Title: Foundational Paradigms of Social Sciences

Author: Shiping Tang (2011)

Discussion Point: The existence of the foundational paradigms is fundamental for social scientists to adequately understand human society, social outcomes, and/or social facts.

Important elements of the Philosophy of Knowledge:

Ontology - about what things are (1); deals with the nature of reality, a system of belief that reflects an interpretation by an individual and what constitutes a fact (2); what is reality? (4)
Epistemology - the way we know things (1); study of nature and scope of knowledge and justified belief (3); how do you know something (4)

Prioritization in ontological and epistemological origin depends on what explains a certain situation. In research, ontology comes first, then epistemology, next is methodology.
Explaining the foundational paradigms will be digested into its ontological and epistemological origin.
Bedrock Paradigms
Integrative Paradigms
Dimension First Second Third Fourth
Paradigm Social Evolution -
transformation of the social
Social System - social
Biological evolution system dynamics
Materialism Ideationalism Individualism Collectivism Socialization Anti-socialization Conflict Harmony system dynamics at a
Determinism THROUGH time
GIVEN time
- the ULTIMATE paradigm

Ontology (1) existing social (1) human society is
facts arise from determined or explained by
material things and ideational forces (i.e., feelings,
facts symbols, cognition, etc.) cannot
be reduced to material forces
Ideas -> all in the mind (invent
labels) -> no material existence
(1) groups consists of
individuals, and groups are
simply sum of individuals.
(2) group properties not
necessary explain or have
little effect on individuals
within a group
(1) group structure or
properties shape human
behavior
(2) group is more than just a
sum of individuals within
them
(3) groups should be treated
as separate entities
(1) human behavior is (1) society is like a family,
shaped by its evolution, individuals are borne free
and its survival and (2) human behavior is
reproduction adaptive of the social system,
mainly institutions and culture
(3) individual's urge to adapt
and conform with society
(1) social system is an enemy/
oppressor, it limits human
behavior
(2) individual's urge to rebel
against the social system and
the social order
(1) divergent interests (1) harmony of interests and (1) interaction of the 9 (1) interaction of the 9
and agents agent's cooperative and bedrock paradigms to bedrock paradigms within a
(individuals or coordinative behavior drives explain the complex human social system and across
collective individuals) social outcome system (agents, social time --> human history
conflictual behavior (2) minimize conflict through structure, and the physical
drives social outcome collaboration environment)

Epistemology (1) social outcome (1) social outcome is better (1) to understand society is (1) to understand society, (1) human (1) understand human (1) individual behavior is (1) to understand (1) to understand social (1) to understand society is (1) to understand human
is described explained with ideational forces, to understand the behavior one must need to psychological traits behavior by social constraints explained by the oppression of social outcome is to outcome is to understand the to understand it in a society is to understand the
through material which shape human behavior and interaction of individuals understand how the group (patterns of behavior, and the individual's sense of the social system, coerced and understand the agent's cooperative and systemic approach --> evolutionary approach
forces and ultimately the social within the society or a behaviors, structure, norms, thought, and emotion) belongingness deterred by false class agent's conflictual coordinative behavior to synthesize all the 9 bedrock (2) to explain social change
outcome. particular group and culture impacts the are explained by the (2) society's stability is consciousness, knowledge, behavior to advance advance their interests paradigms as a whole is the central mechanism of
individuals in the group human's drive to survive achieve when individual is and/ or power their interests biological evolution
and reproduce one with the social system . (2) society's stability and determinism (variation-
(2) variation-selection- change is determined upon the selection-inheritance)
inheritance success and failure of the
individuals who rebel against it.

Schools of Thought Marxian historical Weberian (emphasizing Rational choice approach Structural functionalism Darwin's theory of Conte-Spencer-Durkheim- Marxism (class struggles, Marxism sociology Conte-Spencer-Durkheim- Functionalism
materialism (class ideology, legitimation, and (individual interaction) (society is an organism with natural selection Parsons-Mertonian structural alienation, contradiction, (class conflict as Parsons-Mertonian structural Bedrock: 4, Ontological Priority: 0, SEP: None
consciousness - rationalization) Neoclassical economics needs and purpose) Racism functionalism (individuals conflict) inescapable) functionalism (society is a big
struggles from Functionalism (bounded rationality) Marxism (class as the basic Geopolitics adapt to society's needs by Weberian Weberian sociology happy family) Marxism
factors of Weberian agent) Nazis willingly internalizing the (variety of dominations Neoclassical - New institutional Bedrock: 5, Ontological Priority: 2, SEP: Quasi-
production) Weberian proper functions in the in shaping society) economics (agents resort to evolutionary
Neoclassical society) Rational choice bargaining to resolve the conflict
economics Weberian approach of interest and achieve Pareto Weberian
Rational choice optimality) Bedrock: 6, Ontological Priority: 2, SEP: Quasi-
approach Marxism (harmony within the evolutionary
class)
Rational choice approach Neoclassical
Bedrock: 3, Ontological Priority: 1, SEP: Pseudo-
evolutionary

Rational Choice
Bedrock: 4, Ontological Priority: 2, SEP: Pseudo-
evolutionary
 Bedrock Paradigms
Integrative Paradigms
Dimension First Second Third Fourth
Paradigm Social Evolution -
transformation of the social
Social System - social
Biological evolution system dynamics
Materialism Ideationalism Individualism Collectivism Socialization Anti-socialization Conflict Harmony system dynamics at a
Determinism THROUGH time
GIVEN time
- the ULTIMATE paradigm

Synthesis We start to understand that the world consists of
both material and ideational forces, but material
forces holds ontological priority. Ideas are formed
based on material forces and are shaped by
material constraints. The ideas changes the
material environment through human behavior which
may have impact in the long run.
Material forces -> Ideas -> Human Behavior ->
Societal Change
Individualism holds ontological priority, the assumptions
made on a collective level will at any point involves an
individual. Individuals create resources/ material things,
and ideals which upholds collective properties (i.e.
mosques created to promote religion/norms, as such
individuals with same ideal form as a group).
Understanding society is understanding how individuals
impacts the groups and vice versa.
Biological evolution determinism holds ontological priority over socialization and anti- Conflict paradigm holds ontological priority. An Bedrock paradigms, especially paradigms with
socialization paradigm, as it is universal and inerasable the existence of a human being. individual is self-centered and egoistic and will first ontological priority, which were synthesize organically,
As humans reproduced and increase in number, the society is also growing which leads satisfy his/her needs for survival. And in history, statesdetermine how much social reality a school of thought
the need to interact amongst them. Hence, these 3 paradigms of human behavior are ended up in war in pursuit of their interests. capture or misses.
interdependent with one another. ( more bedrock paradigm with ontological priority = more
Ontologically, (1) conflict and harmony of interest among social reality)
The interaction of socialization and anti-socialization accounts for the diversity of human agents often co-exist, but conflict of interest often
behavior in different societies. As individuals create both material forces and ideals, the exceeds harmony. (2) An agent can either engaged n A social evolutionary school of thought captures social
complexity of understanding human behavior can be boundless and complete theory of conflicting or cooperative behavior to achieve social changes
human nature is impossible. outcome.

Epistemologically, (1) conflict of interest may or may not

result to actual conflict, this holds true also for agents
with common interest. (2) Not all actual conflict is
caused by conflicting interest, and not all cooperation
and coordination is caused by common interest.

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-ontology-and-epistemology
(1)
https://research-methodology.net/research-philosophy/ontology/
(2)
(3) https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/

http://salmapatel.co.uk/academia/the-research-paradigm-methodology-epistemology-and-ontology-explained-in-simple-language
(4)