Apuntes Estrategias

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso
C O M M U N I CAT I O N AN D AD V E R T I S I N G :
S T RAT E G I E S O F PE R S UAS I O N
Lucía Relloso
SERGIO MONGE BENITO
INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION
1. CONTEMPORARY PERSUASION
2. DEFINING PERSUASION
3. CORRECTION VS PERSUASION
4. 3 LEVELS OF PERSUASION
5. BARRIERS OF PERSUASION
6. SUBLIMINAL ADVERTISING
1. LIMITS OF ADVERTISING
2. ATTITUDES
1. VALUES —> DOZEN
2. BELIEFS —> THOUSANDS
3. ATTITUDES —> MILLIONS
1. DEFINITIONS
2. ATTITUDE COMPONENTS
3. WHICH ARE THE FUNCTIONS
4. MEASURING ATTITUDES
1. INDIRECT METHODS
2. DIRECT METHODS (SCALES)
3. REASONS OF FAILURE IN MEASURING
5. ATTITUDE FORMATION
1. MERE EXPOSURE
2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
3. OPERANT CONDITIONING
4. MODELING (SLT) —> SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
6. ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR
1. USE OF CONTRACEPTIVE PILLS
2. ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR THEORIES
3. IMPLICATIONS FOR PERSUASION
3. THEORIES OF PERSUASION
1. GROUPS OF THEORIES
1. CONDITIONING THEORIES
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING —> PAVLOV, 1903
2. OPERANT CONDITIONING —> SKINNER, 1948
3. MODELING (STL) —> BANDURA, 1977
2. MESSAGE-LEARNING THEORIES (HOVLAND, 1953)
3. SOCIAL JUDGEMENT THEORY
4. MOTIVATION THEORY
1. BALANCE THEORY
2. CONGRUITY THEORY
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTANCE
4. COGNITIVE DISONANCE
5. ATTRIBUTTION THEORIES
1. SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY (BEM, 1957)
6. COMBINATION
1. THEORY OF REASONED ACTION (FISHBEIN & AZJEN, 2010 (1975))
7. SELF PERSUASION THEORIES
1. THROUGH LISTENING TECHNIQUE
8. HIERARCHY OF EFFECTS THEORIES
1. AIDA MODEL
4. CHANGING ATTITUDES
1. TWO-WAY PROCESSING
1. HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL
2. ELABORATION-LIKELIHOOD MODEL
2. COMMUNICATION
1. THE SOURCE (4. PERSUASIVE SOURCE)
1. CREDIBILITY
1. COMPETENCE/EXPERIENCE
2. REALIBILITY/CONFIDENCE
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF CREDIBILITY
2. ATTRACTIVENESS/LIKING
1. SIMILARITY
2. FAMILIARITY
3. PRIZE/GIFTS
4. PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
5. FAME
3. AUTHORITY
1. ABILITY TO PUNISH
2. OTHER POWER FORMS
2. THE MESSAGE (5. THE MESSAGE)
1. ARGUMENTS
2. EVIDENCES
3. IMPLICIT/EXPLICIT CONCLUSION DRAWING (O’KEEFE, 1997)
4. NARRATIVE
5. ONE SIDE/TWO SIDES
6. DISCURSE STRUCTURE
7. FRAMING
8. SPEED OF SPEECH
9. FEAR/GUILT
10. DISTRACTION
11. HUMOUR
12. MUSIC
13. REPETITION
1. SECUENTIAL STRATEGIES
3. THE CHANNEL (7. CHANEL 2022)
1. TELEVISION
2. RADIO
3. CINEMA
4. PRINTED/PRESS/MAGAZINES
5. OUTDOOR ADVERTISING
6. DIRECT MARKETING
7. FACE TO FACE COMMUNICATION
8. INTERNET: WWW/EMAIL/SOCIAL NETWORKS
4. THE RECEPTOR (6. RECEPTOR 2022)
1. PERSONAL RELEVANCE
2. PREVIOUS WARNING
3. NEED FOR COGNITION
4. PSYCO-SOCIO DEMOGRAPHICS
5. PREVIOUS WARNING
6. PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE
7. MOOD
8. OTHER RECEPTOR VARIABLES
5. RHETORICAL FIGURES
1. Hyperbole Parody
2. Juxtaposition
3. Inside Out / Upside Down Without Words
4. Mix & Combine
5. Change the Point of View Taunt & Surprise
6. Alter the Product Metaphor & Analogy
C O M M U N I CAT I O N AN D AD V E R T I S I N G :
S T RAT E G I E S O F PE R S UAS I O N
1. INTRODUCTION
1. CONTEMPORARY PERSUASION
- Difference between ancient persuasion and contemporary persuasion?
- Number and reach of persuasive communication
- We are connected to the internet, we watch tv, companies call us…
- Persuasive messages travel faster and are shorter (ex: twitter)
- Conducted via Institutions and Organisations
- There is micro influencing and create a name and don’t need neither an institution nor
an organization
- More subtle and devious
- More complex and meditated
- Digitalization (Exposure to short, Metaphorical Messages with Simultaneous message
exchange among millions of strangers, subject to
multiple interpretations)
- Exposure to a wealth of new, but also bias-
confirming, information
2. DEFINING PERSUASION
- Is a communication process (is a specific type of communication process) in which the
communicator seeks to elicit a desired response from his receiver
- Not all communication is persuasion but all persuasion is a form of communication
- Is a conscious attempt by one individual to change the attitudes, beliefs or behavior of
another individual or group of individuals through transmission of some message
- Is a symbolic activity whose purpose is to effect the internalization or voluntary acceptance
of new cognitive states of patterns of overt behavior through the exchange of messages
- Is a successful intentional effort at influencing another’s mental state through
communication in a circumstance which the persuades has some measure of freedom.
- DEFINITION: “Persuasion is a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince
other people to change their own attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue throughout the
transmission of a message in an atmosphere of free choice”
- Characteristics
- Is a Symbolic Process
- Involves an Attempt to Influence
- People Persuade themselves
- You can’t persuade someone he doesn’t want to be persuaded
- Involves the Transmission of a Message
- Requires free choice (coercion is not persuasion)
3. COERTION VS PERSUASION
- Coercion —> force or the power to use force in gaining compliance, as by a government or
police force
- Threatening messages
- Employer’s directives
- Interrogation
- Communication in dangerously abusive relationships
- Ban of smoking
- Enforcement of seat belts law
- Persuasion —> Persuasion is a symbolic process in which communicators try to convince
other people to change their own attitudes or behaviours regarding an issue through the
transmission of a message in an atmosphere of free choice.
- Friend’s attempt to influence another’s opinion of movies
- Loved one’s anti drug appeal
- Advertising
- Health public service messages
- Political Campaigns
- Sales and telemarketing
- Borderline cases
- Art
- Movies
- Music
- Entertainment TV
- News
- Heart-rending photographs
4. 3 LEVELS OF PERSUASION
- Level C —> Scientific theories of persuasion. TECHNIQUES
- Level B —> Advertising, Propaganda, Public Relations, Direct Marketing, Promotions,
Display Marketing,.. PROFESSIONAL PERSUASION
- Level A —> To inform, entertain, persuade. The proper use of the language. Instinct to
communicate. HUMMAN TOOL, BASIC LEVEL OF COMMUNICATION
- Perception is previous to persuasion (It is a selective process)
5. BARRIERS OF PERSUASION
- We have some stable ideas or attitudes that we don’t change every day:
- Selective Exposure
- It is related to how we are exposed to different persuasive messages (we select which
programs, newspapers, videos… we see), we tend to choose media that agrees with our
previous actitudes.
- Selective perception
- If you give a task to your mind, you only focus on that and things can be missed (monkey
video). We decide which messages we focus on.
- Selective Memory
- Even if you pay attention to the ad or message, we cannot memorize everything that
happened. There are 3 types of memory: sensory memory, short term memory, and long
term memory. This 3 things happen even before we consider the message. Previous to the
persuasive process.
6.SUBLIMINAL
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ADVERTISING
- You cannot be persuaded by something you ever seen.
- Is an advertisement that includes a brief specific message that cannot be perceived at a
normal level of conscious awareness
- Subliminal perception: “It occurs when stimuli are discriminated by the senses but are
transmitted in such way that they fail to reach conscious awareness and cannot be reported
verbally”
1. LIMITS OF ADVERTISING
- Little evidence of actual usage
- Conscious perception threshold is different for different people
- Subliminal effect seems unspecific
- It needs the receptor absolute attention
- Time lapse between reception and buying must be short
- Legal limitations
- Debate
- Is subliminal advertising an effective way of doing advertising?
- Can we consider product placement as modern way of doing subliminal advertising?
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2. ATTITUDES
1. VALUES —> DOZEN
- Examples:
- “Guiding principles of one life” or “overarching goals that people strive to obtain” (Maio &
Olson, 1998)
- “Conceptions of the desirable means and ends of an action” (Kuckhohn, 1951)
- Can either transcend or celebrate selfish concerns. Examples:
- Self-fulfillment
- Excitement
- Recognition
- Power
- Achievement
- Warm relationship with others
- Sense of belonging
- Love
- Security
2. BELIEFS —> THOUSANDS
- Girls talk more about relationships than do guys.
- Maintaining a vegetarian diet improves your state of mind. Video games are addictive.
- College students drink too much.
- A daily dose of religion uplifts the spirit.
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3. ATTITUDES —> MILLIONS
- The have a lot of attitudes to everything that is not new to us
1. DEFINITIONS
- “An association between a given object and a given evaluation” (Fazio, 1989, p. 155)
- Every attitude is related to an object
- “A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some
degree of favor or disfavor” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1)
- We can have positive attitudes or negative attitudes towards an especific object
- “A learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner
with respect to a given object” (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p.6)
- Attitudes are learned are not unborn
- “A more or less permanently enduring state of readiness of mental organization which
predisposes an individual to react in a characteristic way to any object or situation with
which it is related” (Cantril, quoted in Allport, 1935, p. 804)
- Do not change very fast, they tend to endure
- Definition of the book we have
- A learned, global evaluation of an object (person, place or issue) that influences
thought and action
- “One global, enduring, learned, affective evaluation about a concrete object, person
or idea that influences thought and action”
2. ATTITUDE COMPONENTS
- Some research attitudes are not only about effective evaluation, attitudes have other
things linked like ideas, opinions, beliefs… And then you form a behavior once you have
thought positive or negative
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- We usually choosier we like something or not
3. WHICH ARE THE FUNCTIONS
- Knowledge
- What for?
- Provides meaning (understand the reality)
- Differentiates good and bad
- Stereotypes
- Standards of evaluation
- How to change?
- Show that everything is not black or white
- Utilitarian
- What for?
- Identify rewards or punishments, maximize rewards, avoid punishments
- Ex: if we like pizza, we will have a most positive attitude at the time of choosing
- How to change?
- Change perceived rewards and punishments of the decision
- Ex: if there is a person that likes to go very fast, we could tell that person that it
would be a punishment.
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- Change the way to obtain the reward
- We can change the attitude of going fast only in specific situations and tell when he
can go fast (for example with cars) without being in danger
- Ego-Defensive
- What for?
- Shield vs uncomfortable truths, conserve self-esteem, protect the subject and avoid
danger
- Ex: to have a negative attitude to the fact of going alone at night pass the streets is
an ego-defensive attitude
- How to change?
- The threat is not real
- Prove that she/he is defending
- Value-expressive
- What for?
- Express basic values and reinforce self image
- Everyone has different values and we like to express them, even if it is not
necessary for us to be recognized for other people, it makes us feel good to
express our self image
- How to change?
- The attitude does not express that value
- There are better ways of expressing that value
- Social Adjustment (social identity)
- What for?
- To be accepted by others and to adjust to reference groups
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- How to change?
- This attitude does not integrate you in the group
- There are better ways of showing that you are part of that group
4. MEASURING ATTITUDES
1. DIRECT METHODS (SCALES): They measure things that are not related to that
conscious process of evaluating something
- There are different types of scales
- Likert Scale
- Guttman Scale
- Semantic Differential Scale
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- One Item Scale
- Multiatribute Scale
2. INDIRECT METHODS
- Observation:
- We can evaluate behaviors. Even if observing people seems very direct method,
what we are measuring is a thought because we can no know about it unless we ask
them to tell us which is the attitude towards something
- IAT (Implicit Attitude Test)
- They ask to classify some words and they measure the time you need to make those
decisions. For example they can see if black is related to negative words and they
can see if there is a racius reason.
- Psychophysiology
- They are different types of measuring technologies. They measure our physical
reaction and not our physiological reaction. There is a tool called
electroencephalography and they measure the micro electrical currents that our brain
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makes when they work together. It is a tool that a lot of companies that use
neuromarketing research are using.
- Ex: Neuromarketing (Neuroscience applied to market research
- Electroenphalography
- FMRI (Magnetic resonance)
- MEG (Magnetoencephalography
- PET (Positron emission tomography)
- EMG (Electromyography)
- It is use in some neuromarketing techniques to see if the person is reacting
positively to the product
- Facial Coding
- Affectiva / Emotientnviso
- Eye-tracking
- CSR / SRC (Polygraph)
- Others = Hear Rate, Breath Rate…
3. REASONS OF FAILURE IN MEASURING
- Respondent carelessness in answering the questions
- People’s desire to say socially appropriate things rather than what they truly believe
- Tendency to agree with the items regardless of their content (acquiescence)
- Advises
- Context
- Early questions influence responses to latter questions
- Wording
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- “Give preferential treatment to racial minorities” or “make special efforts to help
minorities get ahead”
- Asking good questions
- Use words that all respondent can comprehend.
- Write specific and unambiguous items
- Avoid double negatives
- Pretest items to make sure people understand your questions
- If you think that the order of questions will influence respondents, ask questions in
different sequences to check out order effects
- Avoid politically correct phrases that encourage socially desirable responses
- Write items so that they take both the positive and negative sides of an issue
- Consider whether your questions deal with sensitive, threatening issues
- Allow people to say “I don’t know”
- Include many questions to tap different aspects of the attitude
5. ATTITUDE FORMATION
1. MERE EXPOSURE
- The mere-exposure effect is a
psychological phenomenon by
which people tend to develop a
preference for things merely
because they are familiar with them. In social psychology, this effect is sometimes called
the familiarity principle.
- Explanations
- Fluency
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- Accessibility (memory)
- Pleasantness
2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Pavlov, 1903)
- It is a type of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. This author
devised some experiments with dogs that are the basis of classical conditioning. He
noticed that when he put the food on the dog, it salivated. Every time he put food in it,
Pavlov would ring a bell, so that when the dog heard it, he would associate that sound
with food and salivate. Thus, the dog was making a response (in this case, salivation) to a
stimulus (the bell). The next time he heard the bell, regardless of whether it was attached
to the food, he would begin to salivate.
- When two things often occur together, the appearance of one will bring the other to mind.
3. OPERANT CONDITIONING (Skinner, 1948)
- Operant conditioning is a form of teaching whereby a subject is more likely to repeat (or
not) those behaviors that have positive consequences, and less likely to repeat those that
have negative problems. It is a type of associative learning, this has to do with the
development of new behaviors based on their consequences, and not with the association
between stimuli and behaviors as occurs in classical conditioning.
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- Positive —> presence of stimulus
- Negative —> absense of a stimulus
- Reinforcement —> increases behavior
- Punishment —> decreases behavior
- Escape —> removes a stimulus
- Avoidance —> prevents a stimulus
4. MODELING (SLT) —> SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (Bandura, 1977)
- Social learning theory or TAS is the theory in which people learn new behaviors through
reinforcement or punishment, or through observational learning of social factors in their
environment. If people see desirable and positive consequences in the observed behavior,
they are more likely to take it as a role model.
6. ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR
- Lapiere 1934
- As a result of a personal experience, La Pierre carried out an investigation that related
attitude and behavior.
- In a classic study, LaPierre (1934) drove through the U.S. with a Chinese couple. They
stopped at over 250 restaurants and hotels and were refused service only once. Several
months later, the owners were surveyed on whether they would serve Chinese people.
The response was overwhelmingly negative, 92 percent of those surveyed said that they
would not. In this case, clearly, their behavior gave less evidence of racial bias than their
expressed attitudes did.
- LaPiere had a longstanding research agenda of studying how race and ethnicity impacted
both social norms and social psychology.2 His observations led him to believe that how
people talked among others regarding racial issues and how they actually behaved did not
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always mesh. On a theoretical level, LaPiere had concluded that likely a dependable,
predictable relationship between attitudes and behaviours did not exist in this particular
domain.3 Naturally, empirical appraisal seemed the next step in developing the model.
- In some cases, attitudes did not predict behaviors.
1. ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR THEORIES
1. THE REASONED ACTION MODEL (AZJEN AND FISHBEIN 1975, 1980)
- Aims to explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviors within human
action. It is mainly used to predict how individuals will behave based on their pre-
existing attitudes and behavioral intentions. An individual's decision to engage in a
particular behavior is based on the outcomes the individual expects will come as a
result of performing the behavior
- The primary purpose of the TRA is to understand an individual's voluntary behavior
by examining the underlying basic motivation to perform an action. TRA states that
a person's intention to perform a behavior is the main predictor of whether or not
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they actually perform that behavior. Additionally, the normative component (i.e.
social norms surrounding the act) also contributes to whether or not the person will
actually perform the behavior. According to the theory, intention to perform a certain
behavior precedes the actual behavior. This intention is known as behavioral
intention and comes as a result of a belief that performing the behavior will lead to a
specific outcome. Behavioral intention is important to the theory because these
intentions "are determined by attitudes to behaviors and subjective norms". TRA
suggests that stronger intentions lead to increased effort to perform the behavior,
which also increases the likelihood for the behavior to be performed.
- Attitude
- Behavioral beliefs
- Texting while driving on my way to school:
- Helps me stay in touch with friends
(Likely) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Unlikely)
- Keeps me from getting bored
- Makes me feel less lonely
- Reduces my ability to drive safely
- Outcome Evaluations
- Staying in touch with friends
(Good) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Bad)
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- Getting bored
(Good) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Bad)
- Feeling lonely while I drive
(Good) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Bad)
- 4. Driving safely
(Good) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Bad)
- Perceived norm
- Injunctive normative beliefs
- My mom thinks that:
(I should) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (I should not text when I drive to school)
- My dad thinks that:
- My best friend thinks that:
- Motivation to comply
- When it comes to matters of safety, I want to do what my mom thinks I should
do:
(Strongly Agree) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Strongly Disagree)
- 2. When it comes to matters of safety, I want to do what my dad thinks I should
do:
(Strongly Agree) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Strongly Disagree)
- 3. When it comes to matters of safety, I want to do what my best friends thinks I
should do:
(Strongly Agree) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Strongly Disagee)
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- Descriptive Normative Beliefs
- My mom texts when she drives me to school.
(Allofthetime) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7(Never)
- My dad texts when he drives me to school.
- My best friend texts when (s)he drives me to school.
- Identification
- When it comes to matters of safety, how much do you want to be like your
mom?
(A lot) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7(Not at all)
- 2. When it comes to matters of safety, how much do you want to be like your
dad?
(A lot) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7(Not at all)
- 3. When it comes to matters of safety, how much do you want to be like your
best friend?
(A lot) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7(Not at all)
- Perceived behavioral control
- How much control do you feel that you have over whether you text when you
drive to school?
(No control) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Complete control)
- 2. How much do you feel that texting while driving to school is under your
control?
(Alot) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7(Notatall)
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2. ACCESIBILITY MODELS (FAZIO AND SNYDER)
2. IMPLICATIONS FOR PERSUASION
- Target relevant beliefs.
- Target outcome evaluations.
- Appeal to social norms.
- Target perceived behavioural control
- Change attitudes through association techniques 6. Put people in touch with their feelings
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- Start when they are young
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3. THEORIES OF PERSUASION
1. GROUPS OF THEORIES
1. CONDITIONING THEORIES
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING —> PAVLOV, 1903
2. OPERANT CONDITIONING —> SKINNER, 1948
3. MODELING (STL) —> BANDURA, 1977
2. MESSAGE-LEARNING THEORIES (HOVLAND, 1953)
- Yale Attitude Change Approach
- It was like a more academic analysis about how the
process of communication happens
- Hovland's "Message Learning Theory" posits that the
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more people learn and remember from an ad, the more persuasive the ad will be. His
research was designed around the step-by-step process through which people are
persuaded: attention, comprehension, yielding and retention of the message
3. SOCIAL JUDGEMENT THEORY
- Sherif (& Hovland), 1965—> “The basis information forpredicting a person’s reaction to
a communicatio is where he places its position and the communicator relative to himself.
The way that a person appraises a communication and perceives its position relative to his
own stand affects his reaction to it and what he will do as a result”
- The perception and evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitudes.
According to this theory, an individual weighs every new idea, comparing it with the
individual's present point of view to determine where it should be placed on the attitude
scale[2] in an individual's mind. SJT is the subconscious sorting out of ideas that occurs
at the instant of perception.
- An individual’s position on an issue depends on three things
- First, their anchor, or their preferred position on the issue. In our car example, the
anchor would be the person's current vehicle.
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- Second, their position depends on alternatives, classified as acceptable, rejected, or
noncommittal. In the car example, the only alternative was not taking the car (but
imagine the range of alternatives in topics such as politics or religion).
- Finally, the third component of someone's position on an issue depends on their
personal ego-involvement. This is a very complicated consideration. Imagine our Wall
Street banker trying to decide whether or not she wants the free car. She might not
admit it, but is she worried about what people will think if they know she didn't pay for
the car? Will they think she's cheap? And what about the type of car - if her colleagues
all drive luxury cars, how will she feel driving a compact car? All of these are ego-
related considerations that will impact her opinion about the issue of taking the free
car.
4. MOTIVATION THEORY
1. BALANCE THEORY
- People resolve cognitive conflict by: Denial, Bolstering, Differentiation, Integration
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- Heider’s Balance Theory, developed by the social psychologist Fritz Heider, is based
on the balance that must exist between interpersonal relationships, or for something
specific between two people or more so that a harmony exists between thoughts,
emotions and social relationships so that the ideas shared by both subjects coexist
without any tension and complication.
- This is how this theory of psychology of motivation explains the balance of
cognitive consistency as a scale that the human being develops. Heider explains that
likes and dislikes are related to balance and imbalance.
- Relationships can be positive (like- approve) and negative (dislike- disapprove).
- With the above, Heider developed the P-O-X Model
- P is a person in whom balance or imbalance occurs, O is perceived a person who is
in the environment or situation of P, and X is an impersonal entity or other person or
object that participates in the unit. Among these three parts, two types of
relationships can be found: attitudes of taste or evaluation relationship and the
second one of similarity, participation, proximity among others.
- The relationship between P and O can be positive if P likes O or negative if P
dislikes O this is presented as PLO the L as positive representation and in case of
dislike or negativity P-LO.
- The relationship between P and X, P feels attraction or taste for X or if P feels
rejection or displeasure for X. In the case that X is no longer an impersonal entity
it can participate in the process of the POX triad.
- The more similarities are found between each element, the more likely the
psychological balance will be good, so Heider classifies the feelings into two areas
of like or dislike. In most cases if there is a positive unity relationship, there will also
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be a positive feeling relationship. The same with negative units, these negative
relationships are together.
- +++= + Balanced
- -+-= + Balancing
- -++= – Unbalanced
2. CONGRUITY THEORY (Osgood & Tannenbaun, 1955)
- The principle of congruity (Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955) proposes that evaluations
or re-evaluations of objects by an individual tend to seek congruity with that
individual's frame of reference.
- "This paper describes a general theory of attitude change which takes into account
original attitude toward the source of the message, original attitude toward the
concept evaluated by the source, and the nature of the evaluative assertion. Predicted
changes in attitude toward both source and concept are based upon the combined
operation of a principle of congruity, a principle of susceptibility as a function of
polarization, and a principle of resistance due to incredulity for incongruous
messages. Comparison of predictions with data obtained in a recent experiment
provides a test of the theory."
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTANCE (Brehm, 1966)
- Reactance is an unpleasant motivational arousal (reaction) to offers, persons, rules,
or regulations that threaten or eliminate specific behavioral freedoms. Reactance
occurs when a person feels that someone or something is taking away their choices
or limiting the range of alternatives.
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- This theory states that individuals have certain freedoms with regard to their
behavior. If these behavioral freedoms are reduced or threatened with reduction, the
individual will be motivationally aroused to regain them.
4. COGNITIVE DISONANCE (Festinger, 1957)
- The central thesis of cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) is that when two
beliefs are inconsistent, individuals experience negatively arousing cognitive
conflict (called dissonance). Because the dissonance is aversive, the individuals try
to reduce it by changing one or the other beliefs.
- Sometimes the rationalizations don’t make as much sense. Let’s say a woman
smokes cigarettes despite knowing it can lead to lung cancer. She continues to do it
because she tells herself she needs the cigarettes to help her deal with anxiety. Or
maybe she’ll say she doesn’t smoke nearly enough cigarettes for them to cause
serious harm. In this example, she’s reducing the dissonance by convincing herself
the behavior is okay in her mind.
- Another common example of cognitive dissonance is the rationalization that takes
place when people dieting “cheat.” How many times have you committed to healthy
eating when a doughnut, muffin, or another delicious-looking food item threatened
to take you off course? Maybe you thought, “Eh, it’s only one doughnut. I’ll skip
lunch today to make up for the calories.” Or you tell yourself, “It’s not
actually that many calories.”
- Dissonance is psychologically uncomfortable and physiologically arousing:
- It occurs when an indicidual:
- Holds 2 different thoughts
- Makes a decision that rules out a desirable alternative
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- spends effort to participate in what it turns out to be a less than desirable activity,
or
- Is unable to find enough justification form an attitude or behavior
5. ATTRIBUTTION THEORIES
1. SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY (BEM, 1957)
- NO ENTIENDO
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- People don’t think a lot about their attitudes, they check their actions towards their
behavior
6. COMBINATION
1. THEORY OF REASONED ACTION (FISHBEIN & AZJEN, 2010 (1975))
7. SELF PERSUASION THEORIES
1. THROUGH LISTING TECHNIQUE (Greenwalf, 1968; Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991)
- Cognitive Response Approach
- For this technique they ask you to
list the thoughts you had of a
message. This list is taken by the
researcher and he measures the
number of thoughts, valance of
thoughts (positive, negatuve) analyze the source and clasify by topic
- Number of thoughts
- Valence of thoughts (positive/negative/neutral)
- Source (message/self/mixed)
- Topic (message/source/audience/channel)
8. HIERARCHY OF EFFECTS THEORIES
1. AIDA MODEL
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- Consumers move through a series of steps or stages when they make purchase
decisions. These models are linear, sequential models built on an assumption that
consumers move through a series of cognitive (thinking) and affective (feeling)
stages culminating in a behavioural (doing e.g. purchase or trial) stage.
- Attention —> The consumer becomes aware of a category, product or brand
(usually through advertising)
- Interest —> The consumer becomes interested by learning about brand benefits &
how the brand fits with lifestyle
- Desire —> The consumer develops a favorable disposition towards the brand
- Action —> The consumer forms a purchase intention, shops around, engages in
trial or makes a purchase
- It was used a lot in selling. It has not disappeared. You can not sell something if you
have not made all the steps in order.
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4. CHANGING ATTITUDES
1. TWO-WAY PROCESSING
1. HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL (HSM)
- Chaiken, 1980 / Ragly & Chainken, 1984
- The heuristic-systematic model is a theory of persuasion that suggests attitudes can
change in two fundamentally different ways. One way is through systematic processing,
whereby people think carefully about any available information when forming an opinion
to determine whether the information is accurate or valid. Attitudes are then based on the
conclusions from this careful consideration of the facts. However, this kind of thinking
takes a lot of effort, and given that people usually only have limited time and ability to
think carefully, the heuristic-systematic model suggests that attitudes are often formed in
a more simplified manner. This simplified form of attitude judgment is called heuristic
processing, and it involves using rules of thumb known as heuristics to decide what one’s
attitudes should be. This model of persuasion has received a great deal of empirical
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support in the social psychology research literature and has had a major impact on applied
fields of research like health behavior and consumer behavior.
- Heuristics
- Source
- “The experts are reliable”
- “The experts have no reason to lie to us”
- “The speaker is pretty, so is good, so speaks true”
- “The speaker speaks with confidence, so he is sincere”
- “That attractive voice... she should be a lovely person...”
- Message
- “It has so many arguments... it must be true.”
- “Statistics do not lie”
- Context
- “If my friends agree...I should too...”
- “If other people think that is good, probably is”
- “If price is high, quality should be hight too.”
- “If others laugh, it should be funny.”
- “That brand is used by young people... so I should use it too”
2. ELABORATION-LIKELIHOOD MODEL (ELM)
- Petty, Cacioppo, 1981 / Petty, Cacioppo, 1986
- Includes HSM
- The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion[1] is a dual process theory
describing the change of attitudes. The ELM was developed by Richard E. Petty and John
Cacioppo in 1980.[2] The model aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli,
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why they are used, and their outcomes on attitude change. The ELM proposes two major
routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route.
- Under the central route, persuasion will likely result from a person's careful and
thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented in support of an
advocacy.[3] The central route involves a high level of message elaboration in which a
great amount of cognition about the arguments are generated by the individual receiving
the message. The results of attitude change will be relatively enduring, resistant, and
predictive of behavior.[4]
- On the other hand, under the peripheral route, persuasion results from a person's
association with positive or negative cues in the stimulus or making a simple inference
about the merits of the advocated position. The cues received by the individual under the
peripheral route are generally unrelated to the logical quality of the stimulus. These cues
will involve factors such as the credibility or attractiveness of the sources of the message,
or the production quality of the message.[5] The likelihood of elaboration will be
determined by an individual's motivation and ability to evaluate the argument being
presented.[4]
- For instance, as the picture shows, a person is considering buying a car and he is
persuaded by his friend to buy a certain model. If he processes his friend’s message by
taking the central route, he will carefully evaluate his friend’s argument and rationally
think about the cost, reliability, fuel efficiency of this
model. Once he generates favorable thought along
the central route, the ELM predicts he will accept the
message and the result is enduring. However, if he
uses the peripheral route to process the message, he
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will be likely to buy the car simply because he likes the color, or a famous idol on
television “asks” him to buy this car. Compared to the central route’s effect, thoughts
generated from the peripheral route will be relatively short-lasting.
- Moderating variables
- Moderating variables are motivation and ability.
- Some of this variables have impact on elaboration level and others in elaboration
orientation.
- If a variable affects to motivation or ability is a moderating variable.
- For example: If we are involved with the message or the message have a personal
relevance for as, we will have high motivation
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- A previous warning increases the motivation: this warning tells you that you are
gonna receive a persuasive message that will try to change your opinion. If you
have an argument in contra, you will try to confirm your opinion and this
improves the motivation.
- On the other hand, a previous knowledge increases the ability.
- Functions of the Variables
- Argument
- Peripheral Cue
- Quantity of Cognitive Responses
- Increase Confidence in Cognitive Responses
- Compliance
- Reciprocation
- Offer a gift
- Ask something bigger and then concede
- Social Validation Commitment
- List-technique
- Mass apathy
- Commitment
- Make target accept first three simple things
- Low-balling (change of conditions)
- Liking
- Tupperware-party
- Friend of my friend
- Scarcity
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- Last issues (quantity limit)
- Last days (time limit)
- Authority
- Uniforms, titles and other symbols of authority.
2. COMMUNICATION
1. THE SOURCE (4. PERSUASIVE SOURCE)
- The main 3 elements that are related to a persuasive source are credibility, liking or
attractiveness and authority or power.
1. CREDIBILITY
1. COMPETENCE/EXPERIENCE
- If the source is an expert on the topic, it has a lot more credibility.
- If the source behaves with confidence we perceive him as more credible
- Cleanness of the message
- No doubts
- It is important to cite people that are more important
2. REALIBILITY/CONFIDENCE
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- Most of the political communication is directed to the credibility of their
opponents.
- Break the credibility of the people. There are 2 basic strategies to perceive the
reliability
- Trying to hide your own interest. In an advertisement the camera is hided. In a
speech when the one that is talking says that they don’t gain anything.
- No interest = no reason to lie. STRATEGIES
- To ague against your own interest: if I speak in favor of increasing the penalties
against my own interest.
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF CREDIBILITY
- Expertise
- Trustworthiness
- Goodwill
- Dynamism
- Extroversion
- Sociability
- Composure
2. ATTRACTIVENESS/LIKING
1. SIMILARITY
- The people that apear in advertising are usually of the same age of the public. If
we are showing a toy, we will but a child playing with it.
- Humans make a lot of assumption of peoples attitudes. The main source of
similarity is similarity of attitudes. Similarity works even if we don’t really know
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the attitudes of the people. People use to take into account characteristics such us
the skin color.
2. FAMILIARITY
- Sometimes we see people everyday even if we don’t know anything about them
but they are familiar to us. In some
moment if they ask something to us,
we will help them because they seem
familiar to us. People that are familiar
to us, are more persuasive with us.
- There are some limits and some points in which we are not going to be more
persuasive if we are familiar.
3. PRIZE/GIFTS
- If we are not familiar or similar, how can we increase our attractiveness?
- If we complement a person, we are going to get a more positive attitude.
Even if our complement is exaggerated or obviously not true, we are going to
have a positive effect.
- The worst escenario would be that the attitude towards that person doesn’t
change but never gonna be negative.
- Those complements can be of diferent natures. One complement is to ask
advise, if we ask advise, that means that we believe in his opinion and we take
into account so it is a way of giving a gift.
4. PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
- Attractive people tend to be better persuaders than people that aren’t physically
attractive.
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- There are some theories to explain this: For example, people are more likely to
pay attention to them, they give up a pleasant sensation while they are looking
to them.
- For what can we use physical attractiveness?
- For new stimulus: by association. New positive stimulus
- For capturing attention
- Can work as an argument (related to beauty)
- More effective high sell monitors. Attitude vs behavior
5. FAME
- Is a mix of people that seem familiar to us, are atractive… If we check tv, we will
find that there are a lot of famous people making advertisements. This is because
they are specially interesting for products related to luxury and self expression
such us values. For that, a reputation of a famous person could have an influence.
3. AUTHORITY
1. ABILITY TO PUNISH
- In order to work, this type of authority has to follow 3 rules:
- It can be faked or created
- The receptor has to consider that the source of authority is ready to use that
power
- Authority is able to change behaviors if we think that this authority is watching
us or is able to know what we are doing
2. OTHER POWER FORMS
- The authority relayed to social positions (employee and employers, teacher and
students…) there are some social hierarchic forms in the society
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2. THE MESSAGE (5. THE MESSAGE)
1. ARGUMENTS
1. Quality
- Is something that is important in high elaboration likelihood situations (in
low elaboration is something that it is not important
2. Quantity
- Quantity is important in high elaboration. It is also important when we process
the message by peripheral route (low elaboration).
2. EVIDENCES (McCroskey, 1969)
- “Factual statements originating from a source other than the speaker”
- Factual assertions (factoids)
- Quantitative information (statistics)
- Eyewitness statements
- Testimonials or opinions by credible sources
- Internal (Reinard, 1988)
- Evidece’s Source Credibility
- Quality of the Evidence
- Novelty of the Evidence
- External
- Message source crefibility
- Conviction expressing the Message
- Previous Knowledge about Evidence
- Previous Attitude of the Receptor
- High Elaboration Likelihood
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- Improve the quality of an argument
- Low Elaboration Likelihood
- Reduce ability to process
- Peripheral Cue
3. IMPLICIT/EXPLICIT CONCLUSION DRAWING (O’KEEFE, 1997)
4. NARRATIVE
- Definition: “Any cohesive and coherent story with an identificable beginning, middle
and end that provides information about scene, characters and conflict; raises
unanswered questions or unresolved conflict; and provides resolution”
- Transportation: “The experience of becoming immersed in a story. While transported,
individuals generate mental images of events that, while literally untrue, play out
figuratively in their minds, inducing questioning of existing beliefs.”
- Effects:
- Increases persuasion
- Inhibits counter-arguing
- Induces identification with characters (similarity)
- Ex: I went to a party, Mom, I remembered what you said You told me not to drink,
Mom, so I drank a coke instead...
5. ONE SIDE/TWO SIDES
- One-sided message
- Two-sided message: Arguments in favor and in cont
- With refutation: You present them in which they are less aggressive
- Without refutation: You present both arguments but you don’t refute the contrary
arguments
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- Refutation types
- Argue against contrary arguments
- You admit something (expensive) but then you refute because….
- Play contrary arguments down
- It is expensive but in a relative way, it is still very cheap
- Use humor
- In favor with more strength
- Transform weakness in strength
- You take your great weakness and you put that weakness into the center of the
ad
- Persuasive force
- Two sides with refutation (best one to use, they are in order) (persuasive power
because they are seen as more honest, credibility of the speaker)
- One side
- Two sides without refutation
- There are situations in which this order isn’t the same
- When…
- Very persuasive source
- Audience positively predispose
- In this case, the best option is to use a one side message because they already
have a good source and an audience that is positively predisposed. Better not
no mention the negative side
- When…
- Audience has received or we know that they will receive contrary messages
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- In this case is better to use a two sides message with refutation because it is a
better option if we know that they are going to receive negative messages
- When…
- Little previous knowledge
- Little training
- In this case is better to use one side because if we use the 2 sides and they
don’t have the knowledge to understand it, perhaps they don’t understand the
refutation and could be worse
- When…
- Little time
- No chance to process
- In this case is better to use one side
- When…
- Message saturation
- A lot of competing stimuli
- In this case is better to use one side
6. DISCURSE STRUCTURE
- Anticlimax
- Best arguments in the beginning
- Primacy effect similar as the halo-effect
- Climax
- Best arguments in the end
- Recency effect: the last things are the ones that we are going to remember
- Pyramidal
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- Best arguments in the middle
- The best ones are the climax and anticlimax
- Anticlimax if you want to catch peoples attention from the beginning
- If they already have your attention, use the climax
- If you have a difficult audience is better to start with the arguments that are near to
view of the audience. Arguments that are in their position. (maybe they are lesss
strong but they are more similar to the audience). This is because of the social
adjustment.
- If we have a discurse that is very long, we need to finish very strong because
people will not remember the beginning of the discurse (if we speak for long = the
strongest arguments in the end)
7. FRAMING
- Example: Surgery or radiation? Surgery has the best survival rate in 5 years
- If we say that the 90% survives, more people will chose that option but if we say that
the 10% of people do not survive,
they will choose less this option.
The data is the same but it is
important how to provide it.
8. SPEED OF SPEECH
- Fast speech could be good to:
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- Capture attention
- Communicate the expertise of the source
- Convince receptors with low involvement
- When is relevant to the message topic (fast)
- Fast speech could be bad:
- When the message concerns intimate issues
- When the message is about medical problems
- When there are victims (fast = no caring)
9. FEAR/GUILT
- Fear and guilt are emotions that could be use to persuade people.
- If we use fear, we have to give an explanation of how to avoid it. For example we
have to explain that if they do what we are saying, they will have less probability to
happen that fear.
- The fear is hasn’t only need to be terrible, it has also to affect the audience in a
personal way.
- ILUSION OF INVULNERABILITY: WE THINK THAT BAD THINGS ONLY
HAPPEN TO OTHER PEOPLE
- The higher the level of fear the higher persuasion
- If you use fear you have to scare
- Fear (Leventhal, 1970)
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- Fear = “An internal emotional reaction composed of psychological and
physiological dimensions that may be aroused when a serious and personally
relevant threat is perceived” (Witte, Meyer & Martell, 2001, p.20)
- Fear appeal = “A persuasive communication that tries to scare people into
changing their attitudes by conjuring up negative consequences that will occur if
they do not comply with the message recommendations”
- Illusion of invulnerability = the belief that one is less likely to experience negative
life events than others.
- Extended parallel process model (EPPM)
- Wittle, 1998
- The fear has to be sever and has to affect the receptor personally
- We have to know that there are 2 process that we use when we are in danger:
- Fear control process:
- It makes us to create a defensive motivation
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- Sometimes, instead avoiding the danger, receptors tend to avoid the fear. They
say that the danger isn’t real and that bad things can’t happen in order to don’t
have fear.
- If the receptor hasn’t got enough self steam, he changes the control process and
he works to control his fear instead of working to control the danger
- No es para tanto, no da tanto miedo, el peligro no es real…
- Practical Recommendations:
- Communicators must scare the heck out of recipients.
- Persuaders must shatter the illusion of invulnerability.
- Persuaders must discuss solutions, as well as problems.
- Efficacy recommendations should emphasize costs of not taking precautionary
actions, as well as benefits of undertaking the activity.
- Threats and recommendations should be salient -or relevant- to the target
audience.
- The use of stories work: if people identify with the character of the story, it is
easier for them to feel that it could happen to them.
- If we are in a situation in which the fear is active (for example watching a horror
movie), social proof will work the best to convince people.
- When the movie is related to one, the scarcity arguments work better
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10. DISTRACTION
- Distraction has two effects:
- Produces the ability to counter-argue
- In general reduces our ability and usually we will process the message using the
peripheral rout, the more our receptor is distracted, the ability to counter-argue
is more reduced.
- Reduces memory of the message
- In general if we already have a receptive audience, is not a good idea
to use distraction but if we have a negative audience, it is a good idea to use it.
- Audience with precious negative attitude Reduces counter-arguing✅
- Audience with previous positive attitude Reduces understanding and
remembering❌
- Experiment: to the first group they give food during they were tell the message and
to the other group not. They saw that people reacted better to the message while they
were distratced (people who were eating food). This is why a lot of people use lunch
to distract people and be more persuasive.
11. HUMOUR
- When we use a joke, we put attention in the objective of the message and the joke.
- We could say that jokes works as distractions; it also puts the receptor in a positive
mood and increases awareness.. The problem is that usually we remember the joke
but not the message
- Ex: Using jokes is something that we usually see on tv
- Works as a distraction
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- Puts the receptor in a positive mood
- Increases awareness
- There are two different attitudes (León, 2009)
- Attitude —> The Ad
- This ad is very good, i like it so much = this liking isn’t related with the product
becuase it is usually related with jokes. They take the attention and create a
good attitude towards the add becayse they reffer to the add in a positive way.
- Attitude —> the Product
- If we use a really good joke, we usually improve the attitude towards the add
but not towards the product.
- There are few recommendations to use humor: (León, 2009)
- Use “light” humor:
- If the humor gets all the attention, people will not remember the message
related to the ad (humor can not be the most important thing on the add)
- Use relevant humor (if you remove product):
- If we remove the product from the add is it still funny? If the answer is yes, the
humor is not related to the product so it is irrelevant but if the answer is no, the
humor will be related to the product and will be relevant
- Use general humor (wide audiences):
- This is not always true because sometimes we could have very specialized
audience and we can use jokes that are related to this specific audiences
- This recommendation is thought for tv in general
12. MUSIC
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- The music can have different objectives and when analyze our persuasive pool, we can
decide or analyze which is the objective of the music in each specific ad
- Get attention
- Create moods in the audience
- Convey sensation of calmness or energy
- Make the ad more gratifying for the receptor
- Identify the brand and make it relevant
- Reflect a lifestyle or specific social group related to that music style
- Be a background for the ad
13. REPETITION
- There are several types of repetition. In advertising we usually see the same message
several times because we want the receptors to see the add more than one time.
- Inside the message: if we have an important point of information such us a telephone
number or a brand, we are going to repeat that something more than once
- Repetition is a moderating variable that increases the ability to process because if we
repeat the message several times, the receptor will have more time to process it.
- Message complexity: a message that is very complex can stand more repetition
without reducing their attitude
- Saturation point: when the message is too much repeated, the receptor can
saturate.
1. SECUENTIAL STRATEGIES
- In direct selling, there are strategies that can be used. This is why this sequential
strategies are use face to face or on internet.
- Rejection, then retreat —> Reciprocation
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- This is based in reciprocation. We start a conversation talking about a very
high thing (we know that he is not going to give us) and then we low that
offer. For this strategy to work, the receptor has to perceive that we are
giving something (in this case reducing our expectations).
- Foot in the door —> Commitment / Consistency
- The idea is to offer something that the person can’t say no. For example we
try to sell fire alarm and instead of going to a house to say that we are selling
fire alarms, we go to the house and do a questionnaire about the fire in those
houses. If the person find important to prevent the fire, he will feel that he
has to buy the product.
- Low Ball —> Commitment / Consistency
- It is also related to consistency and commitment. We say: let's do a list of
pros and cons. The person starts with the pros (advantages of the product)
and we help with the list and we tell that person a lot of pros. Then the
person starts with the cons and we don’t help.
- That person has already see that the product have a lot of advantages and few
disadvantages
3. THE CHANNEL (7. CHANEL 2022)
1. TELEVISION —> Usually Peripheral route
- 90% Reach (88,3% according to EGM)
- When we put an add on tv, usually is 20-40 seconds and we have to distinguish
the one from youtube that is a loner version and the one from tv
- No need of literacy
- Expensive Production of the Message
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- Expensive Diffusion Cost > Short Spots
- Low CPM > Cheap for Bigger Audiences
- CPM = cost per mile. We have an expensive cost because everysecond in tv is
really costly. But it can be very cheap:
- Even if tv is an expensive medium, if we make the calculation of how much does
it cost to reach to every person that has shown the tv, is not that spensive (is cheap
because we have millions of impact with a tv add)
- Greater Emotional Impact
- Fleeting, short lived message > repetition needed
- To be effective, people has to see the add more than once so that’s why it have to
be repeated
- Unidirectional (most of the media is unidirectional)
- Passive Receptor
- We usually have a passive receptor (ex: someone doing something else at home)
so normally the receptor process the message with peripheral route. We usually
have very little time for the arguments and even if the motivation is high, ability is
usually low
2. RADIO —> Usually peripheral Route
- Radio works better to convey specific information such us places to go etc buut it
isn’t very effective on persuading people
- 50% Reach (56,5% according to EGM)
- Lesser Emotional Impact (one sense) than TV
- It only uses sound and is more difficult to create emotional impact
- Fleeting, short lived message > repetition very needed
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- In TV we have visual adds and is eassier to remember them but in radio the
repetition is more important (ex: a phone number, the brand, a place)
- Cheap Production of the Message
- It is also important to use more than one add. The production of radio adds is
cheap so we could have 5 different adds for the same campains.
- Cheaper Diffusion Cost > allows longer messages
- Low CPM
- Receptor usually distracted
- Unidirectional
- Intimacy?
- Ten advices to produce a radio persuasive message
- Check the time (read aloud) —> it is important to control it well
- Use close, naatural language
- Use music
- Use sound effects
- Silence could be the most effective “sound” effect
- Silence could be the most powerful effect (with the radio we are used to the
sound and if we use silence, people will pay more attention).
- Try to evoke images using sound (we can create images with sound)
- Repeat important words more than once
- Split the message in several radio ads
- Dialogs work well in radio and specially if we have different voices
- Use jokes, puns and surprises so as to show that we are creative
3. CINEMA
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- Small Reach (5-10%)
- The Biggest Emotional Impact
- Short lived message (longer than TV, shorter than written)
- Unidirectional
- Passive Receptor
- Expensive Production of the Message
- High CPM
4. PRINTED/PRESS/MAGAZINES —> Central / Peripheral Route
- No need for repetition
- More ability to develop arguments
- Active Receptor
- Unidirectional
- Reach: Press ~40% / Supplements ~20% / Magazines ~50%
- Cheaper message production than TV
- They are longer because we have the magazines for a longer time
5. OUTDOOR ADVERTISING —> Usually peripheral Route
- They have a message and they spread it. They usually are design to process by
periferal route because we do not have to process. Aun asi, the ones with longer text
could be designed by the other route
- Distracted Receptor
- Big Sizes —> Big tipe of letter and images to catch the attention of the person
- Catchy Images
- Short Texts
- Waiting zones > longer texts
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- Adds which are focused on places with a longer time (bus stops, metro
stations…) could have longer texts and usually is a small kind of letter but it
wont be read by a person who passes, only by people that is waiting or wants to
read it.
- Unidirectional
- If we find an add on internet and we don’t know if it is outdoor add, it is easy to
know (ex: big titles)
- Advantages:
- Potential placement of the advertisement, close to the point of sale
- High frequency of exposure of local commuters
- They are able to reach a lot of people because a lot of people could walk pass
them
- High reach
- 24-hour presence
- Geographic flexibility for local advertisers
- Economic efficiency in terms of low production costs and low cost per thousand
exposures
- Visual impact from advertising size and message creativity
- Brand awareness
- Disadvantages
- The need to limit the number of words in the message
- Short exposure to the advertisement
- Low demographic selectivity
- Measurement problems (is difficult to know who has seen the add)
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6. DIRECT MARKETING —> Usually central Route
- Written > suitable for complex messages
- No need for repetition (but sometimes is used)
- Even if is not needed, they use scarcity and they use important jey messages. But
normally they don’t use the repetition.
- Communication objectives > usually behavioral (ex: to sell a product or to achieve
data)
- Allows to personalize messages (ex: hi elaia! We have this product for you)
- High selectivity of the target audience
- We can sell the letter only to the people we want to impact.
- Cost depending on the size of the audience
- High CPM but cheaper than Face-to-Face
- Normally it is expensive to do that but is cheaper than sending a seller
- The creativity can also be very useful for this kind of marketing
7. FACE TO FACE COMMUNICATION
- Usually is communication directed to the central route but it can be also used with
peripheral route to make people trust us without giving really deep arguments
- Considered more effective than mass media comm.
- This is because we can receive feedback while we are talking.
- We can create the message at the moment and it is real improvisation even if we
have prepared because we can change our message depending on the feedback
they are giving to us
- Bidirectional
- Lowest production cost of the message (improvisation)
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- Expensive Diffusion Cost > One by one
- We have to pay for the hour of the seller + the displacement
- Higher Credibility is attributed
- Good for behavioral objetives
- Is a very good medium if we want people to do something specific
8. INTERNET: WWW/EMAIL/SOCIAL NETWORKS
- Media within media.
- It has a lot of similitudes with direct marketing. It has some advantages in
physical context because a lot of creativity can be used but they are very similar to
direct marketing and they are used with the same idea
- Difficult to classify: Similitud with other methods:
- Email Marketing > Direct Marketing YouTube video > Television/Cinema Blog
post
- Written piece of news Banner > Outdoor Advertising Podcast > Radio
4. THE RECEPTOR (6. RECEPTOR 2022)
- Functions of the variables
- Argument
- Peripheral Cue
- Quantity of Cognitive Responses
- Increase Confidence in Cognitive Responses
- When we have a decision and a position towards those arguments and we know that
the source of information also agreed, our confidence will increase
1. PERSONAL RELEVANCE
- Because of the consequences —> Outcome-relevant, Issue Involvement
63
- Because of the values —> Commitment, Ego-involvement
- Because of the Image —> Impression-relevant involvement
2. PREVIOUS WARNING
- It means that the receptor already know that is going to receive a message.
Nevertheless, the people who already have a warning of the message, think that their
opinion could be affected and the persuasion lows because they try to discredite the
persuasive message.
- If the receptor knows that we are trying to influence them, they will tend to see all
the arguments and try to destruct them in order to protect their freedom.
3. NEED FOR COGNITION
- It is a personal characteristic that isn’t related to intelligence. It is used to distinguis
if people are high need for cognition or low need for cognition.
- This scale was designed in 1982 (creo) and people that rank high, tend to elaborate
information and check the arguments and analyze more deeply the message = They
process messages by central route
- When receptor has a high need for cognition, he analyses the arguments more
deeply and tend to remember them more.
- This characteristic has being studied from the beginning. People with high need of
cognition are more affected by the firsts arguments because they analyse in a more
deeply way.
- Normally, we will not see adds designed for high cognition need people.
- Text:
64
4. PSYCO-SOCIO DEMOGRAPHICS
- Researchers have tried to discover if women were more easy to persuade than men for
example. And there are some studies that proof this. This studies saw how they have
been done in topics than for example men have had more previous knowledge than
women. So this studies were repeated and they found out that there wasn’t any relation
between women and men.
- Sex —> In some studies, the main idea says that usually a man is more easy to be
persuaded than a women. But there is not a lot of proof and we can say that if there
is a difference, that difference has to be small and that usually is due to different
variables that aren’t related to age
- Age —> They have found that usually younger people are more persuaded than
older people but the difference is small
- Intelligence —> the higher the intelligence, the harder the persuasion. The person
who has a higher intelligence is more difficult to be persuaded because it creates
more arguments.
65
- This is a tricky point because sometimes the person with lower intelligence do not
understand what the person who is persuading is saying
5. PREVIOUS WARNING
- It means that the receptor already know that is going to receive a message.
- Nevertheless, the people who already have a warning of the message, think that their
opinion could be affected and the persuasion lows because they try to discredit the
persuasive message.
- If the receptor knows that we are trying to influence them, they will tend to see all
the arguments and try to destruct them in order to protect their freedom.
6. PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE
- A lot of times, the more the receptor know about a topic, the less persuasive is our
discourse because he already has a strongly held opinion and is difficult to change it.
That’s why we need to use more strong and good arguments for changing his point
of view.
- Good arguments has a bigger effect if they are used with people who has already a
previous knowledge about the topic
7. MOOD
- When people is in a positive mood, tend to have lower motivation and lower ability
to process messages and tend to process it with peripheral route. With a negative
66
mood, people tend to be more motivated to process messages and when they do they
find negative arguments and counter arguments.
- He is going to be focused in going against the message
- Mood has more impact the first time that people are in front of the object. Mood is
deleted when people have a previous opinion but if they have a first impression, it
could have an important effect in the attitude.
8. OTHER RECEPTOR VARIABLES (Briñol and Petty (2004), Individual Differences
in Attitude Change)
- Need to evaluate
- Quickly create attitudes to new stimuli
- They often have attitudes towards social and political issues
- Their attitudes are more accesible
- … and more consistent in time
- Need for Closure
- They prefer a definitive answer instead ambiguity
- They process less information
- Primacy effect is magnified
- They tend to explain facts using previous theories
- Difficult relation with persuasion (¿previous?)
- More affected by quantity of arguments than quality
- Self-Awareness
- Higher coherence between attitudes and behavior
- Higher resistance to persuasion
- In high elaboration likelihood situations, top-down processing
67

- Self-awareness as a temporary state that can be induced
- Autoritarism / Dogmatism
- Easy to persuade with group pressure tactics
- Easier to persuade with authority
- Preference for consistency
- Cialdini’s Commitment
- More susceptible to foot in the door, low balling and other consistency
strategies
- Ex: “I typically prefer to do things in the same way” if you have high
preference for consistency, you will be more persuade by the characteristic
- Bolstering - Counter-arguing
- Counter-arguing:
- First message weak > increased resistance to 2nd
- First message strong > + persuasion
- Bolstering
- Best persuaded by several weak messages
- There is a scale that measure this characteristics. For people that tend to counter argue,
when the first message that they receive is weak, they analyze it and they create
counter argue. They will also would have a resistance to the 2nd message. On the
contrary if the first message is strong, they would be more persuaded.
- We don’t need a lot of strong messages with people that bolster
- Self esteem
- High self steem > + counterarguments
68
- Low self steem > don’t pay attention (they think that the message is not for
them)
- Medium self steem > best for persuasion
- There is some discusion about how self steem could work:
- Low self steem work as a periferal que. If that person is not analysing the
message in deep, he will probably acept the message.
- In general, arguments of high cuality affect to people with high self steem,
because high arguments are more easy to conter argue and they will pay
more attention
- Optimism
- Persuasion according personal relevance
- More persuaded if positive context
- Less persuaded if negative contex
69
5. RHETORICAL FIGURES
1. Hyperbole Parody
2. Juxtaposition
3. Inside Out / Upside Down Without Words
4. Mix & Combine
5. Change the Point of View Taunt & Surprise
6. Alter the Product Metaphor & Analogy
70

Compliance —> BOOK NOTES
- Reciprocation: offer a gift / ask something bigger and then concede
- Social Validation: list-technque / mass apathy
- Commitment: make target accept first 3 simple things / Low-balling (change of conditions)
- Liking: Tupperware -party / Friend of my friend
- Scarcity: Las issues (quantity limit) / Las days (time limit)
- Authority: Uniforms, titles ad other symbols of authority
71

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Apuntes Estrategias

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Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

SERGIO MONGE BENITO

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

1. VALUES —> DOZEN

2. BELIEFS —> THOUSANDS

3. ATTITUDES —> MILLIONS

3. WHICH ARE THE FUNCTIONS

2. DIRECT METHODS (SCALES)

3. REASONS OF FAILURE IN MEASURING

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

4. MODELING (SLT) —> SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

6. ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR

1. USE OF CONTRACEPTIVE PILLS

3. IMPLICATIONS FOR PERSUASION

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING —> PAVLOV, 1903

2. OPERANT CONDITIONING —> SKINNER, 1948

3. MODELING (STL) —> BANDURA, 1977

2. MESSAGE-LEARNING THEORIES (HOVLAND, 1953)

3. SOCIAL JUDGEMENT THEORY

1. SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY (BEM, 1957)

1. THEORY OF REASONED ACTION (FISHBEIN & AZJEN, 2010 (1975))

7. SELF PERSUASION THEORIES

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

1. THROUGH LISTENING TECHNIQUE

8. HIERARCHY OF EFFECTS THEORIES

1. THE SOURCE (4. PERSUASIVE SOURCE)

2. OTHER POWER FORMS

2. THE MESSAGE (5. THE MESSAGE)

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

3. IMPLICIT/EXPLICIT CONCLUSION DRAWING (O’KEEFE, 1997)

5. ONE SIDE/TWO SIDES

3. THE CHANNEL (7. CHANEL 2022)

7. FACE TO FACE COMMUNICATION

8. INTERNET: WWW/EMAIL/SOCIAL NETWORKS

4. THE RECEPTOR (6. RECEPTOR 2022)

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

3. NEED FOR COGNITION

8. OTHER RECEPTOR VARIABLES

3. Inside Out / Upside Down Without Words

4. Mix & Combine

5. Change the Point of View Taunt & Surprise

6. Alter the Product Metaphor & Analogy

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

- Difference between ancient persuasion and contemporary persuasion?

- Number and reach of persuasive communication

- We are connected to the internet, we watch tv, companies call us…

- Persuasive messages travel faster and are shorter (ex: twitter)

- Conducted via Institutions and Organisations

- More subtle and devious

- More complex and meditated

- Digitalization (Exposure to short, Metaphorical Messages with Simultaneous message

exchange among millions of strangers, subject to

- Exposure to a wealth of new, but also bias-

- Is a communication process (is a specific type of communication process) in which the

communicator seeks to elicit a desired response from his receiver

- Not all communication is persuasion but all persuasion is a form of communication

Theory Strategies of Persuasion Lucía Relloso

- Is a conscious attempt by one individual to change the attitudes, beliefs or behavior of

another individual or group of individuals through transmission of some message

- Is a symbolic activity whose purpose is to effect the internalization or voluntary acceptance

- Is a successful intentional effort at influencing another’s mental state through

communication in a circumstance which the persuades has some measure of freedom.