BOTANY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | Millen O.
Arenas
TRANSPORT MECHANISM
Solutes – diffusion or active transport (atoms, ions, molecules)
Water – osmosis
Symplastic transport – movement through the interior of cells;
within the cytoplasm
- Plasmodesmata: symplast of cell
Diffusion (passive diffusion) – net passive movement of
particles from a higher to lower solute concentration.
- Continues until the concentration is uniform
throughout (equilibrium)
- Happens without both energy and carrier.
High diffusion rate (speed) – short distance, large surface
area*, big concentration difference**
*small things have larger surface area (contact exposure
of a substance)
** concentration/electrochemical gradient: ⬆ gap, ⬆
diffusion; difference in concentration (results to voltage)
Fick’s law – ⬆ temperature*, ⬆ diffusion; ⬆molecules**, ⬇
diffusion.
- The rate of diffusion depends on the concentration
gradient & *diffusion constant
**small surface area
 H+ is being pumped out (active transport) by proton
pump so that ATP can enter (with H+); in plants,
fungi, and bacteria, proton pump transport positive
charge from inside to outside/cytoplasm to
extracellular solution (generating voltage; so energy is
stored by electrogenic pumps for cellular work).
 In a cell at rest, the cell is negative (inside). To
rehydrate, cation is needed so that sugar can enter
e.g.: gas exchange for photosynthesis
Facilitated diffusion – diffusion via specific carrier protein but
with no energy used; only allows 1 molecule/grp. to pass
through (selected by size, shape, and charge)
- Uses aquaporins, ion channels & carrier proteins.
e.g.: glucose and amino acids
Osmosis – diffusion of H2O through semi-permeable*
membrane from more dilute to more concentrated sol’n
- Down to a water potential gradient
- Passive; no energy is used
*barrier that permits some & not permits some
e.g.: absorption of water by plant roots
Tonicity – property based in osmosis; ability of a sol’n to cause
a cell to gain or lose H2O; depends on conc. of solute that
can’t cross the membrane (nonpenetrating solutes), relative
to that inside of cell.
Isotonic (animal cell) – there is a flow but the rate is the same
(no net movement) across the plasma membrane.
Hypertonic – shrinking (crenation) of cell because of large # of
solute outside thus the H2O will go out.
- Increase in salinity of a lake thus killing the animals
(animal cell shrivels* and dies)
*plasmolysis (plasma membrane pulls away from cell
wall)
Hypotonic – H2O will enter fastly in the cell (inwards) because
of less solute outside the cell; the cell will swell and lyse
(burst)
- Cell will store the H2O in vacuole
Active transport – uses both energy (ATP) and transport or
carrier protein.
- Enables a cell to maintain internal concentration of
small solutes differing in concentration from
environment.
- ⬆ to ⬇ concentration (against concentration gradient)
Bulk transport – large molecules (proteins & polysaccharides)
cross the membrane in bulk by mechanisms that involve
packaging in vesicles; requires E
Exocytosis – going outside or exit; cell secretes molecules by
the fusion of vesicles with plasma membrane. The contents of
vesicle then spill to the outside of cell and the vesicle
membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane.
- Golgi apparatus packages something through vesicle
> microtubules push the vesicle to the plasma
membrane > vesicle & plasma membrane dissolves
each other > the unwanted particle is ejected
Endocytosis – entering; cell takes in biological molecules by
forming new vesicles from cell membrane; as the pocked
deepens, it pinches in, forming a vesicle containing material
that had been outside the cell.
1. Phagocytosis (solids) – cell eating; cell engulfs a
particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it and
packaging it within a membrane enclosed sac (large
enough to call vacuole). The particle is digested after
the vacuole fuses with a lysosome containing
hydrolytic enzymes.
2. Pinocytosis (liquid) – cell drinking; cell plasma gulps
droplets of membrane extracellular fluid into tiny
vesicles. It is not the fluid itself that is needed by the
cell, but the molecules dissolved in droplets. Because
any and all included solutes are taken into cell,
pinocystosis is nonspecific in the substances it
transports.
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis – enables the cell to
acquire bulk quantities of specific substances, even
though those substances may not be very
concentrated in the extracellular fluid (for drugs).
 Receptor – binds with ligands (substance)
 Coated pits – region in cell membrane
where receptor proteins are usually
clustered; lined on cytoplasmic side by
fuzzy layer of coat proteins; in binding, it
forms a vesicle containing the ligand
molecules.
Drug adulteration – debasement (reducing the standard
quality) of any article which involves a number of different
conditions.
1. Inferiority – substandard drug; amount is lower than
what is claimed.
e.g.: Strychnosnux vomica seeds must contain 1.15%
or more of strychnine (USP/NF)
2. Deterioration – any impairment of quality by
abstraction/destruction of valuable constituents by
distillation, extraction, moisture, aging, and heat.
e.g.: volatile oils – heat labile (perfume)
3. Spoilage – a form of substandard drug in which the
quality has been so impaired by the action of
microorganisms so as to render the article unfit for
human consumption.
e.g.: coconut oil – spoilage due to rancidity
4. Admixture – addition of one article to another thru
accident; ignorance/carelessness
5. Sophistication – intentionally done
6. Substitution – occurs an entirely different article is
used or sold in place of another required; e.g.: corn
starch instead rice starch
ROOTS
Main functions of roots:
1. Anchor the plant;
2. Absorb & conduct
water and minerals;
and
3. Produce hormones
and other substances
that regulate plant’s
development &
structure.
Two main patterns of root growth:
 1. Taproot system – has a large main root known as
taproot.
 Taproot develops directly from the radicle (root-
like; a part of embryo or immature plantlet within
the seed that grows out and develops into the firs
root) and produces branch roots called lateral roots.
 Radicle may develop into a thick taproot, from
which thinner branch roots arise, or many
adventitious roots may arise from the stem, which
is attached to the radicle and continuous with it.
 Taproot penetrates deeply and are therefore well
suited for plants that become larger (e.g.: trees).
 Most dicotyledonous plants (peas, carrots, “two
seed leaves”) have taproot systems with one, or
occasionally more, primary roots from which
secondary roots develop.
 Thick (more volume to absorb water); the growth is
more vertical – goes deeper
2. Fibrous root system (adventitious roots)
 (Adventitious roots) those that do not develop from
another root but develop instead from a stem, lead
or another plant part.
 (Fibrous root system) may have large numbers of
fine roots of similar diameter , then develops from
the adventitious roots.
 Typically shallower and more horizontal than a
taproot system that allows roots to quickly obtain
water before it evaporates.
 Monocotyledonous plants (corn, rice, “one seed
leaf”) have fibrous root systems.
 In ivies, this aids in climbing, appearing along the
aerial stems
 In certain plants with specialized stams (rhizomes,
corns, bulbs) only a.r. are produces.
 Finer; the growth is more lateral
Root structures:
1. Root cap – composed of a thimble-shaped mass of
parenchyma cells covering the tip of each root.
 Quite obvious in some, others nearly invisible
 Function: to protect from damage the delicate
tissue behind it as the young root tip pushes
through open angular and abrasive soil particles.
 The root cap has no equivalent in stems.
 The dictyosome (golgi bodies) of root cap’s outer
cells secrete and release a slimy substance
(mucigel) that lodges in the walls and eventually
passes to the outside.
 The cells, which are replaced from the inside,
constantly slough off, forming a slimy lubricant that
facilitates the root tip’s movement through the soil.
It also provides a medium favorable to the growth
of beneficial bacteria (rhizobium that enters the
roots through a root hair called infection thread)
that add to the nitrogen supplies available to the
plant.
 Root cap’s cells have an average life of less than a
week, a new root cap is produced.
 Root cap also functions in the perception of gravity
(amyloplasts, the plastid containing starch grains,
act as gravity sensors – collecting on the sides of
root cap cells facing the direction of gravitational
force) – the root begins to grow downward [again]
within 30 mins. to few h.; Calcium ions influence
the distribution of growth hormones in cells
(amyloplasts).
2. Region of cell division – composed of an apical
meristem in the center of root tip, producing the
surrounding root cp.
 Inverted cup-shaped zone located a short distance
behind the actual base of the meristem.
 Cells divide every 12-36 hrs (usually towards noon
& midnight).
 Cells are mostly cubical with relatively large, more
or less centrally located nuclei and a few very small
vacuoles.
 Apical meristem subdivides into three meristematic
areas:
(a) Protoderm (epidermis): develops from the
outside portion
(b) Ground meristem (ground tissue, parenchyma
cells of the cortex): inside the protoderm
(c) Procambium (vascular tissue: xylem &
phloem): solid cylinder in the center of root
 Pith: a parenchyma tissue which originates from the
ground meristem, is generally present in stems but
is absent in most dicot roots. (grass roots &
monocots)
3. Region of elongation – where the derivatives stop
dividing and begin to grow in length.
 Merges with the apical meristem, usually extending
about 1 cm (0.4 in) or less from the tip of root.
 The cells become several times their original length
and wider.
 Tiny vacuoles are formed that merge and grow until
one or two large vacuoles, occupying up to 90% or
more of the volume of each cell.
 Where most growth of root takes place as the cell
lengthen, the process that actually extends the root
farther into the soil.
 Only the root cap and apical meristem are pushing
through the soil, since no further increase in cell
size takes place above the region of elongation.
 The usually extensive remainder of each root
remains stationary for the life of the plant. If a
cambium is present, however, there normally is a
gradual increase in girth through the addition of
secondary tissues produced by the cambium.
4. Region of maturation – cells begin specializing in
structure and function into different cell types, such
as epidermal cells and conducting cells.
 Region of differentiation or root hair zone: region
where most of the cells mature or differentiate into
various distinctive cell types of primary tissues
 Root hair zone (large numbers of hairlike, delicate
protuberances that develop from many of
epidermal cells.
 Root hairs: protuberances (projections) which
absorb water and minerals, adhere slightly to soil
particles with the aid of microscopic fibers they
produce and greatly increase the total absorptive
surface of the root.
 When a seedling or plant is removes, many of the
delicate root hairs are torn off or die within seconds
if exposed to the sun, thereby greatly reducing the
plant’s capacity to absorb water and minerals in
solution. (this is why plants should be watered,
shaded, and pruned after transplanting until new
root hairs have formed).
 The life of average root hair is not more than a few
days, although a few lives for a max. of perhaps
three weeks.
 The cuticle (epidermis) which may be relatively
thick on the epidermal cells of stems and leaves, is
thin enough on the root hairs and epidermal cell of
roots in the region of maturation to allow water to
be absorbed but still sufficient to protect against
invasion by bacteria and fungi.
  In some roots, the epidermis, cortex, and - Mycorrhizae (fungi) is necessary for phosphate
endodermis (regulates the flow of substances absorption in plants. It lives in root hairs.
between cortex and vascular tissue) are sloughed - Saprophytic: host is dead plant
off as their girth increases, but in those roots where
the endodermis is retained, the inner walls of the  Phytomediation – plants that detoxify soil from metal
endodermal cells eventually become thickened by poisoning (Au, Ag, Pb, Pt, Hg, Cd, Cs (mining)
the addition of alternating layers of suberin and
Kamoteng kahoy - Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae) –
tapioca plant or cassava
- Leaves: yield saponins, flavonoids, and vitamin C
- Contains cyanoglycoside (toxic) linamarin
Tugi – Dioscorea tugui or Discorea esculenta (Dioscoreaceae)
– lesser/Asiatic/Chinese yam
- World’s best source of steroids
Gabi – Colocasia esculenta (Araceae) – taro, taro potato
- Contains predominant lactobacilli (in amt.
greater than in yogurt)
Kamote – Ipomea batatas (Convulvolaceae) – sweet potato
- Considered as antioxidant

wax. Later, cellulose and sometimes lignin are

deposited.
Specialized roots

1. Food-storage roots – store large quantities of starch

(amyloplasts) and other carbohydrates for extensive
growth. (carrots, beets, turnips, and radishes – the
f.s. tissues are usually a combination of root and
stem).
- Approximately two centimeters at the top of ave.
carrot is derived from stem tissue that merges
with root tissue below.

2. Pneumatophores – spongy roots which extend above

the water’s surface and enhance gas exchange
between the atmosphere and the subsurface roots to
which they are connected.
- Mangrove, bald cypress tree

3. Propagative roots (fruit-bearing) – many plants

produce adventitious buds (buds appearing in places
other than stems) along the roots that grow near the
surface of ground. The buds develop into aerial
stems are called suckers (shoots up from the roots;
produce rootlets from primary roots), which have
additional rootlets at their bases. Cherries, apples, STEMS
pears, and other fruit trees produce suckers.
4. Aerial roots – velamen roots (absorb moisture) of  The first stem of a plant develops from part of a seed
orchids, prop roots of corn and banyan trees, embryo called epicotyl, which is a continuation of
adventitious roots of ivies, and photosynthetic roots hypocotyl (a portion of embryonic stem located
of certain orchids are among the various kinds of under the cotyledon).
aerial roots.
- Often occur in epiphytes, plants that grow on
(5) Functions of stem
other plants for support but nourish themselves
5. Contractile roots – some herbaceous dicots &
 Produce and support appendages of plant (leaves,
monocots have contractile roots that pull the plant
flowers, fruits).
deeper into the soil. Many lily bulbs are pulled a little
 Transport water and solutes between roots and
deeper into the soil each year as new sets of
leaves.
contractile roots are developed.
 Stems in some plants are photosynthetic (e.g.:
- Roots contain minerals; when used up as energy,
Opuntia – prickly pear, also stores H 2O; Cactaceae –
it contracts
dragon fruit).
 Produce and store minerals necessary in life (H 2O,
6. Buttress roots – flared roots that extends from tree
starch, C6H12O6)
trunks, contributing to stability.
 In some plants, stems have become adapted for
- Fig tree: large roots for large tree (specially
specialized functions.
designed for support, not for water)
- Strong hold or support  Stems support a display of leaves (and ✿), it orients
the leaves toward the light with minimal overlap
7. Parasitic roots – contains haustoria which penetrates among the leaves (balanced exposure).
the stems and roots of other plants to obtain water,  Produce defense chemical [also for H 2O storage and
minerals and organic molecules photosynthesis] (e.g.: Laphophora williamsii
- Sucks out through xylem and phloem (Lactaceae) Peyote – mescaline, a hallucinogen*
considered as poison)
 *alters mood and perception (sensory organs) 6. Bulbs – large buds with small stem at the lower end
surrounded by numerous fleshy leaves that store
Herbaceous Woody nutrients; adventitious roots at base (e.g.: onion,
Soft and green Tough & not green (brown) tulip, hyacinth, daffodil, lily).
Little growth in Considerable growth in 7. Corms – resemble bulbs but composed entirely of
diameter diameter stem tissue surrounded by a few papery scale like
Tissues chiefly primary Tissues chiefly secondary leaves, food storage organs with adventitious roots
(growth) at the base of corms (e.g.: crocus & gladiolus)
Chiefly annual Chiefly perennial (forever) 8. Cladophylls – cladodes;
leaf-like stems modified for
Covered by epidermis Covered by corky bark photosynthesis (e.g.:
Buds mostly naked Buds chiefly covered by butcher’s broom,
scales asparagus, orchids
(Epidendrum))
Lenticles – breathing pores; tiny raised pores for gaseous 9. Succulent stems – stout
exchange. fleshy stems that are
Bud scale scars – show where terminal buds have been modified for H2O and food
located. storage (e.g.: cactus)
Leaf scars – show where leaves were attached; usually 10. Thorns – for protection from
crescent-shaped or circular marks left by the fall of leaves. grazing animals (e.g.:
Terminal bud or apical bud – bud located at the tip of stem or bougainvillea, honey locust,
twig black locust).
Axillary lateral bud – bud located along the side of stem 11. Tendrils – for support (e.g.:
Xylem – the tissue that transports H 2O & nutrients up from squash, ampalaya, cadena-de-amor, grapes).
roots to stem & leaves. Physiology of stems
Phloem – tissue that transports food down from leaves to  Conduction of materials by xylem – (a) Root pressure
roots. – powered by transpiration of water from the leaves
Cambium (meristematic tissue) – thin, green, actively growing (b) Transpiration pull and water cohesion – water is
tissue located between bark and wood and produces all new pulled up from the roots due to adhesion of water to
stems cells. the xylem walls & tension generated by the water-
Pith – center potential gradient between leaves & xylem.
Xylem – near the pith; wood  Conduction of Materials by Phloem - nutrient-rich
Vascular cambium – separates phloem and xylem fluid in the phloem moves from areas of high solute
Cortex – contains strengthening collenchyma cells, storage concentration & water pressure to areas of low solute
parenchyma cells, and frequently strengthening fiber or stone concentration
cells. Epidermis & water
pressure
 If a plant has bark and wood, it is a dicot. Pharmaceutical
 Xylem, phloem, and vascular cambium are called Importance of Stems
vascular bundle.  Cinnamon –
aromatic and
flavoring
ingredient in
foods, soaps
and
medicines;
farmers strip
the bark from
the stems of
a cinnamon.
Fragrant cinnamon oil
results from distilling the
Monocots Dicots bark, cinnamon sticks are
One cotyledon Two cotyledon
Veins usually parallel Veins usually netlike
Vascular bundles complexly V. bundles in ring
arrange
Fibrous root system Tap root system
✿: multiples of three ✿: multiples of 4/5

Modified and specialized stems

1. Stolons – runners; horizontal stem that grow above
the ground with long internodes. (e.g.: Cynodon
dactylon [Bermuda grass], Spider plant
[Chlorophytum], Fern [Nephrolepis]).
2. Rhizomes – horizontal stems that grow below the
ground with adventitious roots (e.g.: irises, ferns,
grasses, ginger).
3. Food-storage stems – e.g. cactus, bamboo shoots
(labong), kohlrabi, sugarcane
4. Tubers – swollen region of stems that store food for
subsequent growth (e.g. Solanum tuberosum [potato]
– the eyes are the nodes of a starch-ladened stem.
5. Rosette – stem with short internodes & leaves
attached at nodes (e.g.: wild radish, common
mullen).
 made from the tightly rolled and dried bark -
Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)
 Balm- the stems and leaves formerly used in
medicine as a mild sedative and for viral infections,
are still occasionally used as such; lemon scented,
taste somewhat astringent and the odor slightly
aromatic; from balsam fir trees - Pinus balsamea
(Pinaceae)
 Wintergreen- local medicines for healing wounds;
methyl salicylate; from wintergreen, checkerberry or
partridge berry - Gaultheria procumbens (Ericaceae)
 Makabuhay- an abortifacient and is also used as
antidermatophytes - Tinospora rumphii
(Menispermaceae)

Sequoia sempervirens - giant sequoia

 The study of the growth rings in wood:
Dendrochronology
 Each year the cambium produces a layer of
secondary xylem and a layer of secondary
 waste
products are produced. These wastes
accumulate in the leaves and are disposed of
when the leaves are shed, mostly in the fall.
Before dropping from the plant, the leaves are
sealed off at the bases of their petioles. The
following season, the discarded leaves are
replaced with new ones.
 Leaves play a major role in the movement of
water absorbed by roots and transported
throughout the plant. Most of the water
reaching the leaves evaporates in vapor form
into the atmosphere by a process known as
transpiration .
 In some plants, there are special opening
called hydathodes at the tips of leaf veins.
Root pressure forces liquid water out of
hydathodes, usually at night when transpiration
is not occurring. The loss of water through
hydathodes is called guttation. The expelled
water may contain ions secreted by root cells.
Other functions of leaves are discussed
throughout this chapter.

Epidermis

The Four Basic Parts of Plants  The flattened surfaces of leaves, which are
 Leaves completely covered with a transparent
 Stems protective layer of cells, the epidermis, admit
 Roots light to all parts of the interior. Many leaves
 Flowers twist daily on their petioles so that their upper
surfaces are
Leaves Functions

 Make food through photosynthesis

 Site of gas exchange
o Respiration
o Photosynthesis
 Store food
 Leaves also perform other functions. For
example, all living cells respire, and in the
process of this and other metabolic activities,
 inclined at right angles to the sun’s rays gas needed for photosynthesis, but also
throughout daylight hours play a role in the diffusion out of the leaf of
 The epidermis is a single layer of cells covering oxygen produced during photosynthesis.
the entire surface of the leaf. o Water vapor evaporating from the moist
 Except for guard cells, the upper epidermal interior cell surfaces can also escape via
cells for the most part do not contain the stomata. The evaporation of water can
chloroplasts, their function being primarily bring about some cooling of the leaf, but
protection of the delicate tissues to the interior. excessive water loss can result in damage
 A coating of waxy cutin (the cuticle— is to the plant.
normally present, although it may not be o The stomatal apparatus, which consists of
visible with ordinary light microscopes without a pore bordered by a pair of sausage-
being specially stained. shaped guard cells, controls the water loss
 In addition to the cuticle, many plants produce when the guard cells inflate or deflate,
other waxy substances on their surfaces.
 In studies of the effects of smog and auto
exhaust fumes on plants, it was found that
these waxes may be produced in abnormal
fashion on beet leaves within as little as 24
hours after exposure to the pollutants.
Presumably, the wax affords added protection
to the leaves. Beet leaves also respond to
aphid damage by producing wax around each
tiny puncture.
 In some plants, waste materials occasionally
accumulate and crystallize in epidermal cells.
Different types of glands may also be present
in the epidermis.
 Glands occur in the form of depressions, opening or closing the pore.
protuberances, or appendages either directly 3. Guard cells
on the leaf surface or on the ends of hairs
Glands often secrete sticky substances. o The functioning of guard cells is aided by
 (volatile oils, drugs) the photosynthesis that takes place within
them.
Tissues of the Leaf (epidermis) o The primary functions include regulating
gas exchange between the interior of the
1. Cuticle leaf and the atmosphere and regulation of
evaporation of most of the water entering
o Waxy substance that covers the leaves & the plant at the roots.
stems o Guard cell walls are distinctly thickened but
o Waterproof layer that keeps water in quite flexible on the side adjacent to the
plants pore. As the guard cells inflate or deflate
with changes in the amount of water within
2. Stomata the cells, their unique construction causes
the stomata to open or close. When the
o Openings in the epidermis mainly located guard cells are inflated, the stomata are
on the underside of leaves open; when the water content of the guard
o Exchange of gases
o Some plants (e.g., alfalfa, corn) have these
pores in both leaf surfaces, while others
(e.g., water lilies) have them exclusively on
the upper epidermis; they are absent
altogether from the submerged leaves of
aquatic plants.
o An average-sized sunflower leaf has about
2 million of these pores throughout its
lower epidermis. Each pore is bordered by
two sausage- or dumbbell-shaped cells that
usually are smaller than most of the
neighboring epidermal cells. These guard
cells, which originate from the same
parental cell, are part of the epidermis, but
they, unlike most of the other cells of either cells decreases, the cells deflate, and the
epidermis, contain chloroplasts. stomata close.
o The lower surfaces of leaves (and in some
plants, the upper surfaces as well) are Tissue of the leaf (Mesophyll layer)
dotted with tiny pores (stomata), which
not only allow entry for the carbon dioxide  Palisade mesophyll
 o Primary site of photosynthesis
 Spongy mesophyll
o Contains air & chloroplasts
o Site of photosynthesis and gas
exchange
 Most photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll
between the two epidermal layers, with two
regions often being distinguishable.
 The uppermost mesophyll consists of compactly
stacked, barrel-shaped or post-shaped parenchyma
cells that are commonly in two rows. This region is
called the palisade mesophyll and may contain
more than 80% of the leaf’s chloroplasts.
 The lower region, consisting of loosely arranged
parenchyma cells with abundant air spaces
between them, is called the spongy mesophyll.
Its cells also have numerous chloroplasts.
Vascular bundles
 Called veins (skeleton)
 In spongy mesophyll
 Phloem moves food from leaf to the rest of the
plant
 Xylem moves water & minerals up to leaves
from roots
 Monocot leaves, besides having parallel veins,
usually do not have the mesophyll differentiated
into palisade and spongy layers.
 Some monocot leaves (e.g., those of grasses) have
large, thin-walled bulliform cells on either side of
the main central vein (midrib) toward the upper
surface
 Under dry conditions, the bulliform cells partly
collapse, causing the leaf blade to fold or roll; the
folding or rolling reduces transpiration.
External parts of the Leaf
1. Petiole
 Leaf stalk or part that connects the leaf to
the stem.
 At maturity, most leaves have a stalk,
called the petiole, and a flattened blade,
or lamina, which has a network of veins
(vascular bundles).
 A pair of leaflike, scalelike, or thornlike
appendages, called stipules, are
sometimes present at the base of the
petiole.
 Occasionally, leaves may lack petioles;
when they do, they are said to be sessile.
 Leaves of deciduous trees normally live
through only one growing season, and even
those of evergreen trees rarely function for
more than 2 to 7 years.
2. Blade
 The large, flat part of a leaf.
3. Midrib
 The large center vein.
Leaf arrangements (simple)
Leaf arrangements (compound)
  Leaves are attached to stems at
regions called nodes, with stem regions
between nodes being known as internodes.
 The arrangement of leaves on a stem
(phyllotaxy) in a given species of plant
generally occurs in one of three ways.
 In most species, leaves are attached
alternately or in a
spiral along a stem,
with one leaf per
node, in what is
called an alternate
arrangement. In
some plants, two
leaves may be
attached at each node, providing an opposite
arrangement. When three or more leaves occur
at a node, they are said to be whorled.
 Leaves of flowering plants are associated with
leaf gaps, and all have an axillary bud at the
base.
 Leaves may be simple or compound. A simple
leaf has a single blade, while the blade of a
compound leaf is divideD in various ways into
leaflets
 Regardless of the number of leaflets, a
compound leaf still has a single axillary bud at
its base, with the leaflets having no such buds.
 Pinnately compound leaves have the leaflets
in pairs along an extension of the petiole called
a rachis, while palmately compound leaves
have all the leaflets attached at the same point
at the end of the petiole. Sometimes, the
leaflets of a pinnately compound leaf may be
subdivided into still smaller leaflets, forming a
bipinnately compound leaf
  The arrangement of veins in a leaf or
leaflet blade (venation) may also be either
pinnate or palmate. In pinnately veined
leaves, there is one primary vein called the
midvein, which is included within an enlarged
midrib; secondary veins branch from the
midvein.
 In palmately veined leaves, several primary
veins fan out from the base of the blade. The
primary veins are more or less parallel to one
another in monocots (and diverge from one
another in various ways in dicots .
SPECIALIZED LEAVES
SHADE LEAVES
Receive less total light needed for photosynthesis, they
tend to be thinner and have fewer hairs than leaves on
the same tree that are exposed to direct light. Shade
leaves also tend to be larger and to have fewer well-
defined mesophyll layers and fewer chloroplasts than
their counterparts in the sun
LEAVES OF ARID REGIONS
Many have thick, leathery leaves and fewer stomata, or
stomata that are sunken below the surface in special
depressions, all of which reduce loss of water through
transpiration. They also may have succulent, water-
retaining leaves or no leaves at all (with the stems
taking over the function of photosynthesis), or they
may have dense, hairy coverings.
Pine trees, whose water supply may be severely
restricted in the winter when the soil is frozen, have
some leaf modifications similar to those of desert
plants. The modifications include sunken stomata, a
thick cuticle, and a layer of thickwalled cells (the
hypodermis) beneath the epidermis
The leaves of compass plants face east and west, with
the blades perpendicular to the ground, so that when
the sun is overhead, it strikes only the thin edge of the
leaf, minimizing moisture loss. The submerged leaves
of plants that grow in water usually have considerably
less xylem than phloem, and the mesophyll, which is
not differentiated into palisade and spongy layers, has
large air spaces.
TENDRILS
There are many plants whose leaves are partly or
completely modified as tendrils. These modified
leaves, when curled tightly around more rigid objects,
help the plant in climbing or in supporting weak stems.
The leaves of garden peas are compound, and the
terminal leaflets are reduced to whiplike strands that,
like all tendrils, are very sensitive to contact.
Whole leaves of yellow vetchlings are modified as
tendrils, and photosynthesis is carried on by the
leaflike stipules at the bases. In the potato vine and the
garden nasturtium, the petioles serve as tendrils, while
in some greenbriers, stipules are modified as tendrils.
In Clematis, the rachises of some of the compound
leaves serve very effectively as tendrils.
Members of the Pumpkin Family (Cucurbitaceae), which
includes squashes, melons, and cucumbers, produce
tendrils that may be up to 3 decimeters (1 foot) long
.
SPINES, THORNS AND PRICKLES
The leaves of many cacti and other desert plants are
modified
as spines. This reduction in leaf surface
correspondingly reduces water loss from the plants,
and the spines also tend to protect the plants from
browsing animals. In such desert plants,
photosynthesis, which would otherwise take place in
leaves, occurs in the green stems. Most spines are
modifications of the whole leaf, in which much of the
normal leaf tissue is replaced with sclerenchyma, but in
a number of woody plants (e.g., mesquite, black
locust), it is the stipules at the bases of the leaves that
are modified as short, paired spines. Like grape and
other tendrils, many spinelike objects arising in the
axils of leaves of woody plants are modified stems
rather than modified leaves. Such modifications should
be referred to as thorns to distinguish them from true
spines. The prickles of roses and raspberries,
however, are neither leaves nor stems but are
outgrowths from the epidermis or cortex just beneath
them
STORAGE LEAVES
As previously mentioned, desert plants may have
succulent leaves (i.e., leaves that are modified for
water retention). The adaptations for water storage
involve large, thin-walled parenchyma cells without
chloroplasts to the interior of chlorenchyma tissue just
beneath the epidermis. These nonphotosynthetic cells
contain large vacuoles that can store relatively
substantial amounts of water. If removed from the
plant and set aside, the leaves will often retain much of
the water for up to several months. Many plants with
succulent leaves carry on a special form of
photosynthesis.
The fleshy leaves of onion, lily, and other bulbs store
large amounts of carbohydrates, which are used by the
plant in the subsequent growing season.
WINDOW LEAVES
In the Kalahari desert of Botswana and South Africa,
there are at least three plants belonging to the
Carpetweed Family (Aizoaceae) that have unique
adaptations to living in dry, sandy areas. Their leaves,
which are shaped like ice-cream cones, are about 3.75
centimeters (1.5 inches) long and are buried in the
sand; only the dime-sized wide end of a leaf is exposed
at the surface. This exposed end is covered with a
relatively transparent, thick epidermis with few
stomata and a waxy cuticle. There is a mass of tightly
packed, transparent water-storage cells below the
exposed end; these allow light coming through the
“windows” to penetrate to the chloroplasts in the
mesophyll, located all around the inside of the shell of
the leaf. This arrangement, which keeps most of the
plant buried and away from drying winds, allows the
plant to thrive under circumstances that most other
plants could not tolerate. Window leaves also occur in
succulent plants of a few other families.
REPRODUCTIVE LEAVES
Some of the leaves of the walking fern are most
unusual in that they produce new plants at their tips.
Occasionally, three generations of plants may be found
linked together. The succulent leaves of air plants
have little notches along the leaf margins in which tiny
plantlets are produced, complete with roots and
leaves, even after a leaf has been removed from the
parent plant. Each of the plantlets can develop into a
mature plant if given the opportunity to do so.
FLORAL LEAVES
Specialized leaves known as bracts are found at the
bases of flowers or flower stalks. In the Christmas
flower (poinsettia), the flowers themselves have no
petals, but the brightly colored floral bracts that
surround the small flowers function like petals in
attracting pollinators.
In dogwoods and a few other plants, the tiny flowers in
their buttonlike clusters do have inconspicuous petals.
However, the large white-to-pink bracts that surround
the flower clusters, which appear to the casual
observer to be petals, are actually modified leaves.
In Clary’s annual sage (Salvia viridis), large colorful
bracts are produced at the top of flowering stalks, well
above the flowers
INSECT TRAPPING LEAVES
Highly specialized insect-trapping leaves have
intrigued humans for hundreds of years. Almost 200
species of flowering plants are known to have these
leaves.
Insectivorous plants grow mostly in swampy areas and
bogs of tropical and temperate regions. In such
environments, certain needed elements, particularly
nitrogen, may be deficient in the soil, or they may be in
a form not readily available to the plants.
Some of these elements are furnished when the soft
parts of insects and other small organisms trapped by
the specialized leaves are broken down and digested.
All the plants have chlorophyll and are able to make
their own food. It has been demonstrated that they can
develop normally without insects if they are given the
nutrients they need.
AUTUMNAL CHANGES IN LEAF COLOR
The chloroplasts of mature leaves contain several
groups of pigments, such as green chlorophylls and
carotenoids, which include yellow carotenes and pale
yellow xanthophylls. Each of these groups plays a role
in photosynthesis.
Usually, considerably more chlorophyll than other
pigments is present, and the intense green color of the
chlorophylls masks or hides the presence of the
carotenes and xanthophylls. In the fall, however, the
chlorophylls break down, and other colors are revealed.
The exact cause of the chlorophyll breakdown is not
known, but it does appear to involve, among other
factors, a gradual reduction
in day length.
The leaves of many oaks and several other plants
generally turn some shade of brown or tan when their
cells break down and die, due to a reaction between
leaf proteins and tannins stored in the cell vacuoles.
Leaves of many other deciduous plants, however,
exhibit a variety of colors and drop before turning
brown.
Water-soluble anthocyanin and betacyanin pigments
may also accumulate in the vacuoles of the leaf cells in
the fall.
Anthocyanins, the more common of the two groups,
are red if the cell sap is slightly acid, blue if it is
slightly alkaline, and of intermediate shades if it is
neutral.
Betacyanins are usually red; they apparently are
restricted to several plant families, such as the cacti
(Cactaceae); the Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae),
to which beets belong; the Fouro’clock Family
(Nyctaginaceae); and the Portulaca Family
(Portulacaceae).
Some plants (e.g., birch trees) consistently exhibit a
single shade of color in their fall leaves, but many (e.g.,
maple, ash, sumac) vary considerably from one locality
to another or even from one leaf to another on the
same tree, depending on the combinations of
carotenes, xanthophylls, and other pigments present.
ABSCISSION
Plants whose leaves drop seasonally are said to be
deciduous. In temperate climates, new leaves are
produced in the spring and are shed in the fall, but in
the tropics, the cycles coincide with wet and dry
seasons rather than with temperature changes.
Even evergreen trees shed their leaves; they do so a
few at a time, however, so that they never have the
bare look of deciduous trees in their winter condition.
The process by which the leaves are shed is called
abscission.
Abscission occurs as a result of changes that take
place in an abscission zone near the base of the petiole
of each leaf. Sometimes the abscission zone can be
seen externally as a thin band of slightly different color
on the petiole.
Hormones that apparently inhibit the formation of the
specialized layers of cells that facilitate abscission are
produced in young leaves. As the leaf ages, hormonal
changes take place, and at least two layers of cells
become differentiated.
Closest to the stem, the cells of the protective layer,
which may be several cells deep, become coated and
impregnated with fatty suberin.
On the leaf side, a separation layer develops in which
the cells swell, sometimes divide, and also become
gelatinous. In response to any of several environmental
changes (such as lowering temperatures, decreasing
day lengths or light intensities, lack of adequate water,
or damage to the leaf), the pectins in the middle
lamella of the cells of the separation layer are broken
down by enzymes.
All that holds the leaf on to the stem at this point are tropical plants; both are effective against a
some strands of xylem. Wind and rain then easily break variety of insects.
the connecting strands, leaving tiny bundle scars
within a leaf scar, and the leaf falls to the ground.

IMPORTANCE
1. use for food - the leaves of cabbage, parsley,
lettuce, spinach, chard, and the petioles of
celery and rhubarb, to mention a few.

2. Many spices and flavorings are derived from

leaves, including thyme, marjoram, oregano,
tarragon, peppermint, spearmint, wintergreen,
basil, dill, sage, cilantro, and savory.

3. Various dyes (e.g., a yellow dye from

bearberry, a reddish dye from henna, and a
pale blue dye from blue ash) can be extracted
from leaves

4. Bowstring fibers are obtained from a relative of

the common house plant Sansevieria, and
Manila hemp fibers, which are used both in
fine-quality cordage and in textiles, are
obtained from the leaves of a close relative of
the banana.

Panama hats are made from the leaves of the

panama hat
palm, and palms and grasses are used in the
tropics as thatching material for huts and other
buildings.

5. Leaves of many plants produce oils. Petitgrain

oil, from a variety of orange tree leaves, and
lavender, for example, are used for scenting
soaps and colognes.

Patchouli and lemongrass oils are used in

perfumes, as is citronella oil, which was once
the leading mosquito repellent before synthetic
repellents gained favor. Eucalyptus oil,
camphor, cajeput, and pennyroyal are all used
medicinally.

6. Leaves are an important source of drugs used

in medicine and also of narcotics and poisons.
Cocaine, obtained from plants native to South
America, has been used medicinally and as a
local anesthetic, but its use as a narcotic has,
in recent years, become a major problem in
western cultures.

OTHERS: NICOTINE, BELLADONINE, THC

7. The alcoholic beverages pulque and tequila

find their origin in the mashed leaves of Agave
plants, and absinthe liqueur receives its unique
flavor from the leaves of wormwood, a relative
of western sagebrush, and other flavorings,
such as anise.

OTHERS: MATE AND CAMELLIA

8. Insecticides of various types are also derived

from leaves. A type of rotenone and a
substance related to nicotine are obtained from