12-Nov-19

SURVEYING

Surveying
“Surveying is the art and
science of determining the
relative positions of various
points or stations on the
surface of the earth by
measuring the horizontal and
vertical distances, angles, and
taking the details of these
points and by preparing a
map or plan to any suitable
scale.”

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Levelling
“Leveling is a branch of
surveying which deals with
the measurement of relative
heights of different points
on, above or below the
surface of the earth. Thus
in leveling, the
measurements (elevations)
are taken in the vertical
plane.”

Uses of Surveying
Topographical
Hills, Valleys, Rivers, Forests, Villages, Towns
Map

Cadastral Map Boundaries of Fields, Plots, Houses

Position of Engg, works like Buildings, Roads,

Engineering Map
Railways, Dams, Canals

Topography of area to find out sites for Roads,

Contour Map
Railways, Bridges, Reservoirs, Canals

Military Map Military Operations

Geological Map To locate Mines, Ores

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Topographical Map Cadastral Map Engineering Map

Contour Map Military Map Geological Map

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Plane vs. Geodetic Survey

Sr.
No. Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
The earth surface is considered The earth surface is considered as
1
as plane Surface. curved Surface.
The Curvature of the earth is The curvature of earth is taken into
2.
ignored account.
Line joining any two stations The line joining any two stations is
3
is considered to be straight considered as spherical.
The triangle formed by any
The Triangle formed by any three
4. three points is considered as
points is considered as spherical.
plane

5. Carried out for area < 250 km2 Carried out for area > 250 km2

The angles of triangle are The angles of the triangle are

6. considered as plane. considered as spherical angles.

Plumb lines are parallel to each Plumb lines intersect at centre of

7.
other earth

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Principles of Surveying
Always work from whole to the part

Principles of Surveying
To locate a new station by at least two measurements
(Linear or Angular) from fixed reference points

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Classification of Surveying
A. Nature of Field C. Instruments Used
1. Land 1. Chain
2. Marine 2. Compass
3. Astronomical 3. Plane table
B. Object 4. Theodolite
1. Geological 5. Tacheometric
2. Mine 6. Photographic
3. Archaeological D. Methods used
4. Military 1. Triangulation
2. Traverse

Plan and Maps

A plan is the graphical representation to some scale, of the
features on, near or below the surface of the earth as projected
on a horizontal plane.
In plane surveying the area involved are small, the earth's surface
may be considered as plane and hence plan is constructed by
orthographic projections. A plan is drawn on a relatively large
scale.
If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is
small, the plan is called a map. Thus graphical representation is
called a plan if the scale is large while it is called a map if the
scale is small.
On plan, generally only horizontal distances and directions or
angles are shown. On topographical map, however the vertical
distances (elevations) are also represented by contour lines.
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Scale
• The ratio by which the actual length of the object is
reduced or increased in the drawing is known as the
"Scale“
• It is basic requirement for the preparation of plan or map.
• Scale is used to represent large distances on paper.
For Example:
1 cm on a map represents a distance of 10 metres on the
ground, the scale of the map is said to be 1 cm = 10 m.

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Scale

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Representative Fraction
The ratio of the distance on the drawing to the
corresponding actual length of the object on the
ground is known as the representative fractions. i.e..

R.F. =

Both the distances are in same unit

If a scale is 1 cm = 10 m, then

R.F. = = = :

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Choice of Scale of a Map

Scales are generally classified as:
• Large Scale: 1 cm= 10 m or less than 10 m
• Medium Scale: 1 cm = 10 m to 100 m
• Small Scale: 1 cm= 100 or more than 100 m

Length
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 foot = 0.3048 m
1 yard = 3 feet
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 nautical mile = 1.852 km
Area
1 acre = 4046.86 m2
100 acre= 1 hectare
1 hectare = 10,000 m2
1 hectare = 2.471 acres
100 hectares= 1 km2

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Choice of Scale of a Map

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Extended / Shrunk Scale

Shrinkage Factor, S. F. =

Shrunk Scale = S. F. X
Q. A map has shrunk a 10 cm long reference line is now read as 9.4 cm
only. If original scale of map 1 cm = 25 cm, find
(a) Length of line on ground if measured length is 8.2 cm
(b) Area of plot if measured area on map is 234.5 cm2.

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Graphical Representation
of Scale
Graphical representation of scale on maps has the
advantage that if the paper shrinks, the scale will
also shrink accordingly and the distance
representation will not be disturbed.

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Types of Scales
Plain Scale
• Most commonly used in maps
• Used to represent two successive units

Diagonal Scale
• Used to represent three successive units
• Like units, tenths and hundreds

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Types of Scales
Chord Scale Vernier Scale
• to measure or In 1631, Pierre Vernier
• to set off angles invented a device for the
• marked either on rectangular purpose of measuring a
or on an ordinary wooden fractional part of a graduated
scale scale. It consists of two
approximating scales, one of
them is fixed and is called the
primary scale. The other
movable and is called the
vernier.

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Vernier Scales
The vernier is a subsidiary scale replacing a single measured-
value pointer, and has for instance ten divisions equal in
distance to nine divisions on the main scale.
Vernier caliper scales; main at top, vernier at bottom. It reads 3.58 ± 0.02
mm by adding 3.00 mm (left red mark) on the fixed main scale to vernier
0.58 mm (right red mark). The main scale reading is that to the left of
the zero on the vernier scale. The vernier reading is found by locating the
best aligned lines between the two scales. The 0.02 mm engraving
indicates the caliper's readability and is the "Vernier constant" for this
scale.

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1. Direct Vernier
 Both scales (vernier and main) move
in the same direction
 Vernier divisions are marked in the
same direction as that of the main
scale.
 d = smallest division on main scale
 v = smallest division on vernier scale
=
 Least Count (LC)- The smallest
distance measured using a vernier
scale Fig. (a) Direct Vernier
(b) Measuring the length of
 LC = d ‒ v = d - = d/v the rectangle
 Vernier Constant (VC) = LC * Value
of 1 main scale division.
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2. Retrograde Vernier /
Backward Vernier
 Vernier and main scales move in the opposite direction
 Vernier divisions are marked in the opposite direction as of the
main scale
 n vernier divisions are expanded into the space of (n + 1) main
scale divisions, we say the vernier-scale ratio is [(n ): (n + 1)].
Thus, the divisions of the vernier scale will be larger than on the
main scale and will help in easy reading.
 LC of Direct and Retrograde Vernier are same.

Fig. (a) Retrograde Vernier (b) measuring the length using a

retrograde vernier scale (note the arrow)
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3. Extended Vernier
 Similar to the Direct vernier scale except that... every second
division is omitted.
 Therefore, (2n-1) divisions of the main scale are taken and they
are divided into n equal parts.
 It is regularly employed in the astronomical sextant

Fig. (a) Extended Vernier (b) measuring the length using an

extended vernier scale (note the arrow)

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4. Double Folded Vernier

 Calibrated in both direction of index line
 The directions of reading of main and vernier scales should be
the same.
 Employed where the length of the corresponding direct vernier
would be so great as to make it impracticable
 used in compasses having the zero in the middle of the scale

Fig. Measuring the length using a double folded vernier scale

(note the arrow)

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