TITLE PAGE

MY INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PROGRAM AT THE

FEDERAL SCHOOL OF BIOMEDICAL TECHNOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA TEACHING HOSPITAL,
ENUGU, CHALLENGES, PROSPECTS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

2
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the glory and praise of God Almighty and also to my
beloved parent and siblings who have always stood behind me to encourage and
support me.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am sincerely grateful to God for his goodness and benevolence towards me. I
appreciate the support, encouragement and opportunity extended to me by the
Management of Federal School of Biomedical Technology (FSBT), University
of Nigeria Teaching hospital, Ituku/Ozalla Enugu – especially the HOD of
FSBT Engr. Ezeudu; senior engineers in FSBT; Engr. Ayeteni R. O., Engr.
Ndukwe Njoku, Engr. Onyeamah, Engr. Chinasa; the secretary Mrs.
Umesiegbu E.N. and all the administrative staff of FSBT who in one way or
the other made my training program a successful one, I am deeply grateful to
you all.

Also, I specially thank my dad Chief E. A. C. Okenwa, my siblings and

friends. God bless you all!

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE - - - - - - - - - I

TITLE PAGE - - - - - - - - - 1

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - - 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - - - - - - 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - - 4

CHAPTER ONE - - - - - - - - - 5
Introduction - - - - - - - - 5
Brief History of UNTH, Ituku/Ozalla Enugu - - - 6
Experience - - - - - - - - 7
CHAPTER TWO - - - - - - - - 8
Introduction to Equipment and Repair/Maintenance - - - 8
Sphygmomanometer - - - - - - - 9
Stethoscope - - - - - - - - 10
Centrifuge - - - - - - - - 12
Suction machine - - - - - - - 14
Infant incubator - - - - - - - 15
Autoclave - - - - - - - - 16
Haemodialysis Machine - - - - - - 18
Oxygen Concentrator - - - - - - - 20
Sterilizer - - - - - - - - - 22
Pulse Oximeter - - - - - - - - 24
Tissue Processor - - - - - - - 25
Ward Screen - - - - - - - - 27
Anaesthetic Machine - - - - - - - 28
Operating Table - - - - - - - 30
Defibirillator - - - - - - - - 31
CHAPTER THREE - - - - - - - - - 33
Prospects - - - - - - - - - 33
Challenges - - - - - - - - 33
Recommendation - - - - - - - 33
Conclusion - - - - - - - - 33
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - 34

5
 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction

Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was established by

Industrial Training Funds (ITF) in the year 1973 to solve the problems of lack
of adequate and relevant skills for employment of tertiary institution graduates
by Nigerian industries. SIWES was founded to be a skill training program to
help expose and prepare students of universities, polytechnics and colleges of
education for the industrial work situation to be met after graduation. This
scheme serves as a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work
and further help in the application of knowledge. The scheme provides students
with the opportunity of acquainting and exposing themselves to the experience
required in handling and managing of equipment and machinery that are usually
not made available in their institutions.

The Training programs for biomedical professionals target the needs of each
career level in biomedicine. Biomedical equipment technicians are typically
required to have an associate's or bachelor's degree in biomedical engineering.
Master's programs focus on research and explore advanced biomedical
engineering skills. My work experience at Federal School of Biomedical
Technology, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu has exposed me to
employ the theoretical knowledge I gained in school practically to solve
problems. I was privileged to encounter and work on many biomedical
equipment and devices used in the hospital, how they are used, principle of
operation, basic faults, troubleshooting, maintenance and repair. Some of which
includes:

i. Centrifuge
ii. Sphygmomanometer
iii. Suction
iv. Stethoscope
v. X-ray etc.

6
Brief History of University Of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Ituku/Ozalla
Enugu

The University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Ituku/Ozalla Enugu began in the

early 20th century as a general hospital for Africans built by the colonial
administrators. It later metamorphosed into a general hospital on the attainment
of Nigeria independence in 1960s. However, at the end of the Nigerian civil war
in 1970, the then government of East Central state transformed it into a
specialist hospital.

By decree number 23 of 1974, the Federal Military Government took over the
hospital, but left the management in the hands of the council of the University
of Nigeria, Nsukka. UNTH became independent in July 1976 with the
appointment of autonomous management board and has remained in that
capacity till date and operating under the supervision of the Federal Ministry of
Health.

The physical constraints at the hospital’s old site in Enugu made it impossible
for expansion. Hence the then Federal Military Government gave approval for
the construction of a new complex at Ituku/Ozalla. All services rendered by the
institution were moved to the permanent site with effect from 8 January, 2007.

7
Experience

My Biomedical training at the Federal School of Biomedical Technology was

filled with many educative experiences. FSBT introduced me to the world of
biomedical technology. Each day of my stay in FSBT unfolded with new
training and exposure in the field of biomedical technology. My stay at UNTH
was indeed eventful, educative and worthwhile.

During the course of my training, I participated in various activities going on in

the department and also interacted with other departments.

I had the opportunity to visit and work in various departments, such as renal
unit, accident and emergency unit etc.

8
 CHAPTER TWO

Introduction to Equipment and Repair/Maintenance

Sphygmomanometer: The sphygmomanometer is a medical device used to

measure and determine blood pressure. It measures two pressures: the systolic
and diastolic pressure.

Principle of Operation

The sphygmomanometer works on the principle of pressure.

Types of sphygmomanometer

 Aneroid sphygmomanometer
 Digital sphygmomanometer
 Mercury in glass sphygmomanometer

Aneroid Sphygmomanometer

 Components
a. Inflation bulb
b. Cuff
c. Calibrated cuff (manometer)
d. Tube
 Mode of Operation
Air pressure passes through the bulb as its being pumped. A valve
under the bulb and a knob atop it prevents outflow of air from the
bulb. Air from the bulb gets to the cuff inflating it and also travels
to the calibrated clock pushing a spring and causing the dial to
move.

Mercury-in-Glass Sphygmomanometer: this is the most convectional form of

sphygmomanometer

9
  Components
a. Inflation bulb
b. Cuff
c. Tube
d. Calibrated capillary tube
e. Mercury reservoir
f. Valve (switch)
g. O- ring
 Mode of Operation
Air passes through the bulb where a valve under and a knob atop
prevents backflow of air to the external. Air pressure from the bulb
passes through the cuff inflating it and through to the mercury
reservoir pushing the mercury up the capillary tube to be read off.

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Inability of the bulb to inflate

ii. Dropping of mercury along the tube
iii. Breaking of the mercury along t

Troubleshooting

i. Check the underneath valve or knob atop for leakage

ii. Check for air leakage at the cuff or tube
iii. Check for leakage along the entire line
iv. Check for dirt in the mercury, check for presence of air by opening
and clean

Possible Solution

i. Change valve or knob if bad

ii. Change cuff if leaking
iii. Change leaking part
iv. Clean the mercury using tissue paper

Maintenance

i. Ensure all parts are present and tightly fitted

ii. Check mercury position is at zero when cuff is deflated

10
iii. Remove or replace cracked parts
iv. Inflate to 200mmHg and check leakage is not faster than 2mmHg in 10
seconds.

Stethoscope: The stethoscope is a medical device used for auscultation or for

listening to the internal sounds. These might be sounds generated by breathing,
heartbeat, coughing, blood flow or stomach.

Types of Stethoscope

 Acoustic Stethoscope: Operates on the transmission of sound from the

chest piece via air filled hollow tubes to the listening ears.
 Electronic stethoscope: Conquers low sound levels by electrically
amplifying body sound.
 Foetal stethoscope: Also called a fetoscope is an acoustic stethoscope
shaped in a trumpet form, used to listen to the foetal heartbeat.

Components

a. Diaphragm
b. The stem
c. Acoustic tubes
d. Headset
e. Ear tubes
f. Chest piece

Principle of Operation:

The stethoscope works on the principle of reflection and reverberation of sound

waves.

11
Mode of Operation

When placed on the patient’s chest, Sound waves vibrates the tightly stretched
diaphragm; the hollow acoustic tubes which are thinner than the diaphragm
transmits the sound by reflection. Multiple reflections induce reverberation
which magnifies the sound. Sound waves travel through the tubes to the ear
piece containing no diaphragm where the human ear acts as diaphragm
vibrating to changes in the air pressure.

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Faint or no sound heard

ii. Tube connector does not stay in headpiece

Troubleshooting

i. Remove all parts and check for leakage and blockage

ii. Blocked locking mechanism

Possible Solution

i. Change leaking/blocked part

ii. Replace

Maintenance

i. Remove ear piece and clean inside with warm water

ii. Check sounds can be heard from both sides of headpiece
iii. Remove or replace any cracked rubber part
iv. Check tube holder rotates easily within headpiece
v. Remove membrane if broken

Centrifuge: The centrifuge is laboratory equipment which applies rotary force

to separate constitutes of different densities present in a singular homogenous
sample e.g. blood.

12
Components

a. Motor
b. Rotor
c. Transformer
d. Controls
e. Casting
f. Loading ports
Principle of Operation
The Centrifuge Works On The principle of centrifugal force which is a force
which draws substances away from the centre.
Mode of Operation
The centrifuge spins samples at high velocity creating a strong centrifugal force
which due to differential densities of substances causes denser materials to
travel to the bottom of the tubes faster than they would under the force of
gravity.

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Motor not turning

ii. Partial contact

Troubleshooting

i. Check mains and cable for life, motor for signs of corrosion or cracking,
switches and knobs for continuity
ii. Check carbon brushes

Possible Solution

i. Correct wiring if bad

Precaution for Use
i. Use only accessories and tubes designed for the centrifuge
ii. Ensure rotor is tightened before use
iii. Device should be closed before centrifugation
iv. Do not open the lid while the motor is still spinning
v. Make sure the rotor is balanced at all times by symmetrically fixing the
tubes in the buckets.

13
Suction Machine: The suction machine (also known as aspirators) is a medical
device used to aspirate unwanted body fluid from a part in a patient. They are
used to aspirate substances such as mucus, blood, water, saliva, vomit, pus even
bone pieces.

Components

a. Motor
b. Vacuum pump
c. Pressure regulator and gauges
d. Connector
e. Bacteria filter
f. Reservoir
g. Suction catheter

Principle of Operation
The suction machine works on the principle of Pressure (Negative pressure).
Mode of Operation
The motor driven pump draws air from the jar creating a vacuum in it, causing
its pressure to drop below atmospheric pressure. Because gas movement is
dependent on pressure gradient i.e. from higher to lower region, atmospheric
pressure which is now greater tends to move in from the catheter drawing in
liquids, semi solids into the jar.

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults
i. Low pressure
ii. Lamp coming on but device not operating
iii. Indicator lamp not coming on

14
 iv. Filter discoloured
Troubleshooting
i. Check motor speed (capacitor/coil), tubes, pump, input voltage, pressure
regulator.
ii. Check mains, cable, fuse, internal connections and lamp.
iii. Check input voltage, motor, capacitor
iv. Check float valve
Possible Solution
i. Change motor coil and capacitor if bad, change tubes if leaking, regulate
input voltage.
ii. Correct wiring if necessary; change fuse, lamp if bad
iii. Regulate input voltage, change capacitor if bad
iv. Change valve if bad
Infant Incubator: The infant incubator is a medical device designed to mimic
the safe haven of the mother’s womb where premature babies are placed; this
provides a controlled and protective environment for growth and development.
The temp, humidity and oxygen level can be controlled by the medical
personnel.

Components

a. Heating element
b. Bacteria filter
c. Fan
d. Thermostat
e. Humidity control
f. Oxygen control
g. Baby tray

15
 h. Perspex canopy
i. Oxygen gauge tube
j. Dispensing apparatus
Principle of Operation
The incubator works on the principle of heat transfer i.e. conduction
Mode of Operation
An electric fan draws in air through a bacteria filter which sieves it of dust and
bacteria; filtered air flows over a heating element and is heated to required
temp. The air passes over a water tank where it is moistened; from here it flows
to the canopy. The incubator canopy is slightly pressurized; this allows expired
carbon dioxide to pass back into the room via the vent holes and most of the air
to be re-circulated. It also prevents unfiltered air entering the system.

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults
i. Device not running
ii. Alarm not working
iii. Temperature not controlled
iv. Temperature drop even with heating lamp on
Troubleshooting
i. Check mains, cables, switches and fuse for life and continuity
ii. Check to see if alarm battery is okay
iii. Check temperature probes and sensor connections
iv. Check heating element
Possible Solution
i. Replace fuse and cables if bad
ii. Change battery if bad
iii. Change probes
iv. Change heating element if bad

Maintenance

i. Check if all fittings and accessories are mounted correctly weekly

ii. Check if reading of thermometer and oxygen sensor changes when
breathed upon
iii. Wipe dust off exterior and cover equipment after check.

16
The Autoclave: An autoclave is pressure chamber used in medical applications
to perform sterilization (a systematic process of eliminating, kill or deactivate
all forms of life and biological agents). They sterilize using steam at high
pressure inducing proportionate increase in temperature (boiling point).

Components

a. Pump (vacuum & positive)

b. Water chamber
c. Pressure and temperature gauges
d. Steam chamber
e. Heating element
f. Control

Principle of Operation

The Autoclave works on the Gay-Lussac’s principle (Pressure Law) equating

temperature and pressure; which states that the pressure of a fixed mass at
constant volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

Mode of Operation

The filament in the water chamber heats the water; as the temperature rises,
pressure is being built this increases the boiling point of the water and creates
steam. When turned on, required time is set; air from the steam chamber is first
evacuated by a vacuum pump; after which steam is pumped into it. Once
required temperature is attained, a thermostat kicks in and starts a timer; after
which the steam is pumped out and sterilization done.

17
Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Power failure
ii. Low pressure
iii. Temperature problems
iv. Failure to attain sterilization temperature

Troubleshooting

i. Check mains, power cable, fuse, switch for continuity

ii. Check for leakage
iii. Check to see if filament is heating
iv. Check the safety valve if intact

Possible Solution

i. Fix wiring if bad. Change fuse if bad

ii. Fix leakage
iii. Change filament if bad
iv. Replace if bad
Safety Measures on Equipment:

i. Autoclave tape which shows full sterilization when attained

ii. Self locking door to avoid accidents
iii. Safety valve to expel steam when pressure gets beyond control

Precautions While Using Equipment

i. Do not autoclave materials that can be destroyed by water vapour

ii. Keep spaces between materials to attain adequate sterilization
iii. Use personal protective equipment
iv. Stand behind door while opening and open slowly

Haemodialysis Machine: The dialysis machine is used to functionally augment

or totally replace the function of weak (acute) or impaired (chronic) kidney
respectively.

18
 Components:

a. The dialyzer
b. Heparin pump
c. Air and pressure sensor
d. Pump
e. Control system
f. Monitor
g. Dialysate
h. Bicarbonate

Principle of Operation: The dialysis machine works on the principle of

diffusion.

Mode of Operation: The machine is first primed before use with the aid of a
saline solution to expel blood line of preservatives and trapped air. Blood
travels from the artery through the arterial blood line through the pump which
works on peristaltic principle to regulate blood pump pressure. The line goes
through a heparin pump which infuses heparin to inhibit clotting. The line
continues to the dialyzer where filtration and ion exchange occurs with principle
of diffusion. The line continues to the air trap which monitors for trapped air
then to the venous line and into the patient’s vein.
Basic Faults and Troubleshooting
Basic Faults
i. Blood leak
ii. Blood leak
iii. Pressure alarm
Troubleshooting
i. Check for leakage in the tube
ii. Change tubes
iii. Regulate motor speed
Possible Solution
i. Change tubes
ii. Regulate motor speed

19
Maintenance:
i. Disinfect machine at least once a week (using either thermal method or
acid (citric acid)

Oxygen Concentrator: The oxygen concentrator is a medical device used to

deliver concentrated oxygen to patients. It concentrates oxygen from ambient
air and delivers pure oxygen (91-100%) to patient in need of oxygen. It can be
used in the hospital or in homes.

Components

a. Two Zeolite tanks

b. Zeolite granules
c. Flow meter
d. Humidifier bottle
e. Air compressor
f. Filters
g. Reservoir tank

Principle of Operation

The oxygen concentrator works on the principle of Pressure Swing Adsorption

(PSA). The PSA is a technology used to separate some gas species from a
mixture of gases under pressure according to the species molecular
characteristics and affinity for an absorbent. PSA utilizes the fact that under
certain pressure, different gases tends to be attracted to solid surface more or
less strongly than the other.

Mode of Operation

Atmospheric air consists of approximately 79% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen. The
oxygen concentrator works by purifying ambient air of particles and
constituting gases to give out pure oxygen; concentration of about 91% and
above. If range is not attained, it becomes hazardous as patient tends to take in
air.

When switched on, a motor driven fan draws in ambient air over a filter; the air
is compressed to pressure of about 20psi and sent to one zeolite tank where N2 is

20
absorbed by the zeolite granules and O2 released into the oxygen tank. After
about 20s, the supply of compressed air is transferred to the second tank whilst
the first is depressured to release N2. The O2 gas is then pumped over a
humidifier to moisten it and then delivered to the patient.

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Unit not operating, power failure alarm sounds

ii. Unit not operating, power failure alarm sounds
iii. Temperature light or low oxygen alarm is on
iv. No oxygen flow

Troubleshooting

i. Check mains, cables, fuse for life and continuity

ii. Check alarm battery
iii. Check filters for logs
iv. Check tubing and connectors are tightly fitted, check also for blocking
and leakage

Possible Solution

i. Fix wiring and source if bad. Change fuse if bad

ii. Change alarm battery if bad
iii. Clean filters if logged
iv. Ensure tubing and connectors are tightly
Preventive Maintenance

 Clean humidifier bottle thoroughly and dry off

 Wash filter in warm water and dry. Replace if damaged
 Replace humidifier bottle if covered with limescale
 Check that flow rate varies with flow control
 If mains plug, cable or sockets are damaged, replace
 Run the machine for some minutes and check if any alarm

Sterilizer: The sterilizer is a medical device used to disinfect medical tools

before and after use. It is used to sterilize instruments used in dressing using
water at 1000c.

21
Types of Sterilizer

i. Table top sterilizer

ii. Bowl sterilizer
iii. Standing sterilizer

Components

a. Power source
b. Fuse
c. Timer
d. Heating chamber
e. Heating element
f. Controls

Principle of Operation

The sterilizer operates using the principle of heat transfer: conduction

Mode of Operation

The heating chamber which contains the heating element is filled with water.
Input instrument to be sterilized into the water. Turn on the device setting the
timer (water heats up to 1000c at rate depending on the power of the heating
element). Timer turns off the device when the specific sterilization imputed time
is attained.

22
Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Device not coming on

ii. Temperature problems
iii. Steam escape

Troubleshooting

i. Check the power source and cable for life, check input voltage, check
fuse for continuity, check timer for continuity, also check switch for
continuity.
ii. If temperature does not rise, or rise and drop in temperature is
encountered, check heating element.
iii. Check for worn gaskets

Possible Solution

i. Fix wiring if bad, Change fuse, switch if bad

ii. Change heating element if bad
iii. Replace gaskets if bad
Maintenance

 Unplug, clean inside and outside with damp cloth and dry off
 Check internal heating element connections are tight
 Replace heating element if covered with limescale
 If plug, cable or socket are damaged, replace
 When next used, check temperature/pressure gauges rises
 When next used, check there are no leaks.

Pulse Oximeter: The pulse oximeter is a non invasive device used in taking
measurement of the pulse rate and arterial blood oxygen saturation (SPO2). The
pulse oximeter measures the amount of oxygenated haemoglobin present in the
peripheral arterial circulation; presenting this as a percentage of the total
haemoglobin present.

23
Components

a. LED (infrared and red light)

b. Photo diode
c. Display unit
d. Control panel (signal converter)

Principle of Operation

The pulse oximeter works on Lambert-Beer’s law according to spectrum

absorption characteristics of Reductive haemoglobin (R Hb) and
oxyhaemoglobin (O2 Hb) in glow and near infrared zones. Lamberts-Beer law:
states that the absorbance of a material is proportional to both the concentration
of the attenuating specie as well as the thickness of the material sample.

Mode of Operation

The pulse oximeter utilizes an electronic processor and a pair of LEDs facing a
photodiode through a translucent part of the patient’s body. One LED is red
(660nm), the other infrared (940nm). Absorption of light at these wave lengths
differs significantly between R Hb and 02 Hb. O2 Hb absorbs more infrared
light and allow more red light to pass through; R Hb allow more infrared light
to pass through and absorb more red light. The LED sequence through their
cycle of one on, then the other, then both off bout thirty times per second which
allow the photodiode to respond to the red and infrared separately and also
adjust for the ambient light baseline. The amount of light transmitted is
measured. The ratio of red light measurement to the infrared light measurement
is then calculated by the processor and converted to SPO2

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Device not running

24
 ii. SPO2 or pulse rate not displayed or unstable
iii. Display light not coming on

Troubleshooting

i. Check battery
ii. Check if probe is correctly mounted
iii. Check IC in charge of display

Possible Solution

i. Replace battery if bad

ii. Connect probe and cable correctly
iii. Change IC if bad

Maintenance

 Clean probe with alcohol wipe after each use

 Tighten any loose screws and check parts are fitted tightly
 Remove any tape, paper, or foreign body from equipment.

Tissue Processor: The tissue processor is a device used to prepare tissue

samples for sectioning and microscopic examination in the clinic laboratory.
Suspends tissue in solutions which gives it sufficient rigidity to enable thin
sections to be cut and yet soft enough to enable the knife cut the section.

Components

a. Micro processor control

b. Control panels and LED screen
c. Temperature control
25
 d. Basket holder
e. Jars (solutions) 8 jars
f. Motor (rotatory movement)
g. Gear system (jack).

Chemicals Used

 10% formalene (1 jar)

 Ethanol (4 jars)
 Paraffin wax (3 jars)
These chemicals fix, stain, dehydrate and decollificate the tissue.

Principle of Operation

Tissue processing is concerned with the diffusion of various substances into and
out of stabilized tissues. It works with the principle of Ficks law of diffusion.

J = (-Ddc/dx)

i.e. Rate of diffusion = (Area of diffusion surface x conc. diff.)/ Thickness of

surface over which diffusion takes place.

Mode of Operation

The device when turned on, command is imputed using the command buttons.
Through micro processor controls, the motor which causes the rotation of the lid
and the jack system (hydraulic jack or gear jack) operates with respect to
imputed time command to carry out the 3 major functions of the tissue
processor

 Dehydration: this is done to remove water using alcohol eg. Ethanol

 Cleaning
 Infiltration and embedding

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Top not lifting

ii. Top not rotating

Troubleshooting

i. Check jack system/ error display

26
 ii. Check motor/ error display

Possible Solution

i. Fix gear system

ii. Fix motor/ components

Ward Screen: The ward screen is a medical device used in securing patients
privacy during administration of care by the medical personnel. It is used to
obstruct public view to a patient in cases of illness that could command public
attention.

Components

a. Metallic fittings with hinges

b. Rollers
c. Cloth

Mode of Operation

The metallic constructs are fitted with the clotting which provides the shade.
Hinges are fitted to join each to the other which enhances easy motion between
them during opening and closing. Rollers are fitted to enable movement from
one part of the ward to the other. Some rollers are fitted with stoppers to enable
immobilization.

27
Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Creaking of device when opening/ closing

Troubleshooting

i. Check hinges for sign of rust

Possible Solution

ii. Oil as observed

Anaesthetic Machine: The Anaesthetic machine is used by Anaesthologists

and nurse Anaesthetics to support the administration of anaesthesia. This
machine is designed to continuously supply medical gases such as O2 and NO2;
mixed with accurate concentration of anaesthetic vapour such as Halothane or
Isofurane and deliver this to the patient at a safe pressure and flow.

N.B: Anaesthesia is a drug used to induce loss in body sensation wholely or

partly with or without loss of concentration.

28
Components

a. Vaporizers
b. Oxygen hangers
c. Oxygen flush valve
d. Flow meter
e. Scavenging system
f. Breathing circuit circle
g. Monitor
h. Bellow

Principle of Operation

The Anaesthesia machine works on the pneumatic principle

Mode of Operation

Oxygen, Nitrous oxide and sometimes air are connected to the machine.
Through gas flow meters a controlled mixture of these gases along with
anaesthetic vapour passes through a vaporizer and is delivered to the patient.
Sometimes a ventilator is kept in place for rebreathing, thus exhaled carbon
dioxide and fresh gases are added for reuse. A device is kept in place to ensure
minimum oxygen is a HYPOXIC GUARD

Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Leak sound in anaesthesia machine showing pressure peak low or other

warnings.

Troubleshooting

i. Check the relevant parts of the tubing or filling

Possible Solution

i. Replace faulty part

Maintenance

 Remove dust or dirt with damp cloth

 Check all fittings for proper assembly
 Replace soda lime if it has changed colour

29
Operating Table: The operating tables are medical devices required to hold the
patient position comfortable both for themselves and for medical staff during
procedures. They can include dedicated supports for head, arms and legs and
often have movable sections to position the patient appropriately.

Components

a. Worm gears
b. Locking lever
c. Pump pedal
d. Wheel/castor
e. Brake lever
f. Release pedal
Principle of Operation

The operating table works with the principle of hydraulic pressure

Mode of Operation

Where the table has movement, this will be enabled by unlocking a catch or
brake to allow positioning. Wheels have brakes on the rim or axle of the wheel,
while locks for moving sections will normally be levers on the main table
frame. Care should be taken that the user knows which lever applies to the
movement required, as injury to the patient or user may otherwise result. The
table will be set to the correct height for patient transfer from a trolley then
adjusted for best for the procedure.
30
Basic Faults and Troubleshooting

Basic Faults

i. Difficulty in mobility
ii. Table section or body cannot be moved
iii. Oil leakage from hydraulic table

Troubleshooting

i. Check wheels for obstruction. Check power to table.

ii. Check jammed part for rust and dirt. Check correct switch is used. Check
power and fuses.
iii. Locate leak.

Possible Solution

i. Oil wheels if necessary, eliminate clogs from wheels

ii. Oil if necessary
iii. Close up source

Maintenance

 Clean, dry and disinfect all parts

 Wipe off any escaped oil or grease from joints
 Fully inspect mattress and table for signs of wear
 Replace any worn items and send for repair
 Check wheel brake function and wheel rotate

Defibrillator: The defibrillator is a medical device used in the treatment of life

threatening cardiac dysrhythmias, especially ventricular fibrillation or non-
perfusing ventricular tachycardia. The defibrillator is used to restore the normal
cardiac rhythm as it delivers a large dose of electric voltage to the heart which
depolarizes a large amount of the heart muscles influencing the body’s natural
pacemaker in the Sino-arterial node of the heart to re-establish normal sinus-
rhythm.

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Components
a. Rectifier
b. Capacitor
c. Switches
d. Paddles(external and internal)
e. Variable transformer
f. Power cable
Principle of Operation
It works on the principle of electrical activities of the human muscles
Mode of Operation:
When powered, a rectifier in the capacitor changing circuit, converts AC
voltage into DC voltage. DC voltage is used rather than AC because it is more
effective, causes less myocardial damage and is less arrhythmogenic. A
capacitor is the most important part of a defibrillator. A capacitor is formed by a
pair of conductors separated by an insulator. In the capacitor, the quantity of
electrical charge stored for a given charge potential is determined by the surface
area of the plates, thickness of the insulating layer and the ability of capacitor to
store charge. During the discharge of a capacitor, delivered energy falls
exponentially and some of the energy is lost in circuit resistance, inductor and
paddles. The energy lost to the paddles is delivered to the patient to re-establish
normal heart sinus-rhythm. The defibrillator has an inductor in its output circuit.
The inductor gives optimum shape and duration to the delivered current.
Maintenance
 Check all fittings and cables are tightly fitted
 Check proper operations of all controls, indicators and visual displays on
unit
 Inspect all filters, clean or replace if needed
 Check there are no signs of spilled liquids or cable damage

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 CHAPTER THREE

Prospects
My SIWES was a delightful experience. I was exposed to the practical and
technical aspects of biomedical engineering. This has increased my clarity and
zeal for this wonderful profession. I also saw and understood the vital role
biomedical engineers play in the delivery of quality healthcare. I saw and learnt
the use and working mechanism of various medical equipments as well as how
to troubleshoot and fix them when damaged or faulty. The skills and exposure
gained during this program will assist me all through my career.

Challenges
One of my greatest challenges during this period of SIWES training was
shuttling from my place of residence to UNTH with its accompanying danger
and risks. I also faced the phobia of attending to some very sick patients during
ward rounds especially with the recent reported case of lassa fever at the
hospital. I also faced the problem of finding my way in and around the massive
edifice of the hospital. However, by effectively utilizing my limited resources,
with the kind support of our instructors and by God’s grace, I overcame these
challenges.

Recommendations
It will be of immense assistance if SIWES students are given accommodation at
the hospital quarters during their period of training. Also, giving the students
some stipends to cover their miscellaneous expenditure will be appreciated. In
addition, it will help if the students are shown the various departments and the
organigram of the hospital during their first week of resumption for the SIWES
training to enable them get acquainted with the hospital’s layout.

Conclusion
Conclusively, biomedical engineering is an exciting and interesting field of
scientific endeavour which has been saddled with the vital role of designing,
inventing and maintaining medical and dental machines and equipment in order
to enhance the quality of healthcare products.

33
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