Traffic Engineering Chapter 4-A

BFC32302 Traffic Engineering & Safety Lecturer: Dr.
Basil David Daniel
Chapter 4
Intersection Design Principles & Control
INTERSECTIONS What you will be
learning from this
• Intersection Maneuvers and Conflicts chapter …
• Priority Intersections
• At-grade Intersections
INTERSECTION CONTROL
• Traffic Signal Installation Criteria
• Design of Traffic Control Signal for Intersections
BFC32302 Traffic Engineering & Safety Lecturer: Dr. Basil David Daniel
INTERSECTIONS
An INTERSECTION is the location where two or more roads meet or

cross each other.
Functions of intersections:
Disperse traffic Vehicle maneuvers at intersections:
Reduce accidents Diverging
Change direction of traffic Merging
Give right of ways Crossing
Control speeds
BDD/BFC32302/4A 1
DIVERGING
Turning to the right or left at an intersection.

Also includes mutual divergence from earlier direction, and multiple
diverging paths.
Right Diverging Left Diverging
Mutual Diverging Multiple Diverging
MERGING
This is done after the road user leaves or diverges from a traffic
stream.
The driver may merge with another traffic stream either from the
right, left, mutually or in multiple.
Right Merging Left Merging
Mutual Merging Multiple Merging
BDD/BFC32302/4A 2
CROSSING
The road user may have to cross the paths of vehicles in all the
intervening flows that come in between his points of entry and exit from
the intersection.
If the angle between the road user and the flow across is considerably
lower than 90, it is an opposed crossing.
If the directions of both flows are apparently in the same direction
with an included angle much smaller than 90, it is an oblique crossing
Right Crossing Left Crossing Oblique Crossing Opposed Crossing
CONFLICTS
When merging, diverging and crossing maneuvers occur, there is

potential conflict between two or more road users.
There are 3 types of conflicts:
Diverging Conflict Merging Conflict Crossing Conflict
Factors which influence conflicts at an intersection:

Number of approaches at the intersection
Number of lanes on each approach
Type of signal control
The extent of channelization
The movements permitted
6
BDD/BFC32302/4A 3
Types of conflicts at a T-junction
Diverging conflicts - 3
Merging conflicts - 3 Total conflicts – 9
Crossing conflicts - 3
7
Types of conflicts at a Crossroads and Roundabout
BDD/BFC32302/4A 4
SELECTING AN INTERSECTION TYPE
General scheme to select the intersection type according to the traffic

volume:
SELECTING AN INTERSECTION TYPE
General scheme to select the intersection type according to the

category of roads crossing.
10
BDD/BFC32302/4A 5
PRIORITY INTERSECTION
Most widely used way of resolving merging and crossing conflicts

Utilizes the STOP and GIVE WAY signs
Used at unsignalized at-grade intersections
Involves a Major road and a Minor road
Sometimes called Major-Minor Junction
Major road is given priority over Minor road
Traffic on Minor road must give way to traffic on Major road
STOP and GIVE WAY signs are positioned on the Minor road
MAJOR
STOP Line
STOP Sign
STOP GIVE WAY

GIVE WAY marking
Sign
MINOR
11
QUESTION
Two roads, Jalan Hussein and Jalan Onn cross each other at
grade. Jalan Hussein has road standard U3 while Jalan Onn has
road standard U4. The traffic volume of Jalan Hussein is 400
vehicles per hour, while the traffic volume of Jalan Onn is 300
vehicles per hour.
Jalan Onn (U4) If priority control is to

be employed at this
V = 300 veh/hr junction, which road
should be the major and
which should be the
minor?
Jalan Hussein (U3)
V = 400 veh/hr
12
BDD/BFC32302/4A 6
TYPES OF PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS:

Simple Junctions
Ghost Island Junctions
Junctions with Single Lane Dualling
SIMPLE JUNCTIONS
Used for T-junctions and staggered junctions

Without physical or painted islands
Without channelising islands
Appropriate for most accesses and minor junctions on single carriageway
roads
For new construction, they are recommended when design flow on the
minor road is not expected to have a two-way AADT exceeding
approximately 300 veh/hr
13
GHOST ISLAND JUNCTIONS
Have a painted hatched island in the middle of single carriageway roads

which provide a diverging lane and a waiting space for right-turning
vehicles from the major road into the minor road
Right-turners from the minor road to the major road are also assisted
Very effective in improving safety
Additional construction cost is small
14
BDD/BFC32302/4A 7
JUNCTIONS WITH SINGLE LANE DUALLING
Achieved by the use of a physical island in the middle of the major

single carriageway road
This provides an offside diverging lane for right-turn major road vehicles
Also provides a safe waiting area for right-turners on both the major
and minor roads
An important safety aspect is the provision of only one through lane in

each direction to prevent overtaking and reduce speed in the vicinity of
the junction
This layout is not appropriate for crossroads

15
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS
An AT-GRADE INTERSECTION is the location where two or more

roads meet or cross each other at the same level.
Types of at-grade intersections:
Crossroads Y-junction
T-junction Roundabout
Staggered junction
Skewed junction
16
BDD/BFC32302/4A 8
At-grade intersection layouts:

Unchannelised and Unflared
Flared
Channelised
UNCHANNELISED AND UNFLARED INTERSECTIONS
Normally adequate where minor roads meet
In urban areas, many local streets intersections remain

unchannelised for economic reasons
In such cases, traffic is controlled by signals or regulatory

signs such as ‘Stop’ and ‘Give Way’ signs, on the minor roads
17
FLARED INTERSECTIONS
FLARE
A flared intersection is a simple unchannelised intersection with

additional through lanes or auxiliary lanes such as speed-change or
right turn lanes
Speed-change lanes allow left or right-turning vehicles to reduce or

increase speed when leaving or entering the through road without
adversely affecting the speed of the through traffic
Right-turn lanes permit through vehicles to pass on the left side of

another vehicle waiting to complete a right turn at an intersection
18
BDD/BFC32302/4A 9
FLARED INTERSECTIONS
Auxiliary Lanes : Speed-change lanes
Acceleration Lane Deceleration Lane
Auxiliary Lanes : Through lanes and Right-turn lanes
Right-turn Lane Through Lane
19
CHANNELISED INTERSECTIONS
Raised traffic islands
A channelised intersection is one where paths of travel for various

movements are separated and delineated
Raised traffic islands, raised markers and painted markings can be

used for channelisation
A roundabout is a channelised intersection where traffic moves

clockwise around a central island
The layout of the intersection should be adequately illuminated by

street lighting or defined by pavement reflectors, signing, etc. 20
BDD/BFC32302/4A 10
TRAFFIC ISLANDS
Functions of Traffic Islands
to separate conflicts
to control the angle of conflicts
to reduce excessive pavement areas
to regulate traffic flow in the intersection
area
to make arrangements to favour a
predominant turning movement
to protect pedestrians
to protect and store turning and crossing
vehicles
to provide space for installation of traffic
control devices
21
FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERSECTION DESIGN
(1) TRAFFIC
Intersection design should consider the following:
Peak volume
Commercial vehicles
Operating speeds
Turning path requirements
Type of traffic control
Needs of pedestrians and buses
Safety aspects
22
BDD/BFC32302/4A 11
(2) TOPOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT
The location and design of an intersection will be affected by:
The alignment and grade of the approach roads
The need to provide for drainage
The extent of interference with public utilitiesproper access
The presence of local features, both man-made and natural
23
(3) HUMAN FACTORS
Driver characteristics should be considered, i.e.
Drivers tend to act according to habit
Drivers tend to follow ‘natural’ paths of movement
Drivers may become confused when surprised
These factors make it essential that a driver:
is made aware of the presence of an intersection
is aware of the vehicles within and approaching the intersection
has confidence in the course required to negotiate the intersection

correctly and safely
24
BDD/BFC32302/4A 12
PRINCIPLES OF INTERSECTION DESIGN
While it is important that operational characteristics of capacity

and delay are satisfied, safety is also of prime importance.
Safe intersection design is based on the following principles:
Reduce number of conflicts

Minimise area of conflict
Give preference to major movements
Control speed
Define paths to be followed
25
1) CONFLICTS
The number of conflict points can be reduced by prohibiting
certain traffic movements (eg. No Right-Turns, No U-turns)
Conflict points can be separated by channelisation or by staggering

four-way intersections
Intersections should be separated by at least three seconds of

travel time so that drivers are faced with only one decision at a
time (this is approximately equivalent to V meters where V is
speed in kph)
Separating conflicts
through
channelisation
26
BDD/BFC32302/4A 13
Separating and reducing conflicts through converting a

crossroads into a staggered junction
27
2) AREA OF CONFLICT
Where roads cross at an acute or the opposing legs of an
intersection are offset, excessive conflict area may result
In general, large areas of pavement within intersection permit

dangerous vehicle maneuvres and should be eliminated
Channelisation and realignment can reduce conflict area
Reducing conflict
area through
realignment
28
BDD/BFC32302/4A 14
3) MAJOR MOVEMENTS
Preference should be given to the major traffic movements to

allow them a direct free flowing alignment
Drivers who have traveled for long, uninterrupted distances at high

speed will be slow to react to a sudden change in alignment or to
the entry of a high speed vehicle in a minor road
Minor movements should be clearly subordinated to major or high

speed movements by design, signing or speed control
Adequate warning on minor approaches should be provided

when traffic streams cross without merging and weaving, the
crossing should be made at or near right angles (70 - 90)
If traffic signal control is to be incorporated into the design, the

crossing angle may be substantially modified to conform to existing
physical conditions
29
This principle:
Reduces the conflict area
Reduces the time of crossing a conflicting traffic stream
Provides the most favourable condition for drivers to judge relative
positions and relative speeds of vehicles
Control of minor movement
30
BDD/BFC32302/4A 15
4) CONTROL OF SPEED
The operating speed of traffic through an intersection depends on:

alignment
environment
traffic volume and composition
extent and type of traffic control devices, and to a lesser extent:
- the number of points of conflicts
- the number of possible maneuvers
- the relative speed of the maneuvers
Safety depends largely on low relative speed.

Relative speed is the vectorial speed of convergence of the
vehicles in a conflicted maneuver.
31
Crossing maneuvres that produce high potential relative speeds should be

made approximately at right angles to minimise driver estimation errors
In such cases, it is usually necessary to reduce approach speeds by the

use of alignment design (e.g. roundabouts) or control devices (signs and
signals) so that actual relative speeds are low
Weaving, merging and diverging maneuvres should be designed for a low

relative speed
Under these conditions, drivers will accept smaller gaps in the traffic
stream, thereby improving safety, reducing delays and increasing
capacity
32
BDD/BFC32302/4A 16
Low relative speeds can be achieved by:
Providing traffic islands, exclusive turning lanes and refuge areas,

Providing speed change lanes (acceleration and deceleration
lanes).
Installing traffic control devices (traffic signals, neckdowns, etc)
A ‘neckdown’ or ‘bulb-out’ is a traffic

calming treatment employed at junctions,
where the curbs are extended at the
approach.
33
13 Basic Design Principles For Safe Layouts of At-Grade

Intersections
Minimise conflict area

Reduce conflict points
Traffic streams should merge/diverge at flat angles and cross at
right angles
Encourage low vehicle speeds on the approaches to right-angled
intersections
Discourage deceleration and stopping of vehicles on the through
stream of traffic
Give preference to high-priority traffic movements
Discourage undesirable traffic movements
Provide refuge area for vulnerable road users
Provide reference markers for road users
Control access within the vicinity of an intersection
34
BDD/BFC32302/4A 17
13 Basic Design Principles For Safe Layouts of At-Grade

Intersections
Provide safe locations for installation of traffic control devices

Provide advance warning of change
Illuminate intersections where possible
35
BDD/BFC32302/4A 18

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BFC32302 Traffic Engineering & Safety Lecturer: Dr.

Basil David Daniel

An INTERSECTION is the location where two or more roads meet or

Turning to the right or left at an intersection.

Right Diverging Left Diverging

Mutual Diverging Multiple Diverging

Right Merging Left Merging

Mutual Merging Multiple Merging

Right Crossing Left Crossing Oblique Crossing Opposed Crossing

When merging, diverging and crossing maneuvers occur, there is

Diverging Conflict Merging Conflict Crossing Conflict

Factors which influence conflicts at an intersection:

Types of conflicts at a T-junction

Types of conflicts at a Crossroads and Roundabout

SELECTING AN INTERSECTION TYPE

General scheme to select the intersection type according to the traffic

SELECTING AN INTERSECTION TYPE

General scheme to select the intersection type according to the

Most widely used way of resolving merging and crossing conflicts

STOP GIVE WAY

Jalan Onn (U4) If priority control is to

TYPES OF PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS:

Used for T-junctions and staggered junctions

GHOST ISLAND JUNCTIONS

Have a painted hatched island in the middle of single carriageway roads

Very effective in improving safety

Additional construction cost is small

JUNCTIONS WITH SINGLE LANE DUALLING

Achieved by the use of a physical island in the middle of the major

An important safety aspect is the provision of only one through lane in

This layout is not appropriate for crossroads

An AT-GRADE INTERSECTION is the location where two or more

Types of at-grade intersections:

At-grade intersection layouts:

UNCHANNELISED AND UNFLARED INTERSECTIONS

Normally adequate where minor roads meet

In urban areas, many local streets intersections remain

In such cases, traffic is controlled by signals or regulatory

A flared intersection is a simple unchannelised intersection with

Speed-change lanes allow left or right-turning vehicles to reduce or

Right-turn lanes permit through vehicles to pass on the left side of

Auxiliary Lanes : Speed-change lanes

Acceleration Lane Deceleration Lane

Auxiliary Lanes : Through lanes and Right-turn lanes

Right-turn Lane Through Lane

Raised traffic islands

A channelised intersection is one where paths of travel for various

Raised traffic islands, raised markers and painted markings can be

A roundabout is a channelised intersection where traffic moves

The layout of the intersection should be adequately illuminated by

Functions of Traffic Islands

FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERSECTION DESIGN

Intersection design should consider the following:

FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERSECTION DESIGN

(2) TOPOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT

The location and design of an intersection will be affected by:

The alignment and grade of the approach roads

The need to provide for drainage

The extent of interference with public utilitiesproper access

The presence of local features, both man-made and natural

FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERSECTION DESIGN

(3) HUMAN FACTORS

Driver characteristics should be considered, i.e.