i

Type I (flow-rate problem): diameter (D) and head loss (ft7) known; find the discharge (B).

Example. A pipeline 10 km long, 300 mm diameter and with rorgYn"g 0.03 mm, conveys
water from a reservoir (top water level 850. m above datum) to a water treatment plant (iniet
water level 700 m above datum). Assuming that the reservoir remains full, estimate the
discharge. Take v : i . lx 10-6 m' s-'. F*_}-+
6;, -1ao) ,nz

Solution: Since D (:0.3 m)^and h.1 ( 150m) are known, the Darcy-Weisbach head-loss
equation enables us to find /V':

n, =qrcL)! :+ " =9!t- 9'Blx0 3xl50

D 2s ./v, 2L 2xt0000
=0.0220J m2s-2

Hence, rewriting the Colebrook formula,

+I . 1.26 )
=9Y
t_

= -4.0,o*,nl
".r +_
-l--l frc,
"l \
3.71D p."^l
I
f)
k.
" .+- 1.26v I
= -+.0 tog,oI
t
3.7 tD
' r--
D^l-/v'
|

)
TFU b .b+
-5
3xl0-5 \/ln rr\-oo )
= -4.0log,of *l.26xl.lxlo-
' 1J o t,

= 16.94
t 0.3
3.71 x 0.3 osJo.oz2ol f" c4"f .

Hencc.

/=-)- . =0.003485
| =0.rto
16.94'
Knowledge of both /f and/gives t)
v=w_ = = 2.517 m s-l
Xr
Fihally. the discharge may be computed as velocity x area:

o=v(+) =2.5,r,.oaf =o.l77emr s'r

Answer: discharge : 0.18 m' s-'.

\-p = So - tgo),* b, r e, I

I ovP V'P e, t^
@ Hovr.tv
.r*'0.^^Y
AserLoffO X_m-sl16ra. .', #-*/ _*nL}:.r,r^L 'f or-<'t- "rhJ
lR^-t \u e. ey*.L b ^L
E ft\^/ r l-.r-ro*-L
U f,or-q '

Hydraulics 2 T2-12
 r*yps 2 (hcad-loss probrc,r) - diameter (D) and discharge (B) known; find
the head ross (&).
Exttmple. The known outflow from a br@ r.
is 30 4 s The pipe
diameter is 150 mm, rength 500 m and roughness
estimated at 0.06 rnm. Find the head loss in
thepipe. "
l. s

'solutior: To fir-rd the head ross (r4) we require the fl.iction factor. This is found
iterative solution of the by an
Colebrook equation.

The average velocity is given by

v= Q =;*0.--13'/4
' - TD14 -_0.03 = 1'698 rn s-r

The Reynolds number is then

n- VD 1.698x0.t5
v =231500
l.lxlO*r,
Substituting values for /r,-(:6x10-5m), D (:0.15
m) and Re (:231-500) in the colebrook
formuia (15), one obtains the iterative relation

# =-+'oros''[r'07Bxl'' .ffi:;
or. rearranging forl
t \'Wa
16. ollog,o1t.o78xlo-'*sil1llO.)l L*
Fru-61
"bv lytrY
L .tt ) U f-
Staning from an initral guess, successive values
of .f are substituted ir-rto the RHS and nelr
values offeva luated.
Initial guess: f:0.01 -f . o oa'!'t1 l-t ("'
First iteration
f :0.0043s1 -
Second iteration
/= -
0.004s ts
Third iteration f = 0.004s07
Fourth iteration
f :0.a04s07
value ofl can then be subst ituted in the Darcy-Weisbach equarion (14) to derive the head

r rr)
5oo
h, =4ft!l!-
D'2s = 4xo.oo45o7* ,
*
l'6982
= 8.831 m
o.ts z*q.81
Answer: head loss : 8.8 rn.

": (:i t .,., {:- Y'- r

I- : 15 Q, E5

rt 5*j .5 I
L. l.i

Hydraulics 2 T2-13
Type 3 (sizing problcrn) - discharge (p) and available (ft) known; find the necessary
diameter (D).

An appropriate procedure is to write D in terms of/and iterate for f. Note that expressions
involving Z must be replaced by Ql@dl+), and at intermediate stages is convenient to have
an expression for Re ready in terms of D.

Example. A discharge of 400 0 s-r is to be conveyed from a headworks at 1050 m above

daturr to a treatment plant at 1000 m above datum. The length of the pipeline is 5 km.
Estimate the required diameter, assuming that k,: 0.03 mm.

Solution'. Before iterating, try to write D in terms of f and Re in terms of D.

By Darcy-Weisbach:

hr =4lt^,L.v2
2lL( O \'_tZQ',lt
r) rr= =;GD'
sDl;frt4)
Rearranging for D:

-(nQ'L\'''
' l"'rh )
Substituting values of 8 e 0.4 m3 s't), h.r(:50' m), I (: s000 m), t, 3xl0-5 m), together
with g: 9.8'1 m s-2 gives a working expression (with D in metres):
D =1.395f,ts (*)

The Colebrook formula for /is:

+=-+oro,"'o[:'zto
^[-&-.-Eq- ]
^lt R"J7
The Reynolds number can be written in terms of the diameter D:
J

R =vp =(_g_)p _r40'l

I _ 4.630x10s
v \no't+ )v l.* /o D
Substituting this expression for Re we obtain an iterative formula for.f
(* *)

r o.o[roe,.,q!q?
o-o
+2
7:/'Hq)]'

We then proceed to iterate (*)

(**) in tum, until convergence.
and
Guess: /:0.01 = D:0.5554 m
Iteration 1: /: 0.003049 =+ D:0.4319 m
Iteration 2: f :0.003232 * D:0.4431 m
Iteration 3: f :0.003223 = D:0.4428 m
Iteration 4: f :0.003223 + D:0.4428 m

Answer: the reouired diameter is 0.44 m

In practrce (as anyone who does DIY knows) commercial pipes are only made with certain
standard diameters and the next available larger diameter should be chosen.

Hydraulics 2 T2-14
1.8 Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines

Ener-gy gr4d_e*lines -a-nd hydraul_i.c gra_de Jines -are graphical means of portraying the energy
changes in, for example, reservoir/pipeline systems.

In r.vhat follows, p is the gauge pressure (i.e. pressure relative to atmospheric) and, unless
otherwise specified, z is the pipe elevation.

Ior pipelines three elevations may be drawn:

pipe centreline: Z

p
hydratrlic grodc line (HGL):
pg

energy grade line (F.GL):

p v2
io
-TZa-
16 )o
-6

Illustrations

*'rq*r,,"*ift
Pipe lriction only

entry loss ExpYn^* wh..t l-i tll \4<rrrror4

E (4-L
l

Pipe friction with minor

vn\aJ*t J-+rre^o.r, .

lossv 6 L irr.re^re.
losses (exaggerated),
including change tn pipe
lexit I l+ I

diameter. ?',lu F*-a',.*i

r)'LcJ-Pqzz c, ,

,n*"*r a.").^J*,
c.l4<rf,qne_a \.

Wy.,#rffii
\-*'t-.,
Purnpcd system
-':ry c*f-a< e, i
h"ar* lI t: f i

tr'r gdrtaew
, i

pump

Hydraulics 2 T2-t',|
('1 , o., ,' ,,
Erciey-Grcds-Lus

o the changc in totol head along the pipelinc.

Shor,i.,s
starts at level olwater in supply rescrvoir',
- small discontinuities correspond to entry loss, exit loss or another minor loss;
- steady downward slope reflects pipe liiction (slope change if pipe radius changes);
- large discontinuities correspond to turbines (loss of head) or pumps (gain of head).
Non-frictior-ial losses can often be ignored.

r The EGL always lies a distance f l2g above the HGL. For uniform pipes, the two are
llarallel.

. The EGL represents, at any station, the maximum height to which water may be
delivered.

Hizdraulic Grade Line

,{l r :'

. Shows the change in piezometric head along the pipeline.

r For pipe flow the HGL lies a distance plpg above the pipe centreline. Thus, the
difference between pipe elevation and hydraulic grade line gives the static pressure. If
the HGL drops below pipe elevation this means negative gauge pressures (i.e. less
than atmospheric). This is generally undesirable since:
- extraneous r.natter rnay be sucked into the pipe through any leaks;
- fbr large negative gauge pressures, dissolved gases may come out of solution and
cause water hamrner.
A hydraulic grade line more than px^lp7 (about l0m of water) below the pipeline is
impossible.

. The HGL is the height to which the liquid would rise in a piezometer tube.

o Foropen-channel flows,pressureisatmospheric(i.e. p:0) atthesurface; theHGLis

then the height ofthe free surface.

t{ydraulics 2 T2-18
 Exarr'ple. fr.,n,o reservoirs, the
water levels in which are at elevations 180 m and 150 m
'respc'ctively ar!- corlnected by a pipe 3000 m long, 600
mm diameter and friction factor
rt!{_:jJlE:Lqvation of the ground along the lirne re oI
of trhe
the p lellne ls ven in the table below
oioeli
Distancc (m) 0 ts0 300 r 800 3000
Elevation (rn) t7s 165 190 t40 147
lA.,ssirnlinga roLttrrieci inlet and an abrupt outlet calcutrt. itr. a,rc1,u.g". fi|,a tG ,ru*i*
I epth
der of the pipe.line below ground if the absolute pressure thereinjs not to fall below
3 m of
l*;,atdr. { \h I
fl o e,r- b,ol*,*; &l-ir' +l^.; ;",_tL ;;-" ;:;,;i:
t)rraw to scale on graph paper, the ground level, pipeline level and energy and
hydraulic grade
lirnes for a r;uitable pipeline. Take atinospheric pressure to
be l0 m of water.

Sol
'fhr
he losses are as follows (average velocity Zin m s-r):

Friction: n, =qtrll!
'D' 2s = 4xo.oo62s*3?09,
- 0.6 " [" =6.311v2
2x9.81
Entry loss: h,.(entry) = g
V2
[:rit Ioss rr,. (exit) = 0.5(r) = 0.025 V2

= Total head loss = (6.371+ 0.025)V2 = 6.396V?

Total head loss : difference in water levels of reservoirs. Hence

6.396 V2 = 30

= v=^'l3o =2.166ms-r
V o.:so
The discharge is therefore

Q= r.. nDz =2.166vnv 0.6r

-*-
= 0.6124 m3 s-l ) -i.t
4
a
It is usetirl at this stage to calculate also the dynamic head
: Ull2g:0.23g1 m) and the exit
loss (l,ix Z2l2.q 0. I I 96 rn).
:.
The energy grade line can now be drawn (see below) it starts
- at the water level in the first
resen'oir and descends with unifonn slope to a height 150.1196 m (i.e.
allowing for the exit
loss) at thc second reser.voir.
* {\ i" i' ' ''":r
The hydraulic grade linc can then be drawn a distance tltZg:0.2391m
below the energy
grade line. The start and end coordinates give it an equation (r.vith
lengths in metres):
Z HcL = 179.1609 - 0.009960x

The ground elevation is now marked on the graph from the data given
in the equation.

We are now asked to ensure that the absolute pressure does not fall below
3 m of water: in
other words (since atmospheric pressure is equivalent to l0 m of water)
that the pipeline is
not more than 7 m above the hydraulic grade line. The most significant problem
occurs at

Hydraulics 2 T2-19
 .r: 300 nt, where the maximum pipeline height can be
= znor*7 =179.7609 -0.009960x300+ J =183.8 m
zpi*:tint:
Since the ground level here is 190 m, the pipeline depth below ground must
be
190 - 183.8 = 6.2 m
Since unnecessary excavation is undesirable, the pipeline is laid at ground level,
except
wirere it mlrst be lowered to satisfy pressure constraints. A suitable pipeline
is marked on the
dragram.

excavation necessarv

\
cl t-rfl efD\^t) )wF- L" cq^r
/<' N e\
lcr velocity head : 0.239 m
exit loss : 0.12 m

150

0 150300

W N.* pr'eto vve ; A p,p a\art a

l'..re,"t
rf-ne vttt-, ,*t.rre, ,*J),
? \ o b, &\ *., J b.)L lo', -r,t--[
Co
"wt, rrv/ Et vu r ler . d*-r r, brri t, fn- ,.,: e/.-rJ
P wnp.r ^r ".l,rn ypJ) "1o,
p t 1z €8 .vv l.rrsv +ha
L
" v\n,Le-,

Hydraulics 2 T2-20
 :oiiititn procedure:
(1) Guess Hy
(2) calculate flow rates in a[ pipes (frorn head clifferences)
13) Calculate flow into and flow out of J
(4) If necessary, adjust ffy to reduce any flow imbalance and repeat from (2)

If the direction of flow'in pipe BJ is not obvious then a good initial guess is to setl{:11s so
ffi'
'i]q: that there is rnitialll', no flow in this pipe. The first flow-rate calculation will then
establish
rvhether H: should be lor,vered or raised.

'tExample.
-Reservoirs
-r\vJlr
fr, B
vuilJ A, and c
_D alu L have
Ilave constant levels or
conslant water level. of iso,
150, tzo g0 ,m
and qo
120 ura
Itespectively A 300 tnm pipe, 1600 rn long, leaves A and runs to J at elevation 137 m. Here it
into,a.l00mm pipe,
l9ltl1., C'..A,ssurning/- 1600m long, teading to B and a 150mm pipe,2400m long,
0.005 in all pipes, calculate the flow in each pipe. Calculate also
il:uo,ne,]o
readins of'a Bo,rdon pressure ga.ge attachecl to thejunction J.
ithe
I

150 rn

120 nr

i Solution.
First relate head loss LI-l trs discharge p for each pipe:

nu =+11L1 !|- where V = Q

nD2l4
6g = )3-1L- g' = 1.653 xrc
, ]-o2
n'gD' D5'
Substituting length I and diameter D for each pipe we obtain the head-loss relationships:

Pipe AJ: h, =fi88Q), or Qr.,

Pipe jB: F; ', -na

*,1'
h t = 8265Q',, () ,,, =
v 826s
'

Pipe jC: h, -52243Q2c ^ m-90

U,..=-l'
1J\
\ szz+l
I

l(l) Guess HL . 140 m (say)

lT'his si.,'es
t-
I Q.o, - 95.87x10-i mr s-r
I, err: .+9. I
9x to-r mr s-r
I r''t 30.94x10-3 m33 s-r-l
t__ -Qlf -rnnr.,rn-3

Hydraulics 2 T2-22
 l'otal llow into junction:
Q,,tr: 95.87x10'3 ml s-r
lTorai flow orrr o[juncriorr:
Qta + QLc: B0.l3xl0-r ,r.rr s-'.
Thcre is l5.14xl 0-t rn' s'l more flow into the jur-rction
than or"rt of so H7 needs to be
inu eus11!.

(2) Guess Ht: 145 m.

Thrs gtves
Qlt : 67.'79x1 0-r ml s-r
vLa : 55.00x10-3 m
Qya - JJ.r./\.rxlu m3 ss-r
)',
Q.,c - -12.-l jx I 0-r rn-, s'l
flow into jurrcrion : enL: 67 .79x10-3 m3 s-r.
l1'otai
flow out ofjunction: eLs +
lTotal err: 87.45x10., m, s.,.
lrhere
is 19.66xr0-r m3s-r more flgy--orzr of thejunction_than
into it, so Hlneeds to be
l&creascd.

(3) with two benchmarks straddling the solution we can interpolate between them and get
better guess. This cor-rrci be do,c uy irgrrt,
but rnorc accurately by interporation:
H'' =140. =t42'2m
T'his gives u##'*x(145-140)
t'" I'": '
Q,t.t:84.67x10-rm3s-r Lr-
J

QLs:51.83x103m3s-l -:i:, .6*

QLc : Jr.\tl^lu
3l .6 lx l0-r m3 a
I YLt III ss-r
lTotal floiv irrlo jurrcrion: ea.t: B4.6:xl0-r nrr s-r.
- r * t1.6 6)
l' {.: 1'
a)
flow. out ofjunction:
)-l .- ,L,L
lT<rtal 0.,a + etc: g3.44x10-r m3 s-r. * J+ S
,J t.
l-l
rThere is l'23xr0-r rnr s-' more flow into the junction than out of It, -l
,o .Ff needs to be l!
iincreased slightly. !!
! '. *
I *'J.
i
;
1t+)
rlis is probably close enough, but a further interpolation
gives: 1t,-
14,1 - l.
H.,' =142.2+ ''', ,.x(145- t42.2) =142.4n
I.23+l9.oo
This gives
Q,rL:83.58x10-3 m3 s-r
Qts: 52.06x10-3 m3 s-r
Qtc:31.67x10-3 m3 s-1
Total flow intc junction,
eo.t: g3.5gxl0-3 m].s-r.
Total tlor.r.,orrt ofjunction:
eLr+ e..:83.73x10-r nt., s-i.
l-he total nrass florv crror at the junction is
now 0. l 5x r0-j m3 s-l or about
*9*to0=o.lB%
83.58
cf the total flow.

,t\ Bourdon gauge measures absolute pressure

(at rest). From the heacl at
t-I - l' ,-
".t-t:
ps
ly_lte'":,_fsJt ressure.
"

trlyclraulics 2
1'2-23
 eits=al:]]-!=-ia.lii. -

The absolute pressure is then

1t - prt([l

= 529'14Pa
,,,
* z)
= i 000 x 9.8 I x (t42.4 * 137 ) I
10132s + s2974: 154299 Pa

Answer: I .54 bar.

ln the above example, the flow-rate calculation is most

neatly set out in ihe form of a table.

fr.1 QoL Q''u Q.tc flow out * flow in

liso-H, IH
-txilt'1 (*./trs2243
' G QLa+ QLc- Qu)
\ -go )
( = 1/--------l- (=*.i!
tTl
V IOBS
)
' V B26s
xl0"j ml s-l xl0-3 m3 s-l
140 -lss7 xl0-3 m3
49.19
s-1 x10-3 m3 s-i
30.94 *15.7 4
i45 67.79 55.00 32.45 19.66
142^2 84.67
t42.4 83.s8
5 r.83 3t.61 , .-1.23
52.06 3t.61 015-=-

This'is considerably more complex as more than one unknown

head must be adjustod. These
sort of problems will not be covered in this course (although
there is one such problem on the
example sheet)' General algorithms the loop method
in Chadwick and Morfett (1998).- They are based on uruting-'".i;;u|.]'
anJ the nodal method - are discussed

increments 6Q or 511.resp-ectively in pipes or junctions

rJr"ti.' ,*u,
ana these increments by a
requirement to satisfy head-loss equations in each pipeline "orpting
and continuity at each junction.

, ..^ |-- ..

(-.
l
,Y
g"

,\1
,.'. t _-l^
{
{- L.,'i

r{'
*)
I
{1 i.t i^

Hydraulics 2 T2-24