surfaces are black

s( T14 - T24 ) A
Q12 =Îb1 - Îb 2 =
1 1
+ -1
Î1 Î2
As Î1 =Î2 = 1 black surface
Q12
q12 = = s( T14 - T24 ) = 5.67 x10 -8 ( 100 4 - 800 4 )
A
q I = q12 = 33.48 kW / m 2
s( T14 - T24 ) 5067 X 10 -8 ( 1000 4 - 800 4 )
q12 = =
1 1 1 1
+ -1 + -1
E1 E 2 0 .9 0 . 6
q II = q12 = 18.83 kW / m 2
(ii) with shield
s( T14 - T24 )
q13 = = q32
æ 1 1 ö æ 1 1 ö
çç + - 1 ÷÷ + çç + - 1 ÷÷
è E1 E3 ø è E3 E 2 ø
-8 4 4
5.67 x10 ( 1000 - 800 )
=
æ 1 1 ö æ 1 1 ö
ç + - 1÷ + ç + - 1÷
è 0 . 9 0 .1 ø è 0 .1 0 . 6 ø
q III = q13 = 1.611 kW / m 2 Ans
(iii)% Reduction w.r.t black surfaces

q I - q III 33.48 - 1.611
= x 100 = 95.2%
qI 18.83
% Reduction w. r.t grey surfaces
18.83 - 1.611
= ( q II - q III ) / q II = x100 = 91.44% Ans
18.83
Example 10-23. An enclosure measures 1.5mx1.7m with a height of 2m. The walls and ceiling are
maintained at 250°C and the floor at 130°C. The walls and ceiling have an emissivity of 0.82 and the
floor 0.7. Determine the net radiation to the floor. ((Dec.07/Jan.08 V.T.U )
Ceiling
Solution: T2 = T3 = 250 + 273 = 523 K = T4
T1 = Floor = 130 + 273 = 403 K . 2 Sid
ew
all
Shape factor from chart : a l l 4
w
Between end walls & floor : Z=
2
= 1.33 End
1 .5 1 3
1 .7 Flo
Y= = 1.133 1.7 o r
1 .5 m
\F12 = 0.2 m
1.5
z 2 y 1 .5
Between Side wall & Floor : Z= = = 1.176 & Y = = = 0.86
x 1.7 x 1 .7
\F13 = 0.235
231
i) Heat flow from end walls to floor
E b 2 = sT24 = 5.67 x 523 4 x 10 -8
E b1 = sT14 = 5.67 x 10 -8 x 403 4
1 - 0.82 1 1 - 0.82
Rth = + +
1.7 x 1.5 x 0.82 1.7 x 1.5 x 0.2 1.5 x 2 x 0.82
Rth = 0.0061 + 1.961 + 0.073 = 2.12
( E b1 - E b 2 )
Q 2 -1 =
1- Î1 1 1- Î3
+ +
A1 Î1 A1 F13 A3 Î3
2746.6
=
2.12
= 1295.6 W / cm
Qt 2 -1 = 2 x Q 2 -1 = 2591.2 W
ii)Heat flow from side walls to floor
( Eb3 - Eb1 )
Q 3 -1 =
1- Î1 1 1- Î3
+ +
A1 Î1 A1 F13 A3 Î3
5.67 x 10 -8 ( 523 4 - 403 4 )
=
1 - 0.82 1 - 0.82
+
1.7 x 1.5 x 0.82 1.7 x 1.5 x 0.82
= 1509.7W / s
\Qt1 3 -1 = 2 x 1509.7 = 3019.5W
iii)Heat flow from ceiling to floor
( Eb4 - Eb1 )
Q 4 -1 =
1- Î1 1 1- Î4
+ +
A1 Î1 A1 F14 A4 Î4
2746.6
= = 923.72W
1 1 - 0.82
0.0861 + +
1.7 x1.5 x0.14 1.7 x 1.5 x0.82
\ Total heat flow to the floor :
Q 234-1 = 2591.2 + 3019.5 + 923.7 = 6534.4W
Review Questions
10-1 The sun radiates as a blackbody at an effective surface temperature T = 5762 K. What fraction of the
total energy is in the (a) ultraviolet (that is, l = 0.01 to 0.4 mm), (b) visible (that is,l = 0.4 to 0.7 mm),
and (c) infrared (that is, l = 0.7 to 1000 mm) regions?
Answer: (a) 12.11, (b) 36.57, (c) 51.32 percent
10-2 Determine the radiative energy emitted between 2 and 10mm wavelengths by a 1 m by 1 m gray
surface at 600 K which has an emissivity e= 0.8. Answer: 4309 W
10-3 A blackbody at 1111 K is emitting into air.(a) Calculate the wavelength at which the blackbody
emissive power is maximum.(b) Calculate the energy emitted over the wavelength l = 1 to 10 mm
and l = 10 to 20 mm. Answer: (a) 2.61 mm (b) 80,554 and 4810 W/m2
232
12-33 The interior walls of a furnace are maintained at 1300 K and can be regarded as black. The furnace
has a 10 cm by 10 cm glass window which has a spectral transmissivity to radiation at 1300 K. given
by
t1 = 0.7 in 0 < A< 2.5 mm
t2 = 0 in 2.5 < A < ¥
Calculate the average transmissivity of the glass for radiation emitted at 1300 K. Determine the
amount of radiant energy transmitted through the window into the surrounding environment.
Answer: 0.23, 373 W
7.17 Two parallel real surfaces of size 0.3 m x 0.5 m are placed 1 m apart. One plate with emissivity 0.3 is
held at 300°C while the other plate with emissivity 0.45 is held at 200°C. These plates are placed in a
large room, the walls of which are at 10°C. Determine the net heat transfer rate to the room.
Answer:418W
7.19 A steel pipe of 2 cm OD is maintained at 300°C by passing superheated steam through it. Th
emissivity of the pipe's surface is 0.6. The pipe is passing through a room which is at 17°C.
Determine the rate of radiative heat transfer from the pipe to the room per unit area of the pipe wall.
Answer:3.426kW/m2
7.20 A spherical vessel of ID = 28 cm is filled with ice at 0°C. This vessel is placed in another spherical
vessel of ID = 30 cm and the space between the two vessels is completely evacuated. If the
emissivity of the inner vessel is 0.1 and that of the outer vessel is 0.05, and the outer vessel is at a
temperature of 40°C, determine the amount of ice which melts in 10 hours. The latent heat of fusion
of water at 0°C is 333.3 kJ/kg. Answer: 0.23kg
7.21 It is desired to estimate the percentage reduction in the radiative heat transfer by the addition of a
radiation shield in between two parallel plates. The emissivity of each plate is 0.4. Determine the
percent reduction in radiation heat transfer if a black plate is used as a radiation shield in between the
plates. Answer: 20%
7.23 Two large parallel plates held at temperatures T1and T2 are facing each other and are set apart. If n
radiation shields are inserted between the plates while the plates are still maintained at T1 and T2,
determine the ratio of the radiation energy transfer rate with shields to the radiation energy transfer
in the absence of the shields, assuming that the emissivities of the plates and shields are equal.
Answer:1/(n+1)
7.4 A furnace is provided with a glass window which transmits 90 percent of the incident radiation in the
wavelength range 0.35 to 2.7mm. Estimate the percent of the furnace's radiation which the glass will
transmit, assuming that the furnace is a black body at 1800 K. Answer:55.4%
7.5 Two parallel concentric disks have d1 =10 cm and d2 = 4 cm and are spaced 6 cm apart. Determine the
shape factors F12 and F21. Answer:0.05, 0.3125
7.6 Two parallel black plates 0.5 m x 1 m are kept 2 m apart and they face each other. One plate is held at
600 K while the other plate is maintained at 400 K. Calculate the radiant heat exchange between the
plates. Answer:103.2W
7.7 A domestic oven has the shape of a cubical box of side length 0.5 m. Determine the shape factors (a)
between the bottom surface and one side wall and between the top and bottom surfaces.
Answer:(a) 0.19,(b) 0.2
7.8 A bathroom of 2 m x 3 m has a ceiling height of 3 m. A small drain is located in the floor in the middle
of the bathroom. Determine the fraction of energy leaving the ceiling which strikes the drain.
USN Me74
Seventh Semester B.E. Degree Examination, Dee 08 / Jan 09
Time: 3 hrs.
Max. Marks: 1 00
Note: 1. Answer any FIVE full questions.
2. Use of heat transfer data handbook permitted.
1 a. State the assumptions and derive the most general three dimensional heat conduction equation in
Cartesian coordinates (08 Marks)
Answer: Assumptions:
1)Thermal Conductivity k, density r, and specific heat c, for the material do not vary with
position.
2)Uniform heat generation at the rate of q& per unit volume per unit time.
3)Heat flow is in all the three direction and parallel to the respective planes.
4) Material is homogeneous and isotropic
For general three dimensional heat conduction equation in cartesian coordinate
Answer: Please refer page no 13 and 14.
b. A furnace wall is made up of inside silica brick (k = 1.6W/m K), outside magnetia brick ( k = 4.8
W/m k), 10 cm thick each. The inside and outside surfaces are exposed to fluid temperatures of
820°C and 120°C respectively. Find the heat flow through the wall per m2 per hour. Assume a
contact resistance of O.002m2/W. Draw the temperature profile through the composite wall. The
inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are 35W/m2 K and 12 W/m2 respectively (12 Marks).
Ti = 820°C
L1 = L2 = 0.1m
To =120°C
K 1 = 1.6 W / m K
Rc = 0.002 m 2 / W
K 2 = 4 .8 W / m K
hi = 35 W / m 2 K
A =1 m 2
ho =12 W / m 2 K
Ti - To
Q= = 3549.01W
1 é 1 L1 L2 1 ù
ê + + R e + + ú
A ë hi K1 K 2 no û
Q = hi A( Ti - T2 ), gives T1 = 718.6° C
K1 A ( T1 - T2 )
Q= , gives T2 = 496.8° C
L1
T2 - T2'
Q= , gives T2' = 489.7° C
RC
A K 2 (T2' - T3 )
Q= , gives T3 = 415.8° C
L2
2 Derive expressions for temperature distribution and heat transfer rate for a fin of circular cross section
with insulated tip.(10 Marks)
A as: Ref: Page no: 46 and 47
q cos h m ( L - x)
=
qo cos h m L
Q = h P K AC .q o
b. In a conductivity measurement experiment, two identical long rods are used. One rod is made of
Aluminium ( k = 200 W/m K), the other rod is the specimen. One end of both rods are fixed to a wall at
100°C and they are suspended in air at 25oC. The steady temperature At same distance along rod were
measured and found to be 75°C on aluminium rod and 60°C on the specimen rod. Find k of the
specimen(10 Marks).
Solution: Given data To = 100°C , Ti = 25°C , T = 60°C , k1 = 200 W / m K

q1
= e - m1 x gives, m1 x = 0.405465
For aluminum Rod, q0
q
For the specimen rod = e - m x gives, m x = 0.76214
q0
Using m1 x 0.405465 and simplifying K = 56.6W/mK
=
m x 0.76214
3 a. State the assumptions made in lumped parameter analysis and derive expression for instantaneous
temperature and heat transfer rate for a body subjected to heating or cooling in terms of Biot and
Fourier numbers.(10 Marks)
Solution:
Ans: Assumptions refer page no 59
For derivation refer page no 60
T - Ta
= e - Bi Fo
Ti - Ta
And
dT
Q = mc p DT = ( rV )c p
dt
T - Ta
Where = e - Bi Fo
Ti - Ta
æ hA ö
and T = Ta + ( Ti - Ta )e - Bi Fo = Ta + ( Ti - Ta ) expçç - t ÷÷
è rcV ø
d é æ hA öù
Q = ( rV )c p êTa + ( Ti - Ta ) expç - t ÷ú
dt ê ç rc pV ÷ú
ë è øû
é æ hA ö æ hA öù
Q = ( rV )c p ê( Ti - Ta )ç - t ÷ expç - t ÷ú
êë ç rc pV ÷ ç rc pV ÷ú
è ø è øû
é æ hA öù
Qi = -hAê( Ti - Ta ) expçç - t ÷÷ú
ë è rcV øû
The total heat flow(loss or gain) is obtained by integrating the equation
over the time t = 0 to t = t
t t
é æ hA öù
Qt = Qi dt = - hAê( Ti - Ta ) expç -
ò ò t ÷ ú dt
ê ç rc pV ÷ú
0 0 ë è øû
t
é exp[ - ( hA rc pV )t ] ù
= ê- hA( Ti - Ta ) ú
ëê hA rc pV ûú 0
t
é æ hA öù
= rc pV ( Ti - Ta )êexpç - t ÷ú
êë çè rc pV ÷øúû
0
é æ hA ö ù
rc pV ( Ti - Ta )êexpç - t ÷ - 1ú
êë çè rc pV ÷ø úû
In terms of non dimensional Biot and Fourier numbers, we may write :
Qi = - hAS ( Ti - Ta ) e - Bi Fo
and Qi = rc pV ( Ti - Ta ) [ e - Bi Fo - 1 ]
b. An iron sphere [ k = 60W/m K, cp = 460 J/kg K, r = 7850 kg/m3 and a = 1.6x 10-5 m2/s] of 5 cm diameter is
initially at a uniform temperature Ti = 225oC. Suddenly the surface of the sphere is exposed to an ambient
at To = 25°C the heat transfer coefficient h = 500 W/m2 K. Find i) the centre temperature at time t = 2 min
after start of cooling. ii) the temperature at a depth of 1 cm from the surface at time t = 2 min after start of
cooling. iii) the energy removed from the sphere during this time period. (10 Marks)

C p = 460 J / kg ° K , r = 7850 kg / m 3 , a = 1.6 x 10 -5 m 2 / s
D = 0.05 m , = 0.025 m , Ti = 225°C , h = 500W / m 2 K , T¥ = 25°C
k = 60W / m K , c p = 460 J / kg ° K ,r = 7850 kg / m 3 , a = 1.6 x 10 -5 m 2 / s

D = 0.05 m , r = 0.025 m , Ti = 225°C , h = 500W / m 2 K , T¥ = 25°C
1 at
i) = 4.8 , at t = 2 min , = 8.072
Bi R2
To - T f
from graph , = 0.18 , gives , To = 62°C
Ti - T f
r T -T f
ii ) = 0.6 , from chart , = 0.94
R To - T f
Simplifying with ( i ), T = 59°C
Q
iii .) from chart of Vs Bi , Qo = 47267 J
Qo
Q = Qo x 0.8 = 37814.3 J D Q = Qo - Q = 9453.4 J
4. a. Distinguish between: i) Hydrodynamic and Thermal boundary layers ii) Laminar and Turbulent flow
(8 Marks)
Ans: Refer: Page no 92 to 99
b. Air at 20oC and at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. The plate is 30
cm long and at 60oC. Calculate
i) Velocity and Thermal boundary layer thickness at 20cms from the leading edge.
ii) Average heat transfer coefficient
iii) Total drag force on the plate per unit width (12 Marks)
T¥ = 20°C Ts = 60°C Tm = 40°C

u ¥ = 3 m / s x = 0 .2 m L = 0. 3 m
For air at 40°C
r = 1.128 kg / m 3 , g = 16.96 x 10 -6 m 2 / s , k = 0.02755 W / m K
Pr = 0.699
u .x
Rex = ¥ = 35377.4 5 x 10 5
g
5x 5 x0.2
d= =
5
35377.4 5 x 10 35377.4 5 x 10 5
d = 5.317 x 10 -3 m
d
d th = = 5.991 x 10 -3 m
0.699 1 3
uL
ReL = = 53066 and C f = 0.006044
g
k 12 13
h = 0.664 . ReL Pr
L
= 12.466W / m 2 K
1.328
t = Cf = 5.765 x 10 -3
ReL
r u ¥2
=C f x = 0.02926 N / m 2
2
FD = t x A = 0.0107 N
5. a. Using dimensional analysis, derive a correlation in terms of Nusselt number, Grashoff number and
Prandtl number for free convection heat transfer (10 Marks)
Ans : Refer: Page No.111 to 114
b. Calculate the heat transfer from a 60W incandescent bulb at 125°C to ambient air at 25oC. Assume the
bulb as a sphere of 50mm diameter. Also find the percentage of power lost by free convection. Use
Nu = 0.6 (Gr.Pr)1/4. (10 Marks)

Ts = 125°C g = 20.02 x 10 -6 m 2 / s b = 2.8735 x 10 -3
T¥ = 25°C k = 0.02964 W / mK
Tm = 75°C Pr = 0.694
D 3 gbDT
Gr = = 8.7915 x 10 5
g2
hL
Nu = = 0.6 ( Gr Pr ), gives , h = 9.9407 W / m 2 K
k
A = 4p R 2 , Q = h ADT
Q = 7.81W
Q
Power last by convection, x 100 = 13.01%
60
6. a With the help of the boiling curve for water, explain different regimes of boiling. (10Marks)
Ans: Refer: page no 181 to 183

b. Saturated steam at 120° C is condensing on the outer surface of a single pass heat exchanger. The
overall heat transfer coefficient is 1600 W/m2 K. Determine the surface area of the heat exchanger
required to heat 2000 kg/hr of water from 20°C to 90°C. Also determine the rate of condensation of
steam in kg/hr. Assume the latent heat of steam to be 2195kJ/kg. (10 Marks)
Thi = Tho = 120°C , Tci = 20°C , Tco = 90°C , U = 1600 W / m 2 K
2000 3
mc = kg / s , h fg = 2195 x 10 J / kg
3600
Q = Qh = Qc = mc Cc ( Tco - Tci ) = 162820W
Qh = mh h fg ,
162820 = mh x 2195 x 10 3
mh = 267 kg / hr
q - q2
qm = 1 = 58.14°C
q
ln 1
q2
Q = UAq m = 1600 xAx 58.14°
\ A = 1.75 m 2
7 a. State and explain the following i) Stefan- Boltzmann Law ii) Kirchoff’s Law iii) Planck’s Law iv)
Wein’s displacement law.
Ans: Refer page no.203 to 206
7. b. Two large parallel plates are at 1000 K and 800 K. Determine the heat exchange per unit area, when
i) the surfaces are black ii) the hot surface has an emissivity of 0.9 and the cold surface has emissivity
of 0.6. iii) A large plate of emissivity 0.1 is inserted between them. Also find the percentage reduction
in heat transfer because of introduction of the large plate. (12 Marks)
Solution: Given data: Refer; Example 10-22, Page number 229
8. a. State and explain Fick’s Law of diffusion:

Ans: Refer page number 198.
b. Define the following and explain their significance; i) Mass Transfer coefficient ii) Schmit number
iii) Sherwood number (Not included in the VI sem. syllabus of VTU )
8. c. An open pan 20cm diameter and 8cm deep contains water at 25oC and is exposed to day atmospheric
air. If the rate of diffusion of water vapor is 8.54x 10-4 kg/hr, estimate the diffusion of water in the air
(10Marks) ( Not included in the syllabus of VI sem V.T.U)
Solutions for Boundary Condition Problems
1. A plane wall of thickness L and with constant thermal properties is initially at a uniform temperature Ti.
suddenly the surface at x= L is subjected to heating by the flow of hot gases at temperature T¥ with the
surface heat transfer coefficient h. The other surface at x = 0 is kept insulated. Write the mathematical
formulation to determine one dimensional transient temperature distribution T(x,t) in the wall.
(Jan/Feb 2006)
Solution:
¶T 1 ¶T k T=T(x,t)
overing Differenti al eqation: 2
= , Where a =
¶x a ¶t ρc p
Initial condition: at t = 0 ,T = Ti for all values of x = 0 to L h, T¥
Insulated
¶T
Boundary conditions: (i) at x = 0 , = 0 for all t > 0
¶x Ti at t=0
¶T L
(ii) at x = L, - k = h[T - T¥ ] for all vaues of t > 0
¶x
2. In a semi - infinite cylinder of radius R, the flat surface of the cylinder is insulated and the curved
surface is exposed to a medium at 0°C with a surface heat transfer coefficient h. The cylinder is
generating heat at a uniform rate of q" W/m2. Write the governing differential equation and the
relevant boundary conditions to determine the two dimensional steady state temperature distribution
T(r, q) in the semi-cylinder (8 Marks) (July/Feb 2006)
Solution:
1 ¶ æ ¶ ö 1 ¶ 2 T q&
Covering Differenti al eqation: çr ÷ + + =0
r ¶r è ¶r ø r 2 ¶r 2 k
h, T¥
¶T q”
Boundary conditions:at (i ) r = 0, = 0 ( Axis of symmety )
¶r
for all values of ' 0'
¶T
Boundary conditions: at ( ii ) r = R, -k = h[T - T¥ ] R
¶r
for all vaues of ' q '
q
¶T
( iii ) q = 0 , =0 Insulated
¶q
for all values of ' r'
¶T
( iv ) at q = p = 0 for all values of ' r'
¶q
3. a. With sketches, write down the mathematical representation of three commonly
used different types of boundary conditions for one-dimensional heat equations
in rectangular co-ordinates. (08 Marks) ( May 2007 V.T.U)
Solution:
Boundary Condition
y
1 Kind
( i )1 st Kind
TL=T2 T ( x , t )x =0 = T1
T ( x , t )x = L = T 2
Tx=T1
Ti at t=0
x
x=0 x=L
L ( ii ) 2 nd Kind
2 Kind Boundary condition of first condition T(x,t)x =0 = T1
dT
Initial condition at x = 0 ; q x =0 = - k
dx x =0
dT
Boundary conditions at x = L, q x = L = - k
dx x = L
x=0 x=L
3 rd Kind
Convection energy boundary condition a x = 0
3 Kind
( Convection heat flux at x = 0 ) =( Conduction heat flux at x = L )
dT ( x ,t )
h1 [ T1 - T ( x ,t )x =0 ] = -k
T1,h1 T2,h2 dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
h1 [ T1 - T ( x ,t )x =0 ] = -k
Fluid Fluid dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
x=0 x=L -k + h1T ( x ,t )x = L = h1T1
dx x =0
Energy balance at x = L
( Conduction heat flux at x = L ) = ( Conduction heat flux at x = L )
dT ( x ,t )
h2 [ T2 - T ( x ,t )x = L ] = -k
dx x=L
dT ( x ,t )
-k + h2T ( x ,t )x = L = h2T2
dx x =0
b. Two bodies if thermal conductivities k and k2 are brought into thermal contact.
I
Neglect the thermal contact resistance. Draw the sketch and formulate this as
steady state, one dimensional, no heat generation problem. (06 Marks)
( May 2007 V.T.U)
Differenti al governing eqations
Solution: 2
d T( x )
= 0 ; 0 £ x £ x1
dx 2
d 2T ( x )
= 0; 0 £ x £ x2
dx 2
Boundary conditons
dT ( x )
at x = 0 ; q ( x ) = -K1
dx
at x = x1 ;
conduction of heat from body 1 = conduction of heat from body 1 to body 2 k1 k2
dT ( x ) dT ( x )
- k1 = - k2
dx dx
at x = x2 ; x=0 x=x2
x=x1
conduction of heat = heat flux
dT ( x )
k2 = q( x )
dx
c. A plate of thickness 'L', whose one side is insulated and the other side is maintained at a temperature TI is
exchanging heat by radiation to the surrounding area at a temperature TZ, with atmospheric air being
the outside medium. Write mathematical formulation for one dimension, steady state heat transfer,
without heat generation. ( May 2007 V.T.U) (06 Marks)
Solution:
Differenti al governing equations
d 2T
= 0; 0 £ x £ L
dx 2 Insulated k1 Radiation
dT ( x )
at x = 0 ; =0
dx
at x = L; Heat flux = heat radiated away from the other surface x=0 x=L
dT ( x )
-k = sÎ [ T14 ( x ) - T24 ( x )]
dx
4. A hot metal slab of thickness 'I/ and initial temperature 'To' is removed from a heat treating furnace
and placed in a Quenching oil both at temperature 'Too'. The convective heat transfer co-efficient
at each face is 'h'. Write the mathematical formulation of the problem. (08 Marks) .
Solution: (Dec.06/Jan.07 V.T.U)
1D Eqution is given by
t=0 d 2T q& 1 d T
+ =
Oil To Oil dx 2 k a d t
h, T¥ h, T¥ q&
As there is no heat generation , = 0
q q k
d 2T 1 d T
Then =
dx 2 a d t
x=-L/2 +x=L/2 i) Initial condition; at t = 0 , T = To
ii ) Boundary conditions are;
L dT
at x = - , +k = h ( To - T¥ )
2 dx- L 2
L dT
at x = + , -k = h ( To - T¥ )
2 dx- L 2
Sixth Semester B.E. Degree Examination, June-July 2009
Time :3hour 06ME65 Max. Marks 100

Note:.Answer any five full questions, selecting
at least TWO questions from each part
2.Use of Heat transfer data hand book is permitted.
Part-A
1 a.Derive an expression for the temperature distribution and rate of heat transfer for a hollow
cylinder. (10 Marks)
log e r
T - T1 r1
Temperatur e distribution =
T1 - T2 log r2
e r1
T1 - T2
Heat Transfer Q =
log e æç r2 ö÷ 2 pLK
è r1 ø
b. An electrical resistance of mattress type is inserted in between two slabs of different materials on a
panel heater. On one side, the material has a thermal conductivity of 0.1 74 W/m K and 10mm thick. On
the other side of the heater the material has a thermal conductivity of 0.05 W/m K and 25mm thick. The
convection heat transfer co-efficient from the thinner and thicker slabs are 23.26 and 11.63 W/m2 K.
The temperature of the. surrounding air on both the sides is I5°C, If the energy dissipation for each
square meter of the mattress is 5k W. neglecting edge effects, find (i) The surface temperature of the
slab (ii) The temperature of the mattress assuming it to be the same as the inner surface of the slabs.
(10 Marks)
Solutioin: Given data:
k1 = 0.174W / mK q
k 2 = 0.05W / mK
L1 = 10 mm , L2 = 25 mm , hi = 23.2W / m 2 K , ho = 11 .63W / m 2 K T1 TC T2
o 2
Ti = To = 15 C , q = 5000W / m Find T1 and T2
Ti,hi To,ho
T -T T -T
q1 = c i - - - - - - - ( 1 ) and q 2 = c o - - - -( 2 ) K1 K2
L1 1 L2 1
+ +
k1 hi k 3 ho q
q = q1 + q 2 - - - - - - - - - ( 3 ) L1 L1
o
\ Tc = 443.8 C
From Eq.( 1 ) q1 = 4268.2W / m 2 q1 Ri R1q1 R2q2 q2 Ro
2
From Eq.( 3 ) q 2 = 731.8W / m
T1 - Ti T -T
Again q1 = \ T1 = 198.5 o C and q 2 = 2 o T2 = 77.9 o C
1 1
hi ho
2.a. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution for a pin fin, when the tip of the fin is insulated.
Refer page no 46 and 47 (08 Marks)
b. A steel pipe of 220mm OD is carrying steam at 280oC. It is insulated with a material with where
K=0.06[1+0.0018T] where ‘K’ is in W/mK. Thickness of insulation is 50mm and the outer surface
temperature is determine the heat flow peer ‘m’ length of the pipe and the temperature at the mid
thickness of the pipe. (12 Marks)
m 1 = 0.11 m ,T1 = 280 o C ,m 2 = 0.16 m ,T2 = 50 o C , k = 0.06 [ 1 + 0.00181 ]

é 0.0018 ù
k m = 0.06 ê1 + ( 280 + 50 )ú = 0.078W / mK
ë 2 û
log e (r2 r1 ) Q T1 - T2
R= = = 300W / m
2 pk m L R
Q T1 - TmT log e (r2 r1 ) r +r
Also = (1) R= and rm = 1 2
L R 2 pk m 2
é a ù
\ k m = k o ê1 + ( T1 + TmT )ú and
Q (T
= 1 mT
- T )2 pk m
ë 2 û L log e (rm r2 )
On substitution we ger quadratic equation in terms of TmT

\ TmT = 164 o C
3.a. Derive an expression for the instantaneous and total heat flow in terms of the product of Biot Number and
Fourier Number in one dimensional transient heat conduction. (8Marks)
Refer page no 59, 60 and 235
b. A 5cm thick iron plate with K=60 W/mK, Cp=460J/kgK, r=7850kg/m3, a=1.6x10-5m2/sis initially at 225
o
C. Suddenly both the surface are exposed to an environmental of temperature of 25oC with a convective
heat transfer co-efficient of 500W/m2K. Calculate
1.The center temperature at min after start of cooling
2.Tthe temperature at a depth of 1 cm from the surface at t=2 min after the start of cooling
3.The energy removed form the plate per m2 during this time. (12 Marks)
Solution: Given data 2 L = 5cm , k = 605W / mK ,C = 460 J / kg °C ,r = 78507 kg / m 3
p
a = 1.6 ´ 10 - 5 m 2 / s ,Ti = 225 o C ,T¥ = 25 o C , h = 500W / m 2 K ,t = 120 s

Find : ( 1 ) To ( 2 ) Tx L ( 3 ) Q
hL 500 ´ 0.025 V
1) Bi = c = Þ 0.208 L = = 0.025 m
k 605 A
at 1.6 ´ 10 - 5 ´ 120
Fo = 2 = = 3.072
L (0.025 )2
T -T
From graph o ¥ = 0.58 Þ To = 141o C
Ti - T¥
x Tx L - T¥
2) = 0.6 , Bi = 0.208 From graph = 0.96
L To - T¥
Tx L = 136.36 o C
Q
3) Bi 2 a = 0.133 , Bi = 0.208 From graph : = 0.45
Qo
Qo
= r ´ 2 L ´ c p ( Ti - T¥ ) = 36.11 J / m 2 \ Q = 16.25 ´ 10 6 J / m 2
A
4 a. The exact expression for local Nusselt Number for the laminar flow along a surface is given by
Nux=hx.x/k.=0.332Pr1/3Re1/2 . Show that the average heat transfer coefficient fromx=0 to x=L. x = 0 to x
= L over the length ‘L’ of the surface is given by 2hL where hL is the local value at X=L (08Marks)

Average heat transfer coefficient
Once the temperature distribution is know, we can find the heat transfer coefficient. The rate of heat
flow per unit area at any location x along the plate is given by
æ dT ö
q x = k çç ÷÷ = hx ( T¥ - Tw )
è dy ø x , y =0
Considering the heat is flowing from the fluid to plate, we can write down the above equation as
d
dy
[
q h ( T¥ - Tw ) + Tw ]
x , y =0
hx = k
( T¥ - Tw )
æ dq h ö
= k çç ÷÷
è dy ø x , y =0
é dq h dh ù
= êk ú
ë dh dy û x , y =0
é dq h ù éd æ U ö÷ù
= êk ú ´ê ç y ú
ç ÷
ë dh û x , y =0 êë dy è nx øúû x , y =0
U
= k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3
nx
U
= 0.332 k Pr 1 / 3 (1)
nx
This shows that the local heat transfer coefficient varies along the plate inversely as x1/2 being I
infinite at the leading edge and decreasing in the direction of flow as shown in Fig.
The average heat transfer coefficient is given by
L
1 U -1 / 2
ha = òhx , dx where hx = k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3 .x
L0 n
L
1 U -1 / 2
=
L0òk ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3
n
.x (
.dx )
L
1 U æ x1 / 2 ö 1 U L L
= ´ k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3 .çç ÷ = ´ k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3
÷
L n è 1 / 2 ø0 L n L
U
ha = ha = 0.664 k . Pr 1 / 3 . (2)
nL
By substituting x=L in Eq.(1)
U
ha = 0.332 k Pr 1 / 3 (3)
nL
Comparing Eq.2 and Eq.3, it is obvious that
ha = 2 hL
b. Tube of 0.036m OD and 40cm length is maintained at a uniform temperature of 100°C. It

is exposed to air at a uniform temperature of 20°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer from
the surface of the tube when (i) the tube is vertical (ii) the tube is horizontal. (12
Marks)
D = 0.036 m , L = 0.4 m ,T¥ = 20 o C , Tw = 100°C , T¥ = 15°C
Deter min e heat flow Q 1 )Vertical ii ) Horizantal
T f = ( 20 + 100 ) / 2 = 60°C
For air At 60°C , r = 1.060 kg / m 3 , n = 18.97 ´ 10 -6 m 2 / s , c p = 1.005 kJ / kgK
k = 28.96 ´ 10 - 3 W / m°C , Pr = 0.696
Case ( i ) Vertical
b g DTL3
Gr = 2
= 419.16 ´ 10 6
n
Gr ´ Pr = 291.73 ´ 10 6 < 10 9
La min ar flow :
N u = 0.508 Pr 0.5 [ 0.952 + Pr] -0.25 (Grl )
0.25
N u L = 53.52
4 h L
Nu = Nu L = m \ hm = 5.17W / m 2 K
3 k
Q = h ADT
Q = 18.7 W
Case ( ii ) Horizantal
b g DTD 3
GrD = 2
= 3.05 ´ 10 5
n
Gr ´ Pr = 2.12 ´ 10 5
La min ar flow :
N u = C (Gr . Pr ) For GrD Pr = 2.12 ´ 10 5
m
C = 0.48 and m = 0.25
h D
Nu = m
k
\ hm = 8.29W / m 2 K
Q = h ADT = 30 W
Part - B
5. a. Explain the physical significance of i) Prandtl Number ii) Reynold's Number iii) Nusselt Number
iy)Grashoff Number. (08 Marks)
Refer page no 129
b. The surface temperature of a thin plate located parallel to air stream is 90°C. The free stream velocity is
60m/s and the air temperature is 10°C. The plate is 60cm wide and 45cm long in the direction of air
stream. Assuming that the transitional Reynold’s number is 4xl05, determine i) The average heat
transfer co-efficient in laminar and turbulent regions ii) Rate of heat transfer for the entire plate
considering both the sides of the plate. Given that the correlations for the local Nusselt Number are
0.332 (Rex)1/2 Pr1/3 for laminar flow and 0.028(Rex)0.8 Pr1/3 for turbulent flow. (12 Marks)
T = 90 o C ,u ¥ = 60 m / s ,T¥ = 10 o C ,W = 60 m , L = 45cm , Rr = 4 ´ 10 5
Determine 1) h m for laminar and turbulent flows 2) Q for laminar and turbulent flows(both sides)
T +T
Tm = w ¥ = 50 o C
2
At 50 o C , for air r = 1.093kg / m 3 , n = 17.95 ´ 10 -6 m 2 / s , c p = 1.005 kJ / kgK
k = 28.26 ´ 10 - 3 W / m°C , Pr = 0.698
u x
Critical Re nolds number Re = ¥ cr Þ xcr = 0.1196
n
Laminar flow
h .x
Nu x = 0.332(Re x ) (Pr ) = x
1/ 2 1/ 3
k
1/ 2
æu ö
\ hx = k ´ 0.332ç ¥ ÷ (Pr ) x 1 / 2
1/ 3
n
è ø
1
\hm =
L ò
hx .dx Where l L = 0.1196
hm = 87.98W / m 2 K
Turbulent flow
h .x
Nu x = 0.0228(Re x ) (Pr ) = x
0.8 1/ 3
k
0.8
æu ö
\ hx = k ´ 0.45 ´ 0.0288ç ¥ ÷ (Pr ) x 0.2
1/ 3
è øn
0.45
1
\hm = ò
L 0.1196
hx dx
Q = ( Qla min ar + QTurbulent ) / 2

Q = DT ´ 2[(hm )lam ´ 0.6 ´ 0.1196 + (hm )Tur ´ 0.6 ´ (0.4 - 0.1196 )]
Q = 6928 Watts
6. a. Derive an expression for LMTD for a parallel flow heat exchanger. (10 Marks).
Refer page no 146,147 and 148
b. A cross flow heat exchanger in which both fluids are unmixed is used to heat water with an engine oil.
Water enters at 30°C and leaves at 85°C at a rate of 1 .5 kg/s, while the engine oil with Cp = 2.3 kJ/kg K
enter at 120°C with a mass flow rate of 3.5 kg/s. The heat transfer surface area is 30 m2. Calculate the
overall heat transfer co-efficient by using LMTD method. (10 Marks)
Solution: Given data: Hot fluid
c pn = 2.3 ´ 10 3 J / kgK ,Thi = 120 o C , mh = 3.5 kg / s
Cold fluid
Tci = 30°c , Tco = 85°c p = 4187 J / kgK , m& c = 1.5 kg / s ,
A = 30 m 2 Find U :
Qc = m& h C ph ( Thi - Tho ) = m& c C pc ( Tco - Tci )
Tho = 77 o C
From graph
t 2 - t1 80 - 25 ü
P= = = 0.61 ï
T1 - t1 200 - 25 ï
T1 - T2 200 - 100 ý Þ F = 0.89
R= = = 0.78 ï
t 2 - t1 80 - 25 þï
F » 0.89
( T - t ) - ( T2 - t1 )
(DTm )cF = 1 2 = 40.71°c
æ T1 - t 2 ö
lnçç ÷÷
è T2 - t1 ø
(DTm )cF = F (DTm )cF (DTm )corr = 35.82
Q = m& c C pc ( Tho - Tci ) = 345.43 ´ 10 3 Watts
Q = AU (DTm )corr Þ U = 231.45W / m 2 K
7. a. Clearly explain the regions of pool boiling with a neat sketch. (06 Marks)
b. Define i) Mass concentration ii) Molar concentration (04 Marks)
Refer page no 197 and 198
c. Air free saturated steam at a temperature of 65°C (£> - 25.03kPa) condenses on a vertical outer
surface of a 3m long vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature of 35°C. "Assuming film
condensation, calculate the average heat transfer co-efficient over the entire cx^37length of the
surface. Calculate the average heat transfer co-efficient and rate of condensate flow (taking the data
same as for a vertical tube) for a horizontal tube of 2. 5 cm outer (10 Marks)
Ts = 65 o C , D = 0.025 m , L = 3m ,Tw = 35 o C
Deter min e : hm , m&
T + Tw
Tm = s , Tm = 50 o C , rl = 990 kg / m 3 , k = 0.64W / mK
2
m l = 5.62 x10 -4 m 2 / s , h fg ( At 650 C ) = 2382 kJ / kg
1 ) Vertical
14
é g ´ r 2 ´ h fg ´ 10 3 ´ k 3 ù
hm = 0.94 ê ú = 3112 .9W / m 2 o C
êë mL( Ts - Tw ) úû
2 ) Horizantal
14
é g ´ r 2 ´ h fg ´ 10 3 ´ k 3 ù
hm = 0.728 ê ú = 7953.9W / m 2 o C
êë mD( Ts - Tw ) úû
Heat flow per second
Q = m& h fg ´ 1000 = hm A(Ts - Tw )
m& = 0.024 kg / s
8 a. Explain
i) Steam Boltzman law
ii) Kirchoff s law
iii) Plank's law
iv) Wein's displacement law
v) Radiation shield. (10 Marks)
Refer page no 205 to 208
b. Two large parallel plates with e = 0.5 each, are maintained at different temperatures and are
exchanging heat only by radiation. Two equally large radiations shields with surface
emissivity 0.05 are introduced in parallel to the plates. Find the percentage reduction in net
"radiative heat transfer. (10 Marks)
Î p = 0.5 ,Îs = 0.05

1 )When shield are not used
s( T14 - T24 )
Q1 = = 0.33W
1- Î p 1- Î p
+1+
Î1 Î1
2 ) When shiels are used
s( T14 - T24 )
Q2 = = 0.012345W
1 1 æ 1 1 ö
+ + 2çç + ÷÷ - ( 2 - 1 )
Îp Îp è Îs Îs ø
Q - Q2 0.33 - 0.012345
Percentage Reduction = 1 ´ 100 = ´ 100
Q1 0.33
= 92.26%
=
Plates
T1 T2 Îs
Îs
Îp Îp
Îp Îp
1 2
Radiation Shields
Sixth Semester BE Degree Examination, Dec.09-Jan.10
Time: 3 hrs. 06ME65 Max. Marks.100
Note:1. Answer any FIVE full questions, selecting
at least TWO questions from each part.
2. Use of heat transfer data hand book permitted.
PART-A
1 a. State the assumptions and derive general 3 - dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian co-
ordinates. (08 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no 13 and 14
b. Two bodies of thermal conductivity k1 and k2 are brought into thermal contact. Neglect the thermal
contact resistance. Formulate this as steady - state, one - dimensional, no heat generation
problem. (04 Marks)
Differential governing equation
T=T0 T=T T=T(x)
d 2T
( x ) = 0, 0 £ x £ x1
dx 2
d 2T
( x ) = 0, x1 £ x £ x2
dx 2
Initial conditions
q k1 k2
T (x )x=0 at T = To q
T (x )x= x = x1 at T = T
1
T (x )x= x = x2 at T = T ( x )
2
Boundary condition
At x = 0
Conduction heat flux = Conduction heat transfer x=0 x=x1 x=x2
d T( x )
q = - k1
dx
At x = x1
Conduction heat flux from body 1 = Conduction heat flux from body 2
æ d T(x ) ö d T (x )
çç - k1 ÷÷ = - k2
è dx ø x = x1 dx
At x = x2
Conduction heat = heat flux
æ d T(x ) ö
çç - k1 ÷ =q
è dx ÷ø x = x
2
c. A wall of a furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120mm thick covered with a layer of
magnesite brick 240 mm thick. The temperatures at the inside surface of silica brick wall and outside
surface of magnesite brick wall are 725°C and 110°C respectively. The contact thermal resistance
between the two walls at the interface is 0.0035°C/W per unit wall area. If thermal conductivities of
silica and magnesite bricks are 1.7w/m°c and 5.8w/m°c, Calculate :
i) The rate of heat loss unit area of walls and
ii) The temperature drop at the interface. (08 Marks)
Given L1 = 120 mm or 0.12 m
L 2 = 240 mm or 0.24 m
T1 = 725°C , T4 = 110 °C
Two walls at the interface = 0.0035°C / w T1
k1 = 1.7 w / m°C , k 2 = 5.8 w / m°C ,
dT
Q& = T2
Rth
T1 - T4
\q =
é L1 L2 ù
ê + int erface + ú T3
ë 1k k2 û
725 - 110 T4
q= k1
é 0.12 0.24 ù k2
ê 1 .7 + 0 . 0035 +
ë 5.8 úû
q = 5327.9 w / m 2 L1 L2
Temperatur e drop at the interface. ( T2 - T3 )
T -T T -T
q= 1 2 q= 3 4
L1 / k1 L2 / k 2
725 - T2 T - 110
5327.9 = 5327.9 = 3
(0.12 / 1.7 ) (0.24 / 5.8 )
T2 = 348°C T3 = 330.54°C
\ Temperatur e drop at the interface ( T2 - T3 ) = 348 - 330.54
Temperatur e drop at the interface = 18.8°C
2 a. Design critical thickness of insulation and derive an expression for critical thickness of insulation for
a cylinder. (10 Marks)
b. A wire of 6.5 ram diameter at a temperature of 60°C is to be insulated by a material having k = 0.174
W/m°C. Convection heat transfer coefficient = 8.722 W/m2 oC. The ambient temperature is 20°C. For
maximum heat loss, what is the minimum thickness of insulation and heat loss per metre length? Also
find percentage increase in heat dissipation. (10 Marks)
Solution: Given data: 0.0065
r1 = = 0.00325 m
2
k = 0.174 w / m°C
ha = 8.722 w / m°C
T1 = 60°C Ta = 20°C
Find 1.) Minimum thickness
2.) Heat loss / mt. length
3.) % age increase in heat dissipation
we know that r2 or rc = k/h a
= 0.174/8.722
r2 = 0.01995 m
1. \Minimum insulation thickness
= r2 - r1 = 0.01995 - 0.00325 = 0.0167 m
2. Heat loss /m length
case 1. without insulation
2 p(T1 - Ta )
Q& 1 /L =
1 /ha r1
2 p(60 - 20 )
=
1
´ 0 .00325
8 .722
Q& 1 /L =7 .124 W/m
case 2. with insulation ie critical thickness used
2 p(T1 - Ta )
Q& 2 /L =
ln r2 /r1
+ 1 /ha r2
k
2 p(60 - 20 )
=
ln (0 .01995 / 0 .00325 ) 1
+
0 .174 (8.722 x 0.01995 )
Q& 2 /L = 15.537 w/m
3. Percentage increase in heat dissipation
Q& 2 /L - Q& 1 /L
x 100
Q& 2 /L
15.537 -7.124
= x 100
7.124
= 118 .09%
3 a. What are Biot and Fourier numbers? Explain their physical significance. (06 Marks)
b. What are Heisler charts? Explain their significance in solving transient conduction problems.
(06 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no 65 to 71
c. A 12cm diameter long bar initially at a uniform temperature of 40°C is placed in a medium at 650°C
with a convective coefficient of 22 W/m2K. Calculate the time required for the bar to reach 255°C.
Take k= 20 W/mK, r = 580 kg/m3 and cp = 1050 J/kgK. (08 Marks)
D = 12cm = 0 .12 m , R = 0 .06 m ,T0 = 40 + 273 = 313 K
T¥ = 650 + 273 = 923 K ,T = 255 + 273 = 528 K , h = 22 w / m 2 k
k = 20 w / m k ,r = 580 kg / m 3 ,C = 1050 J / kg k
Find time required to reach 255°C
R 0.06
Characteristic length for cylinder L c = = = 0.03m
2 2
We know that Bi = h.Lc / k = 22 x 0.03 / 20
Bi = 0.033 < 0.1
For lumped heat parameter
é - hA ù
ê ´t ú
T - T¥ êc L r ú
= eë p c û
T0 - T¥
We know that Lc = v / A
é - hA ù
ê ´t ú
T - T¥ êc L r ú
\ = eë p c û
T0 - T¥
é - 22 ù
528 - 923 êë 1050 x 0.03 x 580 ´ 5 úû
=e
313 - 923
\t = 360.8 sec
4 a. Briefly explain:
i) Hydrodynamic boundary layer ii) Thermal boundary layer. (06 Marks)
b. Define:
i) Nusselt number ii) Prandtl number
iii) Stanton number iv) Grashof number. (04 Marks)
c. A square plate (0.5m x 0.5m) with one surface insulated and the other surface maintained at
temperature of 385K is placed in ambient air at a temperature of 315K. Calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient for free convection for the following orientations of the hot surface:
i) The plate is horizontal and hot surface faces up.
ii) The plate is horizontal and the hot surface faces down. (10 Marks)
square plate 0.5m x 0.5m
Tw = 385 K
T¥ = 315 K
The properties to be evaluated at
T + T 385 + 315
Tf = w ¥ = = 350 k or 77°C
2 2
Properties of air at mean temperature of 77°C are
r = 1000kg/m3 g = 21.09 x 10 -6 m 2 / s
Pr = 0.692 c p = 1.009 kJ / kgK
k = 30.47 x 10 - 3 W / mK m = 21.08 x 10 -6 kg / m.s
1. when the plate is horizontal & hot surface faces up
L = area /perimeter = 0.5 x 0.5/4 x 0.5
L = 0.125m
1
´ 9.81 ´ (385 - 315 )´ 0.125 3
b g (Dq )L3 77 + 273
Gr = =
r2 (
21.09 ´10- 6
2
)
G r = 8615408.66
\G r Pr = 5961862.8 < 8 x 106
\ using equation Nu = 0.54 (G r Pr )
0.25
for 2 ´ 10 4 < G r Pr < 8 ´ 106
Nu = 0.54 (5961862.8 )
0.25
Nu = 26.68
Nu = hc L / k \ hc = Nu k / L
\ hc = 26.68 ´ 30.47 ´ 10 -3 / 0.125
\ hc = 6.5 w / m 2 k
2. The plate is horizontal & hot surface faces down
L = 0.125m G r Pr = 5961862.8
\ Using equation
Nu = 0.27 ( G r Pr )
0.25
for 10 5 < G r Pr ,10 11
\ Nu = 0.27 ( 5961862.8 )
0.25
\ Nu = 13.34
Nu = hc L / k
\hc = Nu k / L
= 13.34 ´ 30.47 ´ 10 -3 / 0.125
\hc = 3.252 w / m 2 k
PART-B
5 a. Using dimensional analysis, obtain the dimension less parameters in forced convection heat transfer.
(10 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no 125 - 127
b. Water at a velocity of 1.5 m/s enters a 2cm diameter heat exchanger tube at 40°C. The heat exchanger
tube wall is maintained at a temperature of 100°C. If the water is heated to a temperature of 80°C in
the heat exchanger tube, find the length of the exchanger tube required. (10 Marks)
U m = 1.5 m / s ,Tmi = 40°C , Tw = 100°C , D = 2cm = 0.02 m ,Tmo = 80°C

T + Tmo
Tm = mi = 60°C , The properties of water at 60°C are
2
ρ = 985 kg/m 3 g = 0.478 x 10 -6 m 2 / s , Pr = 3.02 , h = 651.3 x 10 -3 w / mk ,C p = 4.183kJ / kg
Reynolds number Re = r D Um / m
= D Um / g = 0.02 ´ 1.5 / 0.478 ´ 10 -6
Re = 62760 Flow is turbulent
Using the equation
Nu = 0.023 Re0 .8 Pr 0 .4
Nu = 0.023 (62760 ) (3.02 )0 .4 = 246.54
0 .8
246 .54 x 651.3 x 10 - 3

Nu = he .D/k \ hc = Nu k / D =
0.02
\ hc = 8028.57 w / m 2 k
Find the length of the heat exchanger tube 1
m C p (Tmo - Tmi )= hc A (Tw - Tm )
A v r C p (Tmo - Tmi )= hc p D L (Tw - Tm )
p (0.02 )
2
´ 15 ´ 985 ´ 4.183 ´ ( 80 - 40 ) = 8028.57 ´ p ´ (0.02 )´ L ´ (100 - 60 )
4
L = 3.85 m
6 a. Define LMTD and obtain an expression for LMTD for parallel flow heat exchanger. (10 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no 146-149
b. The flow rate of hot and cold flux streams running through a parallel flow heat exchanger are 0.2 kg/s
and 0.5 kg/s respectively. The inlet temperatures on the hot and cold sides are 75°C and 20°C
respectively. The exit temperature of hot water is 45°C. If the individual heat transfer coefficients on
both sides are 650 W/m2C, calculate the area of heat transfer. (10 Marks)
mh = 0 .2 kg/s, mc = 0 .5 kg/s,Th1 = 75°C,Tc1 = 20°C,Th2 = 45°C
Find area of heat exchanger A = ?
& = UA(LMTD )
heat transfer rate Q
heat lost by hot water = heat gained by cold water
mh c ph( Th 1 - Th 2 ) = mc c pc (Tc 2 - Tc 1 )
0.2 ´ 4.187 ´ (75 - 45 )= 0.5 ´ 4.187 ´ (Tc 2 - 20 )
Tc 2 = 32°C
Q& = m c ( T - T )
h ph h1 h2
= 0.2 ´ 4.187 ´ (75 - 45 )

Q& = 25.122 kJ/s
θ m = LMTD = (θ1 - θ 2 )/ ln (θ1 /θ 2 )
θ1 = Th 1 - Tc 1
θ 2 = Th 2 - Tc 2
( T - T ) - (Th 2 - Tc 2 )
θm = h 1 c 1
æ T -T ö
ln çç h 1 c 1 ÷÷
è Th 2 - Tc 2 ø
( 75-20 ) - (45 - 20 )
θm =
æ 75 - 20 ö
ln ç ÷
è 45 - 32 ø
θ m = 29 .12°C
1 1 1 1 1 1
U =? = + = + =
U hi ho 650 650 325
\U = 325 W/m 2 °C
\Q& = UA LMTD or UAθ m
\ Area of heat transfer (A) = q / U q m
25.122 ´ 100
=
325 ´ 29.12
\ A = 2.65m 2
7 a. Sketch and explain boiling curve. (06 Marks)
Ans : Refer page no 181-183

b. Saturated water at Tsat =100°C is boiled inside a copper pan having a heating surface area
5 x 102m2 which is maintained at uniform surface temperature Ts = 110°C. Calculate:
i) The surface heat flux (q) ii) The rate of evaporation (m). (08 Marks)
Ts = 110 °C , A = 5 ´ 10 - 2 m 2 ,Tsat = 100°C , Find q = ? m =?

3 0.5
é Cp L D Te ù é g (rL - rv )ù
q = Q& / A or q = U L .hfg ê n ú ê ú
ë CsL. hfg . prL û ë s û
The properties of saturated water at 100°C
h fg = 2256.9 x 10 3 kJ / kg ,m L = 0.2816 ´ 10 - 3 Ns / m 2 , n = 1,r L = 961kg / m 3 ,
r v = 0.598 kg / m 3 ,C pL = 4.216 ´ 10 3 J / kgK , C sL = 0.013
s = 58.8 ´ 10 - 3 N / m
é 4.216 ´ 10 3 (110 - 100 ) ù 9.81 ´ (961 - 0.598 )
\ q = 0.2816 ´ 10 - 3 ´ 2256.9 ´ 10 3 ê 3 úx
ë 0 . 013 ´ 2256 . 9 ´ 10 ´ 1 . 74 û 58.8 ´ 10 - 3
\ q = 1.42 ´ 10 5 W / m 2
Heat transfer Q& = qA = 1.42 x 10 5 x 5 x 10 - 2 = 7100W
Rate of evaporation (m)
& = m.h
Q fg
& /h
\m = Q fg
= 7100 / 2256.9 ´ 10 3
m = 3.14 ´ 10 - 3 kg / s
\Rate of evaporation ( m ) = 3.14 x 10 - 3 kg / s
c. State and explain Picks law of diffusion (06 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no.198-199
8 a. State and explain the following:

i) Stefan - Boltzman law.
ii) Kirchoff s law.
iii) Planck's law
iv) Wien's displacement law
v) Lambert's cosine law. (10 Marks)
b. For a black body enclosed in a hemispherical space, prove that emissive power of the black
body is n times the intensity of radiation. (10 Marks)

240
241
USN Me74
Time: 3 hrs.
Max. Marks: 1 00
position.
Ti = 820°C
L1 = L2 = 0.1m
To =120°C
K 1 = 1.6 W / m K
Rc = 0.002 m 2 / W
K 2 = 4 .8 W / m K
hi = 35 W / m 2 K
A =1 m 2
ho =12 W / m 2 K
Ti - To
Q= = 3549.01W
1 é 1 L1 L2 1 ù
ê + + R e + + ú
Q = hi A( Ti - T2 ), gives T1 = 718.6° C
K1 A ( T1 - T2 )
Q= , gives T2 = 496.8° C
L1
T2 - T2'
Q= , gives T2' = 489.7° C
RC
A K 2 (T2' - T3 )
Q= , gives T3 = 415.8° C
L2
242
q cos h m ( L - x)
=
qo cos h m L
Q = h P K AC .q o
specimen(10 Marks).

q1
= e - m1 x gives, m1 x = 0.405465
q
q0
=
m x 0.76214
Solution:
T - Ta
= e - Bi Fo
Ti - Ta
And
dT
dt
T - Ta
Where = e - Bi Fo
Ti - Ta
æ hA ö
è rcV ø
d é æ hA öù
dt ê ç rc pV ÷ú
ë è øû
è ø è øû
243
é æ hA öù
ë è rcV øû
t t
é æ hA öù
ò ò t ÷ ú dt
ê ç rc pV ÷ú
0 0 ë è øû
t
t
é æ hA öù
0
é æ hA ö ù

C p = 460 J / kg ° K , r = 7850 kg / m 3 , a = 1.6 x 10 -5 m 2 / s
D = 0.05 m , = 0.025 m , Ti = 225°C , h = 500W / m 2 K , T¥ = 25°C

D = 0.05 m , r = 0.025 m , Ti = 225°C , h = 500W / m 2 K , T¥ = 25°C
1 at
i) = 4.8 , at t = 2 min , = 8.072
Bi R2
To - T f
Ti - T f
r T -T f
ii ) = 0.6 , from chart , = 0.94
R To - T f
Q
Qo
Q = Qo x 0.8 = 37814.3 J D Q = Qo - Q = 9453.4 J
244
(8 Marks)
T¥ = 20°C Ts = 60°C Tm = 40°C

u ¥ = 3 m / s x = 0 .2 m L = 0. 3 m
For air at 40°C
r = 1.128 kg / m 3 , g = 16.96 x 10 -6 m 2 / s , k = 0.02755 W / m K
Pr = 0.699
u .x
Rex = ¥ = 35377.4 5 x 10 5
g
5x 5 x0.2
d= =
5
35377.4 5 x 10 35377.4 5 x 10 5
d = 5.317 x 10 -3 m
d
d th = = 5.991 x 10 -3 m
0.699 1 3
uL
ReL = = 53066 and C f = 0.006044
g
k 12 13
h = 0.664 . ReL Pr
L
= 12.466W / m 2 K
1.328
t = Cf = 5.765 x 10 -3
ReL
r u ¥2
=C f x = 0.02926 N / m 2
2
FD = t x A = 0.0107 N
Nu = 0.6 (Gr.Pr)1/4. (10 Marks)

Ts = 125°C g = 20.02 x 10 -6 m 2 / s b = 2.8735 x 10 -3
T¥ = 25°C k = 0.02964 W / mK
Tm = 75°C Pr = 0.694
245
3
D gbDT
Gr = = 8.7915 x 10 5
g2
hL
k
A = 4p R 2 , Q = h ADT
Q = 7.81W
Q
60

2000 3
mc = kg / s , h fg = 2195 x 10 J / kg
3600
Qh = mh h fg ,
162820 = mh x 2195 x 10 3
mh = 267 kg / hr
q - q2
qm = 1 = 58.14°C
q
ln 1
q2
Q = UAq m = 1600 xAx 58.14°
\ A = 1.75 m 2

246
(Jan/Feb 2006)
Solution:
¶T 1 ¶T k T=T(x,t)
= , Where a =
¶x a ¶t ρc p
Insulated
¶T
¶x Ti at t=0
¶T L
¶x
Solution:
1 ¶ æ ¶ ö 1 ¶ 2 T q&
r ¶r è ¶r ø r 2 ¶r 2 k
h, T¥
¶T q”
¶r
¶T
¶r
q
¶T
¶q
¶T
¶q
247
Solution:
Boundary Condition
y
1 Kind
( i )1 st Kind
TL=T2 T ( x , t )x =0 = T1
T ( x , t )x = L = T 2
Tx=T1
Ti at t=0
x
x=0 x=L
L ( ii ) 2 nd Kind
dT
dx x =0
dT
dx x = L
x=0 x=L
3 rd Kind
3 Kind
dT ( x ,t )
h1 [ T1 - T ( x ,t )x =0 ] = -k
T1,h1 T2,h2 dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
h1 [ T1 - T ( x ,t )x =0 ] = -k
Fluid Fluid dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
x=0 x=L -k + h1T ( x ,t )x = L = h1T1
dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
h2 [ T2 - T ( x ,t )x = L ] = -k
dx x=L
dT ( x ,t )
-k + h2T ( x ,t )x = L = h2T2
dx x =0
I
( May 2007 V.T.U)
Solution: 2
d T( x )
= 0 ; 0 £ x £ x1
dx 2
248
d 2T ( x )
= 0; 0 £ x £ x2
dx 2
Boundary conditons
dT ( x )
at x = 0 ; q ( x ) = -K1
dx
at x = x1 ;
dT ( x ) dT ( x )
- k1 = - k2
dx dx
at x = x2 ; x=0 x=x2
x=x1
dT ( x )
k2 = q( x )
dx
Solution:
d 2T
= 0; 0 £ x £ L
dT ( x )
at x = 0 ; =0
dx
dT ( x )
-k = sÎ [ T14 ( x ) - T24 ( x )]
dx
t=0 d 2T q& 1 d T
+ =
h, T¥ h, T¥ q&
q q k
d 2T 1 d T
Then =
dx 2 a d t
L dT
at x = - , +k = h ( To - T¥ )
2 dx- L 2
L dT
at x = + , -k = h ( To - T¥ )
2 dx- L 2
249
Sixth Semester B.E. Degree Examination, June-July 2009
Time :3hour 06ME65 Max. Marks 100

Note:.Answer any five full questions, selecting
at least TWO questions from each part
2.Use of Heat transfer data hand book is permitted.
Part-A
1 a.Derive an expression for the temperature distribution and rate of heat transfer for a hollow
cylinder. (10 Marks)
log e r
T - T1 r1
Temperatur e distribution =
T1 - T2 log r2
e r1
T1 - T2
Heat Transfer Q =
log e æç r2 ö÷ 2 pLK
è r1 ø
b. An electrical resistance of mattress type is inserted in between two slabs of different materials on a
panel heater. On one side, the material has a thermal conductivity of 0.1 74 W/m K and 10mm thick. On
the other side of the heater the material has a thermal conductivity of 0.05 W/m K and 25mm thick. The
convection heat transfer co-efficient from the thinner and thicker slabs are 23.26 and 11.63 W/m2 K.
The temperature of the. surrounding air on both the sides is I5°C, If the energy dissipation for each
square meter of the mattress is 5k W. neglecting edge effects, find (i) The surface temperature of the
slab (ii) The temperature of the mattress assuming it to be the same as the inner surface of the slabs.
(10 Marks)
Solutioin: Given data:
k1 = 0.174W / mK q
k 2 = 0.05W / mK
L1 = 10 mm , L2 = 25 mm , hi = 23.2W / m 2 K , ho = 11 .63W / m 2 K T1 TC T2
o 2
Ti = To = 15 C , q = 5000W / m Find T1 and T2
Ti,hi To,ho
T -T T -T
q1 = c i - - - - - - - ( 1 ) and q 2 = c o - - - -( 2 ) K1 K2
L1 1 L2 1
+ +
k1 hi k 3 ho q
q = q1 + q 2 - - - - - - - - - ( 3 ) L1 L1
o
\ Tc = 443.8 C
From Eq.( 1 ) q1 = 4268.2W / m 2 q1 Ri R1q1 R2q2 q2 Ro
2
From Eq.( 3 ) q 2 = 731.8W / m
T1 - Ti T -T
Again q1 = \ T1 = 198.5 o C and q 2 = 2 o T2 = 77.9 o C
1 1
hi ho
2.a. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution for a pin fin, when the tip of the fin is insulated.
Refer page no 46 and 47 (08 Marks)
250
b. A steel pipe of 220mm OD is carrying steam at 280oC. It is insulated with a material with where
K=0.06[1+0.0018T] where ‘K’ is in W/mK. Thickness of insulation is 50mm and the outer surface
temperature is determine the heat flow peer ‘m’ length of the pipe and the temperature at the mid
thickness of the pipe. (12 Marks)
m 1 = 0.11 m ,T1 = 280 o C ,m 2 = 0.16 m ,T2 = 50 o C , k = 0.06 [ 1 + 0.00181 ]

é 0.0018 ù
k m = 0.06 ê1 + ( 280 + 50 )ú = 0.078W / mK
ë 2 û
log e (r2 r1 ) Q T1 - T2
R= = = 300W / m
2 pk m L R
Q T1 - TmT log e (r2 r1 ) r +r
Also = (1) R= and rm = 1 2
L R 2 pk m 2
é a ù
\ k m = k o ê1 + ( T1 + TmT )ú and
Q (T
= 1 mT
- T )2 pk m
ë 2 û L log e (rm r2 )
On substitution we ger quadratic equation in terms of TmT

\ TmT = 164 o C
3.a. Derive an expression for the instantaneous and total heat flow in terms of the product of Biot Number and
Fourier Number in one dimensional transient heat conduction. (8Marks)
Refer page no 59, 60 and 235
b. A 5cm thick iron plate with K=60 W/mK, Cp=460J/kgK, r=7850kg/m3, a=1.6x10-5m2/sis initially at 225
o
C. Suddenly both the surface are exposed to an environmental of temperature of 25oC with a convective
heat transfer co-efficient of 500W/m2K. Calculate
1.The center temperature at min after start of cooling
2.Tthe temperature at a depth of 1 cm from the surface at t=2 min after the start of cooling
3.The energy removed form the plate per m2 during this time. (12 Marks)
Solution: Given data 2 L = 5cm , k = 605W / mK ,C = 460 J / kg °C ,r = 78507 kg / m 3
p
a = 1.6 ´ 10 - 5 m 2 / s ,Ti = 225 o C ,T¥ = 25 o C , h = 500W / m 2 K ,t = 120 s

Find : ( 1 ) To ( 2 ) Tx L ( 3 ) Q
hL 500 ´ 0.025 V
1) Bi = c = Þ 0.208 L = = 0.025 m
k 605 A
at 1.6 ´ 10 - 5 ´ 120
Fo = 2 = = 3.072
L (0.025 )2
T -T
From graph o ¥ = 0.58 Þ To = 141o C
Ti - T¥
x Tx L - T¥
2) = 0.6 , Bi = 0.208 From graph = 0.96
L To - T¥
Tx L = 136.36 o C
Q
3) Bi 2 a = 0.133 , Bi = 0.208 From graph : = 0.45
Qo
Qo
= r ´ 2 L ´ c p ( Ti - T¥ ) = 36.11 J / m 2 \ Q = 16.25 ´ 10 6 J / m 2
A
251
4 a. The exact expression for local Nusselt Number for the laminar flow along a surface is given by
Nux=hx.x/k.=0.332Pr1/3Re1/2 . Show that the average heat transfer coefficient fromx=0 to x=L. x = 0 to x
= L over the length ‘L’ of the surface is given by 2hL where hL is the local value at X=L (08Marks)

Average heat transfer coefficient
Once the temperature distribution is know, we can find the heat transfer coefficient. The rate of heat
flow per unit area at any location x along the plate is given by
æ dT ö
q x = k çç ÷÷ = hx ( T¥ - Tw )
è dy ø x , y =0
Considering the heat is flowing from the fluid to plate, we can write down the above equation as
d
dy
[
q h ( T¥ - Tw ) + Tw ]
x , y =0
hx = k
( T¥ - Tw )
æ dq h ö
= k çç ÷÷
è dy ø x , y =0
é dq h dh ù
= êk ú
ë dh dy û x , y =0
é dq h ù éd æ U ö÷ù
= êk ú ´ê ç y ú
ç ÷
ë dh û x , y =0 êë dy è nx øúû x , y =0
U
= k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3
nx
U
= 0.332 k Pr 1 / 3 (1)
nx
This shows that the local heat transfer coefficient varies along the plate inversely as x1/2 being I
infinite at the leading edge and decreasing in the direction of flow as shown in Fig.
The average heat transfer coefficient is given by
L
1 U -1 / 2
ha = òhx , dx where hx = k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3 .x
L0 n
L
1 U -1 / 2
=
L0òk ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3
n
.x (
.dx )
L
1 U æ x1 / 2 ö 1 U L L
= ´ k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3 .çç ÷ = ´ k ´ 0.332 Pr 1 / 3
÷
L n è 1 / 2 ø0 L n L
U
ha = ha = 0.664 k . Pr 1 / 3 . (2)
nL
252
By substituting x=L in Eq.(1)
U
ha = 0.332 k Pr 1 / 3 (3)
nL
Comparing Eq.2 and Eq.3, it is obvious that
ha = 2 hL
b. Tube of 0.036m OD and 40cm length is maintained at a uniform temperature of 100°C. It

is exposed to air at a uniform temperature of 20°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer from
the surface of the tube when (i) the tube is vertical (ii) the tube is horizontal. (12
Marks)
D = 0.036 m , L = 0.4 m ,T¥ = 20 o C , Tw = 100°C , T¥ = 15°C
Deter min e heat flow Q 1 )Vertical ii ) Horizantal
T f = ( 20 + 100 ) / 2 = 60°C
For air At 60°C , r = 1.060 kg / m 3 , n = 18.97 ´ 10 -6 m 2 / s , c p = 1.005 kJ / kgK
k = 28.96 ´ 10 - 3 W / m°C , Pr = 0.696
Case ( i ) Vertical
b g DTL3
Gr = 2
= 419.16 ´ 10 6
n
Gr ´ Pr = 291.73 ´ 10 6 < 10 9
La min ar flow :
N u = 0.508 Pr 0.5 [ 0.952 + Pr] -0.25 (Grl )
0.25
N u L = 53.52
4 h L
Nu = Nu L = m \ hm = 5.17W / m 2 K
3 k
Q = h ADT
Q = 18.7 W
Case ( ii ) Horizantal
b g DTD 3
GrD = 2
= 3.05 ´ 10 5
n
Gr ´ Pr = 2.12 ´ 10 5
La min ar flow :
N u = C (Gr . Pr ) For GrD Pr = 2.12 ´ 10 5
m
C = 0.48 and m = 0.25
h D
Nu = m
k
\ hm = 8.29W / m 2 K
Q = h ADT = 30 W
253
Part - B
5. a. Explain the physical significance of i) Prandtl Number ii) Reynold's Number iii) Nusselt Number
iy)Grashoff Number. (08 Marks)
Refer page no 129
b. The surface temperature of a thin plate located parallel to air stream is 90°C. The free stream velocity is
60m/s and the air temperature is 10°C. The plate is 60cm wide and 45cm long in the direction of air
stream. Assuming that the transitional Reynold’s number is 4xl05, determine i) The average heat
transfer co-efficient in laminar and turbulent regions ii) Rate of heat transfer for the entire plate
considering both the sides of the plate. Given that the correlations for the local Nusselt Number are
0.332 (Rex)1/2 Pr1/3 for laminar flow and 0.028(Rex)0.8 Pr1/3 for turbulent flow. (12 Marks)
T = 90 o C ,u ¥ = 60 m / s ,T¥ = 10 o C ,W = 60 m , L = 45cm , Rr = 4 ´ 10 5
Determine 1) h m for laminar and turbulent flows 2) Q for laminar and turbulent flows(both sides)
T +T
Tm = w ¥ = 50 o C
2
At 50 o C , for air r = 1.093kg / m 3 , n = 17.95 ´ 10 -6 m 2 / s , c p = 1.005 kJ / kgK
k = 28.26 ´ 10 - 3 W / m°C , Pr = 0.698
u x
Critical Re nolds number Re = ¥ cr Þ xcr = 0.1196
n
Laminar flow
h .x
Nu x = 0.332(Re x ) (Pr ) = x
1/ 2 1/ 3
k
1/ 2
æu ö
\ hx = k ´ 0.332ç ¥ ÷ (Pr ) x 1 / 2
1/ 3
n
è ø
1
\hm =
L ò
hx .dx Where l L = 0.1196
hm = 87.98W / m 2 K
Turbulent flow
h .x
Nu x = 0.0228(Re x ) (Pr ) = x
0.8 1/ 3
k
0.8
æu ö
\ hx = k ´ 0.45 ´ 0.0288ç ¥ ÷ (Pr ) x 0.2
1/ 3
è øn
0.45
1
\hm = ò
L 0.1196
hx dx
Q = ( Qla min ar + QTurbulent ) / 2

Q = DT ´ 2[(hm )lam ´ 0.6 ´ 0.1196 + (hm )Tur ´ 0.6 ´ (0.4 - 0.1196 )]
Q = 6928 Watts
6. a. Derive an expression for LMTD for a parallel flow heat exchanger. (10 Marks).
b. A cross flow heat exchanger in which both fluids are unmixed is used to heat water with an engine oil.
Water enters at 30°C and leaves at 85°C at a rate of 1 .5 kg/s, while the engine oil with Cp = 2.3 kJ/kg K
enter at 120°C with a mass flow rate of 3.5 kg/s. The heat transfer surface area is 30 m2. Calculate the
overall heat transfer co-efficient by using LMTD method. (10 Marks)
254
Solution: Given data: Hot fluid
c pn = 2.3 ´ 10 3 J / kgK ,Thi = 120 o C , mh = 3.5 kg / s
Cold fluid
Tci = 30°c , Tco = 85°c p = 4187 J / kgK , m& c = 1.5 kg / s ,
A = 30 m 2 Find U :
Qc = m& h C ph ( Thi - Tho ) = m& c C pc ( Tco - Tci )
Tho = 77 o C
From graph
t 2 - t1 80 - 25 ü
P= = = 0.61 ï
T1 - t1 200 - 25 ï
T1 - T2 200 - 100 ý Þ F = 0.89
R= = = 0.78 ï
t 2 - t1 80 - 25 þï
F » 0.89
( T - t ) - ( T2 - t1 )
(DTm )cF = 1 2 = 40.71°c
æ T1 - t 2 ö
lnçç ÷÷
è T2 - t1 ø
(DTm )cF = F (DTm )cF (DTm )corr = 35.82
Q = m& c C pc ( Tho - Tci ) = 345.43 ´ 10 3 Watts
Q = AU (DTm )corr Þ U = 231.45W / m 2 K
7. a. Clearly explain the regions of pool boiling with a neat sketch. (06 Marks)
b. Define i) Mass concentration ii) Molar concentration (04 Marks)
Refer page no 197 and 198
c. Air free saturated steam at a temperature of 65°C (£> - 25.03kPa) condenses on a vertical outer
surface of a 3m long vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature of 35°C. "Assuming film
condensation, calculate the average heat transfer co-efficient over the entire cx^37length of the
surface. Calculate the average heat transfer co-efficient and rate of condensate flow (taking the data
same as for a vertical tube) for a horizontal tube of 2. 5 cm outer (10 Marks)
Ts = 65 o C , D = 0.025 m , L = 3m ,Tw = 35 o C
Deter min e : hm , m&
T + Tw
Tm = s , Tm = 50 o C , rl = 990 kg / m 3 , k = 0.64W / mK
2
m l = 5.62 x10 -4 m 2 / s , h fg ( At 650 C ) = 2382 kJ / kg
1 ) Vertical
14
é g ´ r 2 ´ h fg ´ 10 3 ´ k 3 ù
hm = 0.94 ê ú = 3112 .9W / m 2 o C
êë mL( Ts - Tw ) úû
255
2 ) Horizantal
14
é g ´ r 2 ´ h fg ´ 10 3 ´ k 3 ù
hm = 0.728 ê ú = 7953.9W / m 2 o C
êë mD( Ts - Tw ) úû
Heat flow per second
Q = m& h fg ´ 1000 = hm A(Ts - Tw )
m& = 0.024 kg / s
8 a. Explain
i) Steam Boltzman law
ii) Kirchoff s law
iii) Plank's law
iv) Wein's displacement law
v) Radiation shield. (10 Marks)
Refer page no 205 to 208
b. Two large parallel plates with e = 0.5 each, are maintained at different temperatures and are
exchanging heat only by radiation. Two equally large radiations shields with surface
emissivity 0.05 are introduced in parallel to the plates. Find the percentage reduction in net
"radiative heat transfer. (10 Marks)
Î p = 0.5 ,Îs = 0.05

1 )When shield are not used
s( T14 - T24 )
Q1 = = 0.33W
1- Î p 1- Î p
+1+
Î1 Î1
2 ) When shiels are used
s( T14 - T24 )
Q2 = = 0.012345W
1 1 æ 1 1 ö
+ + 2çç + ÷÷ - ( 2 - 1 )
Îp Îp è Îs Îs ø
Q - Q2 0.33 - 0.012345
Percentage Reduction = 1 ´ 100 = ´ 100
Q1 0.33
= 92.26%
=
Plates
T1 T2 Îs
Îs
Îp Îp
Îp Îp
1 2
Radiation Shields
256
Sixth Semester BE Degree Examination, Dec.09-Jan.10
Time: 3 hrs. 06ME65 Max. Marks.100
Note:1. Answer any FIVE full questions, selecting
at least TWO questions from each part.
2. Use of heat transfer data hand book permitted.
PART-A
1 a. State the assumptions and derive general 3 - dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian co-
ordinates. (08 Marks)
b. Two bodies of thermal conductivity k1 and k2 are brought into thermal contact. Neglect the thermal
contact resistance. Formulate this as steady - state, one - dimensional, no heat generation
problem. (04 Marks)
Differential governing equation
T=T0 T=T T=T(x)
d 2T
( x ) = 0, 0 £ x £ x1
dx 2
d 2T
( x ) = 0, x1 £ x £ x2
dx 2
Initial conditions
q k1 k2
T (x )x=0 at T = To q
T (x )x= x = x1 at T = T
1
T (x )x= x = x2 at T = T ( x )
2
Boundary condition
At x = 0
Conduction heat flux = Conduction heat transfer x=0 x=x1 x=x2
d T( x )
q = - k1
dx
At x = x1
Conduction heat flux from body 1 = Conduction heat flux from body 2
æ d T(x ) ö d T (x )
çç - k1 ÷÷ = - k2
è dx ø x = x1 dx
At x = x2
Conduction heat = heat flux
æ d T(x ) ö
çç - k1 ÷ =q
è dx ÷ø x = x
2
c. A wall of a furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120mm thick covered with a layer of
magnesite brick 240 mm thick. The temperatures at the inside surface of silica brick wall and outside
surface of magnesite brick wall are 725°C and 110°C respectively. The contact thermal resistance
between the two walls at the interface is 0.0035°C/W per unit wall area. If thermal conductivities of
silica and magnesite bricks are 1.7w/m°c and 5.8w/m°c, Calculate :
i) The rate of heat loss unit area of walls and
ii) The temperature drop at the interface. (08 Marks)
257
Given L1 = 120 mm or 0.12 m
L 2 = 240 mm or 0.24 m
T1 = 725°C , T4 = 110 °C
Two walls at the interface = 0.0035°C / w T1
k1 = 1.7 w / m°C , k 2 = 5.8 w / m°C ,
dT
Q& = T2
Rth
T1 - T4
\q =
é L1 L2 ù
ê + int erface + ú T3
ë 1k k2 û
725 - 110 T4
q= k1
é 0.12 0.24 ù k2
ê 1 .7 + 0 . 0035 +
ë 5.8 úû
q = 5327.9 w / m 2 L1 L2
Temperatur e drop at the interface. ( T2 - T3 )
T -T T -T
q= 1 2 q= 3 4
L1 / k1 L2 / k 2
725 - T2 T - 110
5327.9 = 5327.9 = 3
(0.12 / 1.7 ) (0.24 / 5.8 )
T2 = 348°C T3 = 330.54°C
\ Temperatur e drop at the interface ( T2 - T3 ) = 348 - 330.54
Temperatur e drop at the interface = 18.8°C
2 a. Design critical thickness of insulation and derive an expression for critical thickness of insulation for
a cylinder. (10 Marks)
b. A wire of 6.5 ram diameter at a temperature of 60°C is to be insulated by a material having k = 0.174
W/m°C. Convection heat transfer coefficient = 8.722 W/m2 oC. The ambient temperature is 20°C. For
maximum heat loss, what is the minimum thickness of insulation and heat loss per metre length? Also
find percentage increase in heat dissipation. (10 Marks)
Solution: Given data: 0.0065
r1 = = 0.00325 m
2
k = 0.174 w / m°C
ha = 8.722 w / m°C
T1 = 60°C Ta = 20°C
Find 1.) Minimum thickness
2.) Heat loss / mt. length
3.) % age increase in heat dissipation
we know that r2 or rc = k/h a
= 0.174/8.722
r2 = 0.01995 m
1. \Minimum insulation thickness
= r2 - r1 = 0.01995 - 0.00325 = 0.0167 m
258
2. Heat loss /m length
case 1. without insulation
2 p(T1 - Ta )
Q& 1 /L =
1 /ha r1
2 p(60 - 20 )
=
1
´ 0 .00325
8 .722
Q& 1 /L =7 .124 W/m
case 2. with insulation ie critical thickness used
2 p(T1 - Ta )
Q& 2 /L =
ln r2 /r1
+ 1 /ha r2
k
2 p(60 - 20 )
=
ln (0 .01995 / 0 .00325 ) 1
+
0 .174 (8.722 x 0.01995 )
Q& 2 /L = 15.537 w/m
3. Percentage increase in heat dissipation
Q& 2 /L - Q& 1 /L
x 100
Q& 2 /L
15.537 -7.124
= x 100
7.124
= 118 .09%
3 a. What are Biot and Fourier numbers? Explain their physical significance. (06 Marks)
b. What are Heisler charts? Explain their significance in solving transient conduction problems.
(06 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no 65 to 71
c. A 12cm diameter long bar initially at a uniform temperature of 40°C is placed in a medium at 650°C
with a convective coefficient of 22 W/m2K. Calculate the time required for the bar to reach 255°C.
Take k= 20 W/mK, r = 580 kg/m3 and cp = 1050 J/kgK. (08 Marks)
D = 12cm = 0 .12 m , R = 0 .06 m ,T0 = 40 + 273 = 313 K
T¥ = 650 + 273 = 923 K ,T = 255 + 273 = 528 K , h = 22 w / m 2 k
k = 20 w / m k ,r = 580 kg / m 3 ,C = 1050 J / kg k
Find time required to reach 255°C
R 0.06
Characteristic length for cylinder L c = = = 0.03m
2 2
We know that Bi = h.Lc / k = 22 x 0.03 / 20
Bi = 0.033 < 0.1
For lumped heat parameter
é - hA ù
ê ´t ú
T - T¥ êc L r ú
= eë p c û
T0 - T¥
259
We know that Lc = v / A
é - hA ù
ê ´t ú
T - T¥ êc L r ú
\ = eë p c û
T0 - T¥
é - 22 ù
528 - 923 êë 1050 x 0.03 x 580 ´ 5 úû
=e
313 - 923
\t = 360.8 sec
4 a. Briefly explain:
i) Hydrodynamic boundary layer ii) Thermal boundary layer. (06 Marks)
b. Define:
i) Nusselt number ii) Prandtl number
iii) Stanton number iv) Grashof number. (04 Marks)
c. A square plate (0.5m x 0.5m) with one surface insulated and the other surface maintained at
temperature of 385K is placed in ambient air at a temperature of 315K. Calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient for free convection for the following orientations of the hot surface:
i) The plate is horizontal and hot surface faces up.
ii) The plate is horizontal and the hot surface faces down. (10 Marks)
square plate 0.5m x 0.5m
Tw = 385 K
T¥ = 315 K
The properties to be evaluated at
T + T 385 + 315
Tf = w ¥ = = 350 k or 77°C
2 2
Properties of air at mean temperature of 77°C are
r = 1000kg/m3 g = 21.09 x 10 -6 m 2 / s
Pr = 0.692 c p = 1.009 kJ / kgK
k = 30.47 x 10 - 3 W / mK m = 21.08 x 10 -6 kg / m.s
1. when the plate is horizontal & hot surface faces up
L = area /perimeter = 0.5 x 0.5/4 x 0.5
L = 0.125m
1
´ 9.81 ´ (385 - 315 )´ 0.125 3
b g (Dq )L3 77 + 273
Gr = =
r2 (
21.09 ´10- 6
2
)
G r = 8615408.66
\G r Pr = 5961862.8 < 8 x 106
\ using equation Nu = 0.54 (G r Pr )
0.25
for 2 ´ 10 4 < G r Pr < 8 ´ 106
Nu = 0.54 (5961862.8 )
0.25
Nu = 26.68
260
Nu = hc L / k \ hc = Nu k / L
\ hc = 26.68 ´ 30.47 ´ 10 -3 / 0.125
\ hc = 6.5 w / m 2 k
2. The plate is horizontal & hot surface faces down
L = 0.125m G r Pr = 5961862.8
\ Using equation
Nu = 0.27 ( G r Pr )
0.25
for 10 5 < G r Pr ,10 11
\ Nu = 0.27 ( 5961862.8 )
0.25
\ Nu = 13.34
Nu = hc L / k
\hc = Nu k / L
= 13.34 ´ 30.47 ´ 10 -3 / 0.125
\hc = 3.252 w / m 2 k
PART-B
5 a. Using dimensional analysis, obtain the dimension less parameters in forced convection heat transfer.
(10 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no 125 - 127
b. Water at a velocity of 1.5 m/s enters a 2cm diameter heat exchanger tube at 40°C. The heat exchanger
tube wall is maintained at a temperature of 100°C. If the water is heated to a temperature of 80°C in
the heat exchanger tube, find the length of the exchanger tube required. (10 Marks)
U m = 1.5 m / s ,Tmi = 40°C , Tw = 100°C , D = 2cm = 0.02 m ,Tmo = 80°C

T + Tmo
Tm = mi = 60°C , The properties of water at 60°C are
2
ρ = 985 kg/m 3 g = 0.478 x 10 -6 m 2 / s , Pr = 3.02 , h = 651.3 x 10 -3 w / mk ,C p = 4.183kJ / kg
Reynolds number Re = r D Um / m
= D Um / g = 0.02 ´ 1.5 / 0.478 ´ 10 -6
Re = 62760 Flow is turbulent
Using the equation
Nu = 0.023 Re0 .8 Pr 0 .4
Nu = 0.023 (62760 ) (3.02 )0 .4 = 246.54
0 .8
246 .54 x 651.3 x 10 - 3

Nu = he .D/k \ hc = Nu k / D =
0.02
\ hc = 8028.57 w / m 2 k
Find the length of the heat exchanger tube 1
m C p (Tmo - Tmi )= hc A (Tw - Tm )
A v r C p (Tmo - Tmi )= hc p D L (Tw - Tm )
p (0.02 )
2
´ 15 ´ 985 ´ 4.183 ´ ( 80 - 40 ) = 8028.57 ´ p ´ (0.02 )´ L ´ (100 - 60 )
4
L = 3.85 m
261
6 a. Define LMTD and obtain an expression for LMTD for parallel flow heat exchanger. (10 Marks)
b. The flow rate of hot and cold flux streams running through a parallel flow heat exchanger are 0.2 kg/s
and 0.5 kg/s respectively. The inlet temperatures on the hot and cold sides are 75°C and 20°C
respectively. The exit temperature of hot water is 45°C. If the individual heat transfer coefficients on
both sides are 650 W/m2C, calculate the area of heat transfer. (10 Marks)
mh = 0 .2 kg/s, mc = 0 .5 kg/s,Th1 = 75°C,Tc1 = 20°C,Th2 = 45°C
Find area of heat exchanger A = ?
& = UA(LMTD )
heat transfer rate Q
heat lost by hot water = heat gained by cold water
mh c ph( Th 1 - Th 2 ) = mc c pc (Tc 2 - Tc 1 )
0.2 ´ 4.187 ´ (75 - 45 )= 0.5 ´ 4.187 ´ (Tc 2 - 20 )
Tc 2 = 32°C
Q& = m c ( T - T )
h ph h1 h2
= 0.2 ´ 4.187 ´ (75 - 45 )

Q& = 25.122 kJ/s
θ m = LMTD = (θ1 - θ 2 )/ ln (θ1 /θ 2 )
θ1 = Th 1 - Tc 1
θ 2 = Th 2 - Tc 2
( T - T ) - (Th 2 - Tc 2 )
θm = h 1 c 1
æ T -T ö
ln çç h 1 c 1 ÷÷
è Th 2 - Tc 2 ø
( 75-20 ) - (45 - 20 )
θm =
æ 75 - 20 ö
ln ç ÷
è 45 - 32 ø
θ m = 29 .12°C
1 1 1 1 1 1
U =? = + = + =
U hi ho 650 650 325
\U = 325 W/m 2 °C
\Q& = UA LMTD or UAθ m
\ Area of heat transfer (A) = q / U q m
25.122 ´ 100
=
325 ´ 29.12
\ A = 2.65m 2
7 a. Sketch and explain boiling curve. (06 Marks)
Ans : Refer page no 181-183

262
b. Saturated water at Tsat =100°C is boiled inside a copper pan having a heating surface area
5 x 102m2 which is maintained at uniform surface temperature Ts = 110°C. Calculate:
i) The surface heat flux (q) ii) The rate of evaporation (m). (08 Marks)
Ts = 110 °C , A = 5 ´ 10 - 2 m 2 ,Tsat = 100°C , Find q = ? m =?

3 0.5
é Cp L D Te ù é g (rL - rv )ù
q = Q& / A or q = U L .hfg ê n ú ê ú
ë CsL. hfg . prL û ë s û
The properties of saturated water at 100°C
h fg = 2256.9 x 10 3 kJ / kg ,m L = 0.2816 ´ 10 - 3 Ns / m 2 , n = 1,r L = 961kg / m 3 ,
r v = 0.598 kg / m 3 ,C pL = 4.216 ´ 10 3 J / kgK , C sL = 0.013
s = 58.8 ´ 10 - 3 N / m
é 4.216 ´ 10 3 (110 - 100 ) ù 9.81 ´ (961 - 0.598 )
\ q = 0.2816 ´ 10 - 3 ´ 2256.9 ´ 10 3 ê 3 úx
ë 0 . 013 ´ 2256 . 9 ´ 10 ´ 1 . 74 û 58.8 ´ 10 - 3
\ q = 1.42 ´ 10 5 W / m 2
Heat transfer Q& = qA = 1.42 x 10 5 x 5 x 10 - 2 = 7100W
Rate of evaporation (m)
& = m.h
Q fg
& /h
\m = Q fg
= 7100 / 2256.9 ´ 10 3
m = 3.14 ´ 10 - 3 kg / s
\Rate of evaporation ( m ) = 3.14 x 10 - 3 kg / s
c. State and explain Picks law of diffusion (06 Marks)
Ans: Refer page no.198-199
8 a. State and explain the following:

i) Stefan - Boltzman law.
ii) Kirchoff s law.
iii) Planck's law
iv) Wien's displacement law
v) Lambert's cosine law. (10 Marks)
b. For a black body enclosed in a hemispherical space, prove that emissive power of the black
body is n times the intensity of radiation. (10 Marks)

USN ME74
Time: 3 hrs.
Max. Marks: 1 00
position.
Ti = 820°C
L1 = L2 = 0.1m
To =120°C
K 1 = 1.6 W / m K
Rc = 0.002 m 2 / W
K 2 = 4 .8 W / m K
hi = 35 W / m 2 K
A =1 m 2
ho =12 W / m 2 K
Ti - To
Q= = 3549.01W
1 é 1 L1 L 1ù
ê + + Re + 2 + ú
Q = hi A( Ti - T2 ), gives T1 = 718.6° C
K1 A ( T1 - T2 )
Q= , gives T2 = 496.8° C
L1
T2 - T2'
Q= , gives T2' = 489.7° C
RC
A K 2 (T2' - T3 )
Q= , gives T3 = 415.8° C
L2
q cos h m ( L - x)
=
qo cos h m L
Q = h P K AC .q o
specimen(10 Marks).

q1
= e - m1 x gives, m1 x = 0.405465
q
q0
=
m x 0.76214
Solution:
T - Ta
= e - Bi Fo
Ti - Ta
And
dT
dt
T - Ta
Where = e - Bi Fo
Ti - Ta
æ hA ö
è rcV ø
d é æ hA öù
dt ê ç rc pV ÷ú
ë è øû
è ø è øû
é æ hA öù
ë è rcV øû
t t
é æ hA öù
ò ò t ÷ ú dt
ê ç rc pV ÷ú
0 0 ë è øû
t
t
é æ hA öù
0
é æ hA ö ù

C p = 460 J / kg ° K , r = 7850 kg / m 3 , a = 1.6 x 10 -5 m 2 / s
D = 0.05 m , = 0.025 m , Ti = 225°C , h = 500W / m 2 K , T¥ = 25°C

D = 0.05 m , r = 0.025 m , Ti = 225°C , h = 500W / m 2 K , T¥ = 25°C
1 at
i) = 4.8 , at t = 2 min , = 8.072
Bi R2
To - T f
Ti - T f
r T -T f
ii ) = 0.6 , from chart , = 0.94
R To - T f
Q
Qo
Q = Qo x 0.8 = 37814.3 J D Q = Qo - Q = 9453.4 J
(8 Marks)
T¥ = 20°C Ts = 60°C Tm = 40°C

u ¥ = 3 m / s x = 0 .2 m L = 0. 3 m
For air at 40°C
r = 1.128 kg / m 3 , g = 16.96 x 10 -6 m 2 / s , k = 0.02755 W / m K
Pr = 0.699
u .x
Rex = ¥ = 35377.4 5 x 10 5
g
5x 5 x0.2
d= =
5
35377.4 5 x 10 35377.4 5 x 10 5
d = 5.317 x 10 -3 m
d
d th = = 5.991 x 10 -3 m
0.699 1 3
uL
ReL = = 53066 and C f = 0.006044
g
k 12 13
h = 0.664 . ReL Pr
L
= 12.466W / m 2 K
1.328
t = Cf = 5.765 x 10 -3
ReL
r u ¥2
=C f x = 0.02926 N / m 2
2
FD = t x A = 0.0107 N
Nu = 0.6 (Gr.Pr)1/4. (10 Marks)

Ts = 125°C g = 20.02 x 10 -6 m 2 / s b = 2.8735 x 10 -3
T¥ = 25°C k = 0.02964 W / mK
Tm = 75°C Pr = 0.694
D 3 gbDT
Gr = = 8.7915 x 10 5
g2
hL
k
A = 4p R 2 , Q = h ADT
Q = 7.81W
Q
60

2000 3
mc = kg / s , h fg = 2195 x 10 J / kg
3600
Qh = mh h fg ,
162820 = mh x 2195 x 10 3
mh = 267 kg / hr
q - q2
qm = 1 = 58.14°C
q
ln 1
q2
Q = UAq m = 1600 xAx 58.14°
\ A = 1.75 m 2

(Jan/Feb 2006)
Solution:
¶T 1 ¶T k T=T(x,t)
= , Where a =
¶x a ¶t ρc p
Insulated
¶T
¶x Ti at t=0
¶T L
¶x
Solution:
1 ¶ æ ¶ ö 1 ¶ 2 T q&
r ¶r è ¶r ø r 2 ¶r 2 k
h, T¥
¶T q”
¶r
¶T
¶r
q
¶T
¶q
¶T
¶q
Solution:
Boundary Condition
y
1 Kind
( i )1 st Kind
TL=T2 T ( x , t )x =0 = T1
T ( x , t )x = L = T 2
Tx=T1
Ti at t=0
x
x=0 x=L
L ( ii ) 2 nd Kind
dT
dx x =0
dT
dx x = L
x=0 x=L
3 rd Kind
3 Kind
dT ( x ,t )
h1 [ T1 - T ( x ,t )x =0 ] = -k
T1,h1 T2,h2 dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
h1 [ T1 - T ( x ,t )x =0 ] = -k
Fluid Fluid dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
x=0 x=L -k + h1T ( x ,t )x = L = h1T1
dx x =0
dT ( x ,t )
h2 [ T2 - T ( x ,t )x = L ] = -k
dx x=L
dT ( x ,t )
-k + h2T ( x ,t )x = L = h2T2
dx x =0
I
( May 2007 V.T.U)
Solution: 2
d T( x )
= 0 ; 0 £ x £ x1
dx 2
d 2T ( x )
= 0; 0 £ x £ x2
dx 2
Boundary conditons
dT ( x )
at x = 0 ; q ( x ) = -K1
dx
at x = x1 ;
dT ( x ) dT ( x )
- k1 = - k2
dx dx
at x = x2 ; x=0 x=x2
x=x1
dT ( x )
k2 = q( x )
dx
Solution:
d 2T
= 0; 0 £ x £ L
dT ( x )
at x = 0 ; =0
dx
dT ( x )
-k = sÎ [ T14 ( x ) - T24 ( x )]
dx
t=0 d 2T q& 1 d T
+ =
h, T¥ h, T¥ q&
q q k
d 2T 1 d T
Then =
dx 2 a d t
L dT
at x = - , +k = h ( To - T¥ )
2 dx- L 2
L dT
at x = + , -k = h ( To - T¥ )
2 dx- L 2
M M PUBLISHERS, DAVANGERE First Edition
A TEXT BOOK OF
A TEXT BOOK OF
Heat and Mass Transfer A TEXT BOOK OF
First Edition (S.I. UNITS)
Dr. M.S. Govinde Gowda
Heat & Mass Transfer

About the author
HEAT
H EAT &
Dr. A.M. Nagaraja
Obtained Ph.D from Kuvempu University and M.Tech., Degree

MASS
M ASS
TRANSFER
at R.E.C. Surathkal in Heat Power Engineering. He has been
teaching this subject since 34 years for under graduate students.
Presently he is working as Principal at Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology
Cholanagar, RT Nagar Post Hebbala, Bangalore, Karnataka state.
First
T RANSFER
Edition
Dr. A.M.NAGARAJ
Our Another Publication:
Dr. A.M.Nagaraj
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Heat and Mass Transfer

VI Sem B.E. Mechanical Engineering

First Edition 2008

For Copies Contact :

# 3692, 7th Cross, Kuvempu Nagar,

Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts and Definitions:

Chapter 3 Variable Thermal Conductivity and Fins

Chapter 4 Transient Conduction and Use of Temperature Charts

Chapter 5 Concepts and Basics Relation in Boundary Layers

Chapter 6 Free or Natural Convection 107

Chapter 8 Heat Exchangers 140

Chapter 9 Condensation and Boiling 175

Chapter 10 Radiation Heat Transfer 200

Subject Code :06ME65 IA Marks :25

CONDUCTION: Derivation of general three dimensional conduction equation in Cartesian coordinate,

ONE-DIMENSIONAL TRANSIENT CONDUCTION: Conduction in solids with negligible internal

FORCED CONVECTIONS: Applications of dimensional analysis for forced convection. Physical

1. Heat and Mass Transfer, Tirumaleswar, Parson education 2006

1. Heat transfer, a practical approach, Yunus A- Cengel Tata Mc Graw Hill

Symbol Quantity S.I.Units

1.4 Convection Heat Transfer:

u¥ Velocity profile T¥ Temperature profile

Fig.1-2 Velocity and Temperature profile for convection

1.5 Radiation Heat Transfer:

Q = s (T14 - T24 ) For black bodies (1.5a)

Given: k = 300w/m oC, A = 1 m2, dx = 55 cm, Q = 300 W/m2, (T1 - T2)=?,

Qconv = hA (Tw - T¥ ) = hpDL ( Tw - T¥ )

This is the temperature drop through the wall,. K=0.2W/mK

2000 = hA(T2 - T¥ ) x σA(T24 - T¥4 ) T1

1.6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF 1st,2nd AND 3rd KIND

1.6.2 PRESCRIBED HEAT FLUX, AND CONVECTION BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.

1.6.2(a) Prescribed Temperature Boundary Condition (B.C. First Kind)

1.6.2(b) Prescribed Heat Flux Boundary Condition (B.C. Second Kind)

Figure.1-5 prescribed heat fllux at the boundary

1.6.2 (c ) Convection Boundary Condition (B.C. Third Kind)

which is the convection boundary condition at the surface x = 0.

(a) Slab (b) Hallow cylinder or sphere

1-7 COMBINED HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM

Plate area A, Emissivity e, at Tw

Figure.1-7. Simultaneous convection and radiation from a plate

q w = hc ( Tw - T¥ ) + e s ( Tw4 - Ts4 ) (1-11)

1 ìï ¶ æ h2 h3 ¶T ö ¶ æ h1h3 ¶T ö ¶ æ h1h2 ¶T öüï

2.3-2 General three Dimensional conduction equation in Cylindrical co-ordinate system.

1 ìï d æ h2 h3 dT ö d æ h1h3 dT ö d æ h1h2 dT öïü f

2.3-3 General three Dimensional conduction equation in spherical co-ordinate system.

Coordinates for spherical system are

Substituting the coordinates in to the equation (2-16)

1 ìï d æ h2 h3 dT ö d æ h1h3 dT ö d æ h1h2 dT öüï f

Substituting the second B.C T2 = C1 L + C 2

2.5 One dimensional heat conduction equation for hallow cylinder

Substituting C1 and C2 in to the Eq.2-23

Substituting C1 and C2 in to the Eq.2-26

Eq.2-27 is called temperature distribution equation

Heat flow through hollow sphere can be found by fourier’s law

By energy balance we get

By energy balance we get

2.9 Composite Sphere

By energy balance we get

By considering the energy balance on both sides of the wall

2-11 THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

Solution: Given data: The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by

Rate of heat leakage with insulation

i) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area.