Technology Enhanced Learning

Environments
DEBORAH HEALEY

­Framing the Issue

Technology can be viewed as the tools and related techniques that people use in
achieving their aims. Technology has long been used to provide information in
learning environments, including filmstrip projectors (from the 1920s); reel-to-reel
tape players, often in traditional language labs (from the 1950s); overhead projec-
tors (from the 1960s); and television (from the 1950s). These tools allowed teachers
to bring information and some variety into the classroom. Technology in learning
environments today fills those purposes and more. This entry will focus on the
role that digital technologies play in language teaching and learning: the environ-
ments that are made possible by computers, mobile devices, mp3 players, interac-
tive whiteboards, and the information provided digitally through software and
the Internet.
Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is probably the most widely-rec-
ognized term for the use of digital technology in language learning. Many varia-
tions on the term exist: technology-enhanced language learning (TELL),
mobile-assisted/augmented language learning (MALL), the narrower informa-
tion and communication technologies (ICT) and computer-mediated communica-
tion (CMC), and the broader learning technologies are all widely used.

­Making the Case

What a tool allows (its “affordances”) are one part of how well a learning environ-
ment works, especially with the flexibility of digital technology. Certain affor-
dances can set the stage for effective learning, including connections to others;
anytime, anywhere access; sophisticated practice; and the ability to share and
modify information easily. Taking each in turn:

The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, First Edition.

Edited by John I. Liontas (Project Editor: Margo DelliCarpini).
© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0437

eelt0437.indd 1 11/13/2017 5:42:09 PM

 2 Technology Enhanced Learning Environments

Connection to information and other people with the Internet: The Internet has
provided rich access for teachers and learners to authentic material and to material
designed for learners at different proficiency levels. More importantly for com-
municative language learning in an EFL environment, learners can interact with
other people, both fellow learners and fluent speakers. Access to information by
learners has changed the role of the teacher. The teacher is no longer necessarily
the gatekeeper of language data and linguistic explanations, but rather a facilitator
who aids learners in becoming increasingly autonomous.
Learning anytime, anywhere with mobile devices: Internet-connected mobile
devices can turn any classroom or the outside world into a place where learning
can occur. Mobile devices include phones, with or without Internet; tablets, such
as iPads; digital audio recorders; and digital video players. Broad ownership of
phones with cameras and audio puts a technology-enhanced learning environ-
ment into a student’s and teacher’s pocket. Tablets offer more screen size and often
more app choices. Constraints on using mobile devices include the cost of Internet
access, unequal access to the devices, small screen size, and current limits on what
mobile apps can do. Writing a long essay, for example, is not an affordance
­provided with a mobile phone.
Sophisticated practice with ELT and authentic material: Language learning
occurs at a variety of levels, from memorization to acquisition-enhancing immer-
sion. Digital technologies enable easy use of audio and video, as well as text and
graphical material. Learning can go beyond filling in worksheets or tape-
recorded listen-and-repeat. Grammar and vocabulary practice can still use drills,
but the drills can be presented in multiple media and offer sophisticated ­feedback
with optional help, as well as memory-enhancing spaced repetition. Pronunciation
practice has been dramatically improved with video and animated models of the
mouth and visual feedback indicating how close the learner is to a target sound.
The machine can repeat a sound as often as the learner needs without getting
tired or bored. Online tools and software enable teachers to add comprehension
questions and activities to coursebook or authentic material, giving learners
opportunities to practice in different ways. Text manipulation and concordanc-
ing help learners identify patterns in language. Learners might read, then do a
gap-fill, then a whole-text deletion or jumbled paragraph activity with the same
text. A combination of activities provides learners with the opportunity to work
with content and task, as well as with form. Video games and online spaces such
as Second Life offer language immersion opportunities. Language is often
­incidental learning in these environments. The video game Trace Effects (U.S.
Department of State, 2012) was created as a language-learning tool. The game
itself is immersive, but the ancillary material includes a teacher’s manual and
language practice activities that can help teachers and learners extend their use
of the game.
Storing, sharing, creating, and modifying information and material easily and
flexibly: Cloud computing offers the ability to store, share, create, and modify
information in a virtual space. Free cloud storage has size limits, but offers far
more space than almost all school servers. Sharing is also often more flexible in the

eelt0437.indd 2 11/13/2017 5:42:09 PM

 Technology Enhanced Learning Environments 3

cloud. Cloud-based software does not necessarily need to be loaded onto school or
home computers in order to be used. Web 2.0 (“Social Web”) tools allow teachers
and learners to join or create social networks. Web 2.0 tools provide the ability to
create and modify information and material easily, often for free or at very low
cost. Ordinary people can be creative in ways not imagined before.
The physical environment in which learning takes place is another factor in
effective learning. The rise of communicative, constructivist classrooms has lim-
ited the utility of traditional labs with private booths, whether stocked with audio-
tapes or computer monitors. Computer labs can be set up to be flexible, with the
computers around the outside of the room and tables for off-computer work also
available. Class sets of mobile devices provide more flexibility, though possibly at
greater cost than computers to put in a lab. Mobile devices can be used in any
environment and for individual, pair, and group work. This flexibility is a blessing
when teaching or learning and a curse when testing.
Projection devices include computer projectors, document cameras that can dis-
play solid objects, and interactive whiteboards (IWBs). All allow information to be
shared with a group easily. One advantage of the IWB is that most are designed to
save information, as well as to display it. As with most complex technology, the
learning curve for effective use can be steep.
Hybrid environments include both face-to-face and online learning. Technology
enables access to a wide variety of resources and to other learners. A “flipped
classroom” is often a feature of hybrid learning environments. Learners interact
with the material online, perhaps by viewing videos, listening to audio, and dis-
cussing with others before they come into their face-to-face class. In other hybrid
environments learners do most of their work online, then have a face-to-face meet-
ing with a tutor, either individually or in a group.
Online environments also take advantage of access to a wide variety of
resources and to other learners. Online learning can range from classes with
live lectures delivered on video and real-time interaction with the instructor
and other learners in small groups, to massive open online courses (MOOCs)
where learners may be going through material entirely on their own at their
own pace. Highly autonomous learning environments work best for highly
self-motivated learners. The very low completion rate in MOOCs, typically as
low as 7% (Parr, 2013), may be due to the difficulty many people have with
­no-cost autonomous learning with no consequences for failure and limited
attention to learner failure by course instructors. There are still a substantial
number who do succeed in MOOCs, even with a low percentage, however: 7%
of 30,000 is over 2000 people.
Research conducted over the years with CALL and now with mobile learning
has found that its effectiveness in many cases depends on factors outside the tech-
nology itself. Chris Jones’ still-relevant 1986 article, “It’s not so much the program,
more what you do with it” (Jones, 1986) shifts attention from the tool to its use.
Similarly, work by a number of researchers points to the important role the teacher
plays in setting the stage and creating an environment for effective use of technol-
ogy (Sawhill, 2008). Learner motivation can be initially enhanced with technology,

eelt0437.indd 3 11/13/2017 5:42:09 PM

 4 Technology Enhanced Learning Environments

but flag when the novelty wears off. If the tool is used poorly or if technology fails
too often, its effectiveness is limited.

­Pedagogical Implications

One way of considering how teachers can use technology is with the SAMR
(Substitution, Augmentation, Modifications, Redefinition) Model proposed by
Ruben Puentedura (Puentedura, 2009). Puentedura suggests four levels of technol-
ogy use: Substitution, where technology is a direct substitute for a non-technological
approach with no change in function; Augmentation, where technology is a substi-
tute that adds improved functionality; Modification, where the use of technology
allows the task to be significantly changed; and Redefinition, where new tasks that
were previously not possible become achievable. The first two are enhancements,
while the final two are transformations of activity (Puentedura, 2009).
Any or all of the levels can be part of a technology-enhanced environment. Take,
for example, connecting teachers and learners to information. At the most basic
level, substitution, the technology tool substitutes for another, non-digital tool.
This might mean doing a dictionary lookup on the computer rather than in a paper
dictionary. Augmentation adds audio to the dictionary experience, or allows
words to be looked up from within any online reading. At the transformation level
is a web search with the target word to see its use in context, or concordancing to
see the use of the word in a variety of contexts: spoken vs. written, general English
vs. legal English, and so forth. Redefinition includes having learners modify an
existing entry or create their own in Wikipedia to share their perspectives with and
be validated by a wider community. Learners are transformed from consumers to
creators of content.
Using email rather than sending a letter is a way of enhancing connections to
people, especially when responding quickly allows for more peer-to-peer
exchanges. Voice-based applications like Skype start to transform the experience,
as would having learners interact with each other via ever-present mobile devices.
When learners create their own content and have followers on blogs, YouTube
channels, Twitter, and other online media, the experience of connecting to people
is redefined in ways not possible without digital technology.
Mobile devices can enhance or transform learning. Using flashcards on a mobile
phone can be a substitution or augmentation of paper-based cards. Since learners
are more likely to carry around their phones than flashcards, mobile-based flash-
cards are generally an improvement, since they are more likely to be used. Class
sets of mobile devices such as tablets are more portable than desktop computers in
a lab and allow flexible groupings. Learners can take their devices outside the
classroom, as well. Transformation enters the picture when the full potential of
mobile devices is brought into play. For example, learners can take pictures and
videos for their digital stories, record narration, add text, and share their work
with a school-wide or global audience from a tablet or even from a phone. Place-
based games such as those described by Holden & Sykes (2011) provide

eelt0437.indd 4 11/13/2017 5:42:09 PM

 Technology Enhanced Learning Environments 5

information and clues based on learners’ physical, GPS-based location. This takes
learners out of their desks and into the world.
The word-processor was an early substitute for the typewriter, but one that
enhanced what the typewriter could do. Puentedura (2009) points out that the
Augmentation level adds some improvements, such as spell checking and cut-
and-paste. The Modification level adds integrated spreadsheets, graphics, and
email. An interactive whiteboard’s ability to display, edit, print, and store informa-
tion is another example of modification. Redefinition changes the use of the tool in
ways not previously possible. Cloud-based computing provides the ability to
store, share, create, and modify information and material easily and flexibly. Truly
collaborative writing, with multiple simultaneous editors, is possible with Google
Docs and other cloud-based options. Class assignments and one’s own work can
be accessed from any computer or mobile device, which makes anytime, anywhere
learning feasible.
Hybrid and online environments can also exist at all four levels. Reading online
rather than in a book and doing a quiz online rather than in class are substitution-
level activities. Computer grading can certainly be an enhancement for teachers.
Transformation happens when learners work independently online in directed
ways, then come to class to share their work collaboratively, extending learning
effectively both inside and outside of class. An online or hybrid environment can
also leverage cloud computing, use Web-based communication and collaboration
tools, and connect learners with authentic material and communities outside of
their face-to-face or online class.
All four SAMR levels can be part of an effective technology-enhanced learning
environment. All four levels need time, practice, and attention to implement well.

­Conclusion

Web 2.0, the “social web,” has transformed how teachers and learners interact
with each other and others. Users can be creators rather than just consumers of
information. Mobile devices have also enabled major changes in where and how
learning can take place, and what technology-enhanced learning environments
can look like. However, every technology ever proposed has been touted as pro-
viding teachers and language learners with fast, better, and deeper learning.
The reality has generally been far from the promise. Far too often, proponents of
technology use have focused on the tool rather than on its use in a learning envi-
ronment. Any tool can be well used or poorly used, and more complex tools that
offer more potential benefits also take more time to learn to use well. It is essential
to keep in mind that effective technology-enhanced learning environments are
­created by people, not by technology. Teachers and learners who are aware of the
possibilities and able and willing to take advantage of them can create learning
environments that take advantage of what technology can bring, and thus trans-
form the educational experience possible in technology-enhanced learning
environments.

eelt0437.indd 5 11/13/2017 5:42:09 PM

 6 Technology Enhanced Learning Environments

SEE ALSO: Blended Learning; CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning);

Emerging Technologies; Online Learning; Social Networking; Teacher Preparation
for Using Technology; Technology and Constructivism

References

Holden, C. L., & Sykes, J.M. (2011). Leveraging mobile games for place-based language
learning. International Journal of Game-based Learning, 1(2), 1–18. doi:10.4018/
ijgbl.2011040101
Jones, C. (1986). It’s not so much the program, more what you do with it: The importance of
methodology in CALL. System, 14(2), 171–8.
Parr, C. (2013). Not staying the course. Inside Higher Education, May 10. Retrieved from
https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/05/10/new-study-low-mooc-completion-
rates
Puentedura, R. R. (2009). As we may teach: Educational technology, from theory into practice.
Retrieved from http://www.hippasus.com/rrpweblog/archives/000025.html
Sawhill, B. (2008). The changing role of the language teacher/technologist. IALLT Journal,
40(1), 1–17. Retrieved from http://www.iallt.org/sites/default/files/Sawhill08.pdf
U.S. Department of State. (2012). Trace effects. (Video game). Retrieved from http://
americanenglish.state.gov/trace-effects

Suggested Readings

Chinnery, G. M. (2014). CALL me … maybe: A framework for integrating the Internet into
ELT. English Teaching Forum, 52(1), 2–13. Retrieved from http://americanenglish.state.
gov/files/ae/resource_files/52_1_3_chinnery.pdf
Hanson-Smith, E. (2007). Critical issues: Places and spaces. In J. Egbert & E. Hanson-Smith
(Eds.), CALL environments (2nd ed., pp. 42–58). Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Healey, D. (2007). Classroom practice: Language knowledge and skills acquisition. In
J.  Egbert & E. Hanson-Smith (Eds.), CALL environments (2nd edition, pp. 173–93).
Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Motteram, G. (Ed.). (2013). Innovations in learning technologies for English language
teaching. Retrieved from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/
C607%20Information%20and%20Communication_WEB%20ONLY_FINAL.pdf
Schrock, K. (2017). Kathy Schrock’s guide to everything: SAMR. Retrieved from http://
www.schrockguide.net/samr.html

eelt0437.indd 6 11/13/2017 5:42:09 PM