Pr

ogramme:
Di
plomai
nEnvir
onment
alHeal
th
Sci
ences

Cour
seCode:WAS222

Modul
eTi
te:
l WATERQUALI
TYSURVEI
LLANCE(
64HOURS)

Wr
it
tenBy:Chr
ist
opherMooya

APRI
L,2016

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thi
scour
semat
eri
ali
sdedi
cat
edt
oal
lthepeopl
ewhohavepl
ayedagr
eat
r
olei
nit
spr
epar
ati
oni
npar
ti
cul
armyf
ami
lyf
ort
hesuppor
tevenatt
het
ime
Iwasnotwi
tht
hem.Iwoul
dli
keal
sot
opayt
ri
but
etot
hemanagementoft
he
Yout
h Devel
opmentTr
aini
ng Cent
re(
YDTC)f
orhavi
ng gi
ven me t
he
oppor
tuni
tyt
oat
tendt
hee-
lear
ningandcont
entwr
it
ingwor
kshop.Iwoul
d
al
sol
iket
odedi
cat
emyf
aci
li
tat
orssomeofwhom hadt
ravel
ledal
ltheway
f
rom Nai
robi
,Kenya;Joan,Ber
nar
dandDr
.Waf
ula.Ont
hel
ocalscene,I
woul
dli
ket
odedi
cat
eal
lthel
ect
urer
swhohadat
tendedt
hewor
kshopand
speci
aldedi
cat
iongoest
omyf
ell
ow Envi
ronment
alHeal
thpr
ofessi
onal
s
whosuppor
tedmemat
eri
all
yandur
gedmeon.Toal
ltheabove,
ther
ewoul
d
benosuchdocumentwi
thoutyou!MayGodBl
essandkeeponkeepi
ngon!

2
TABLEOFCONTENTS

3
LI
STOFABBREVI
ATI
ONS&ACRONYMS

CAP---
--
---
--
--
--
---
--
-Chapt er
CFU---
--
---
--
--
--
---
--
-Colif
or m Formi ngUni t
s
DPD---
---
--
--
--
---
--
--
-Diethylparaphenyl enedi ami ne
E-COLI-
---
--
--
--
---
--
-Escher i
chiacol i
EHT---
--
---
--
--
--
---
--
-Environment alHeal thTechnol ogist
ISO--
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
---
-Int
ernat i
onalOr gani sationf orStandar
ds
JTU---
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
--JacksonTur bidit
yUni ts
MF---
---
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
-Membr aneFi ltr
ation
MPN- -
--
---
--
--
--
---
--
--MostPr obabl eNumber
NTU---
---
--
--
--
---
--
--
-Nephel omet ri
cTur bidit
yUni t
NWASCO- -
--
---
--
--
--NationalWat erandSani tationCouncil
OT---
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
---
-Orthotoli
dine
P-A--
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
---
-Present-Absent
pH--
---
--
--
---
--
--
--
---
-HydrogenPot ent i
al
QA---
--
--
---
--
--
--
---
--
Qual i
tyAssur ance
QC---
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
---
Qual i
tyCont rol
EHS---
--
---
--
--
--
---
--
-Environment alHeal thScience
UNICEF---
---
--
--
--
---
Uni t
edNat i
onsChi ldrenEducat ionFund
WHO- --
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
-Wor ldHeal t
hOr gani sati
on
ZABS----
--
--
--
---
--
--
-Zambi aBur eauofSt andar ds
ZEMA- -
--
---
--
--
--
---
-Zambi aEnvi ronment alManagementAgency

4
5
COURSEOVERVI
EW

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Wel comet ooneoft hemosti mpor tantaspect sofEnvi ronment alHeal th

Sciences.Havi ngdonet hesour cesofwat ersupplyatdi f
fer
entl evel ssuch
ascommuni t
yandur banar eas,youwi l
lnowbeexposedt othei nvest i
gat i
ve
aspectofwat erquali
tymanagement .Ast hiscoursei sdonej ustbef oreyou
sitf oryouri nter
medi ateexami nationst hiswi l
lenabl eyout opr act i
call
y
coll
ectwat ersamplesf rom thosedi fferentsour cesf oranal ysis.Thi swi ll
furt
herf aci
lit
ateyout omakeani nt
er pretationoranal ysisofther esultsthat
havecomeoutt odet erminet heusageoft hatwaterespeci all
yf orhuman
consumpt i
on.Thi s wi l
lr equi
re youri nformed deci sion inl ine wi tht he
availablerelevantpiecesofl egi
slation.Thi scour sewi llequi p you wi th
knowl edgeandski l
lsi ndr i
nkingwat erqual i
tysurveil
lancewi thavi ew to
preventingwat erbornedi seasesincommuni ti
esandhousehol dsandi ndeed
publ i
cinsti
tuti
onsatl arge.

COURSEOBJECTI
VES

Byt
heendoft
hiscour
seyoushoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.
0Defi
nekeyconcept susedi ndri
nki
ng-waterqual
it
ysurvei
ll
ance
2.
0Descri
bedr i
nkingwat erqualit
yparameters
3.
0Demonst rat
etheknowl edgeofdr i
nking-
watersampl
ing
4.
0Descri
bedr i
nking-
wat ertesti
ngmet hods
5.
0Int
erpretdri
nking-
watersur vei
ll
ancedata
6.
0Designasani t
aryinspectionprogram

COURSECONTENT

Thi
scour
sei
sdi
videdi
ntosi
x(6)uni
ts,
whi
char
e:

Unit1:Intr
oduct i
ontowat erqual
it
ysur veil
lance:Muchoft heil
l-
healthwhich
affect
shumani t
y,especial
lyi
nthedevel opi
ngcount ri
escanbet racedtolack
ofsafe,adequat e,potableandwhol esomewat ersupply.Ther ecanbeno
state ofposi t
ion healt
h and wellbeing wi thoutsaf e water.Wat erisa
universalrequir
ementf ororgani
cl i
feandi sessent i
alforsurvival
.People
requir
ewat eronadai lybasisandcansur vi
veext endedstarvationbutnot
sustai
nedl ackofwat er.

Unit2:Dr i
nking-
waterquali
ty parameters:These impur
it
ies ar
e ei
ther
suspended,coll
oidalordissolved.These impuri
ti
es can har
bourlarge
quanti
ti
esofparameter
sthatareofgreatpubl
icheal
thimpor
tance.

Unit3:Dr
inki
ng-
watersampl
ing:Thisiswhensamplesofwateraretaken
fr
om aparti
cul
arsour
ceforbacter
iol
ogi
cal
,chemi
calandphysi
calanalysi
s

1
todetermineit
ssui t
abil
ityforhumanconsumpt ionsot hatitdoesnotcause
anyhar mfuleff
ects.Whensampl esforwaterqual
ityanalysisaretaken,i
tis
i
mpor tantthattheyar er epresentat
iveofthesuppl yasawhol eandal so
repr
esentati
veofcondi t
ionsatt heplacesmostvulnerabletocontaminati
on,
such as low-pressure points,ends ofsyst ems and st or
age tanks.The
samplesshouldal sober epresentati
veofthesupplyovertime.

Unit4:Dr i
nki
ng-watertesti
ngmet hods:Themai nri
sktopeopl eusingsmal l
communi tywat ersuppliesisfr om f aecal
-oraldi
seasessuchaschol era,
typhoid,hepati
ti
sA andot herdiar r
hoealdiseaseswhi char epassedf rom
excretaintothewat ersupply.Tot estforthebact eri
awhi chcauset hese
diseases would be veryexpensi ve and t i
me-consumi ng,so t
he met hod
generall
yusedt ocheckt hehygienicqual i
tyofawat ersupplyistotestfora
certai
ntypeofbacteriafoundinlar genumber sinexcreta.

Unit5:I nter
pretat
ion and analysi
s ofdri
nki
ng-
watersurveil
lance dat
a:
Havingt huscollect
edt hesamplesandhavingt
akenthem t
ot helaborat
ory
foranalysis,youwillt
henbeabl etomakeameaningf
ulanalysi
soft hedata
andcomet oaconcl usi
onwi thavi ew t
omakingrecommendat ionsfor
i
nterventionalmeasures.

Unit6:Sani taryinspections:Iti
simpor t
antinanyl ocali
tytocarryoutasanit
arysurveyorani nvent or
yofal lsanit
aryfaci
li
ti
esast hiswilldet
erminethe
healt
hoft hepopul ationint hatarea.Thisi
nventoryorcommuni tydiagnosi
s
willmostcer t
ainlyincludethesour cesofwater,theirusesandt hequalit
yof
thewat eritself,t
hemeansandnumber sofwastedi sposalfaci
li
ti
esandany
otherrelevantinformat ionthatmaybeneeded.

PRACTI
CALCOMPONENTOFTHECOURSE

Bytheendoft hecour seyouwillbeabletocar ryoutwat ersampli

ngf r
om all
possibl
e sources ofwat ersupply.You wi l
lbe abl e physical
ly see t he
proceduresofcarr
yingoutthecr it
icalt
estsint helaboratorypart
icularl
yt he
MostPr obableNumbert est
,theMembr aneFi l
trat
iontest,theTurbiditytest
andt heChl or
inetest.Youwi l
lalsobeabl et odot heon- si
tewat ert ests
whichtestsarerequiredtobedoneonsi t
ewi thouthavingt obetranspor ted
tothecentrall
abor
at oryf
orinf
ormeddeci sions.

Uni
t1.
0:I
ntr
oduct
iont
owat
erqual
it
ysur
vei
ll
ance

Intr
oductiont
ouni t1:Welcomet otheunitwhichwi l
ltakeyout hr
ought he
stepsthatwil
lenableyout oknowboththetheoreti
calandpracti
calaspects
ofwat erqual
it
ymoni tor
ingandsurvei
ll
ance.Inthi
sunityouwi l
lbeexposed
toatleasttwoin-
textquesti
onsandoneself-
textquest
ion

2
Uni
tCont
ent
:Thesewi
ll
incl
ude:

 Defini
ti
onofwat erquali
tymoni t
ori
ngandsur veil
lance
 Objecti
vesofwat erquali
tymonitor
ingandsur vei
llance
 Typesofappr oachestowat erqual
it
ymoni t
oringandsur vei
ll
ance
 Legalandi nsti
tuti
onalframewor kforwaterqual i
tymonitori
ngand
survei
ll
ance
 Dri
nking-waterquali
tyguideli
nesandstandards
 In-
textandself-
textquesti
ons

1.
1UnitObjective:To def
inewat
erqual
it
ymoni
tor
ing and dr
inki
ng-
wat
er
quali
tysurveil
lance.

1.
11Defini
t i
on of wat er qualit
y monitor
ing and dr i
nki
ng-wat
er qualit
y
surveil
lance:Thi si s defi
ned by the Internat
ionalOrgani
sati
on for
Standar ds(ISO)ast hepr ogrammedpr ocessofsampl i
ng,measurement
and subsequentr ecording orsignall
ing,orbot h,ofvar i
ous water
characterist
ics,oft
enwi t
ht heai
m ofassessi ngconfor
mitytospecif
ied
objecti
ves.Thi scanbebr okendowni ntothreecomponents:

i
) Moni t
oring:thi
si sl ong-term,st andardi
sed measur ementand
observati
onoft heaquat icenvi ronmenti nor dertodef i
nest at
us
andtrends
i
i) Surveysar efi
niteduration,intensivepr ogr
ammest omeasur eand
observethequalit
yofaquat i
cenvi ronmentf oraspecifi
cpur pose
i
ii
) Surveil
lance:t
hisist hecont inuous,speci f
icmeasur ementf ort
he
purposeofwat erqualit
ymanagementandoper at
ionalacti
viti
es.

1.
2Uni
tObj
ect
ive:St
atet
heobj
ect
ivesofdr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
ysur
vei
ll
ance

1.
2.1Obj
ect
ivesofDr
inki
ngWat
erQual
it
ySur
vei
ll
ance:Thesei
ncl
ude:

a)HumanHeal
th:

Much of t he il
l-
heal
th which aff
ects humani t
y,especi all
yi nt he
developingcountri
escanbet r
acedtolackofsafewat erandwhol esome
watersuppl ygeneral
lygoodandadequat esanitat
ion.Ther ecanbeno
stateofposi ti
onhealthandwel l
beingwithoutsafewat er.Wat eri sa
universalrequi
rementfororganicli
feisessent i
alforsur vival
.People
requir
ewat eronadailybasi
sandcansur vi
veextendedstarvat i
onbutnot
sustainedlackofwater.

Wat erhas been a pr ominentsour ce ofhuman i nf

ecti
ous di seases
throughouthist
ory,causingl ar
geout br
eaksofdi arr
hoealdi seasesand
deathaswi l
lbeseenatal at
erstageint hecaseofar ecentchol era
outbreakinZambi a.Thei nfecti
oncani mpairbothphysicalandment al
developmentaswel lasreducet heabil
it
ytowor kinadult
s.Itisestimated
thatwor l
dwidediseasebur denf r
om water,sani
tati
onandhygi enetobe
4%oft hetot
aldiseasebur denwor l
dwide.Diarr
hoealinf
ectionsar enow

3
 muchl
esscommoni
ndevel
opedcount
ri
esbecauseof
:

i
) I
mproveddrinki
ngwat ertr
eat
ment
i
i) Seweragedi
sposalsystems
i
ii
) Publ
icHealt
hinfrast
ructur
e

Howeverin developi
ng count
ries,st
il
lcause signi
fi
cantmor bi
dit
y and
mort
ali
tyduetolackofadequat
edr i
nki
ngwaterandpoorsani
tat
ion

b)Physi
ologi
calandHygi
eneNeeds:

The basi c physiologi

calr equirementsf or dr
inki
ng wat er have been
esti
mat edatabout2l i
trespercapi t
aperday.Thi sisjustanest i
mat efor
survival
.Butfrom thestandpointofPubli
chealthandimprovementofqual i
ty
oflif
e,wat ershouldbepr ovidedi nadequatevol
ume.Itwi l
lhelptor educe
theincidenceofmanywat errel
ateddiseasesamongpeoplemostatr isk.

The consumpt ion of water,however,depends on climate conditi

ons,
standardsoflivingandhabi t
sofpeople.Adailysuppl
yof150-200lit
resper
capit
ai sconsi deredasanadequat esupplytomeett heneedsf orurban
domest i
cpur poses.Besidesdrinki
ng,waterisusedforcleani
ng,prepari
ng
food,bathing,washi ngclothesandequi pment,fl
ushi
ngwast e,irr
igati
on,
crops,ext
inguishingfir
es,swimming,tr
ansport
inggoodsandpeople.

c)Wat
erQual
it
y/Quant
it
y:

Absolutel
ypurewat erisneverfoundi nnat ure.Absol
utelypur ewateristhat
whichcont ai
nsonl yt wopar tsofHydr ogenandonepar tofOxygenby
volumeandnot hingelse.Butthewat erfoundi nnaturecontainsanumberof
i
mpur it
iesinvaryingamount s.Ther ainwat erwhichi sori
ginall
ypur e.also
absorbs vari
ous gases and ot herimpur iti
es whilefall
ing.We r emove
i
mpur it
iesonl
yint ocertai
nextentsot hatitmaynotbehar mf ultothepubl i
c
healt
h.Thewat ert r
eatedinthiswayi scal ledWHOLESOMEwat er.I
not her
wayswhol esomewat eristhatwat erwhi chisnotCHEMI CALLYPURE,but
doesnotcont ai
nanyt hinghar mfultohumanheal t
h.Thef ollowingaret he
requi
rementsofwhol esomewat er:

 Itshoul
dbef reef r
om bact eri
awhi chmaycausedisease
 Itshouldbecol ourlessandspar kl i
ngwhi
chmaybeaccept edbyt he
publi
c
 Itshoul
dbet asteless,andodour -
free
 Itshoul
dnotcor rodepi pes
 Itshouldbef reef r
om al lobject
ionabl
emattere.
g.f orei
gnmatterof
thekindsuchassewageet c
 Itshoul
dhavedi ssolvedoxygenandf r
eecarboni
caci dsothati
tmay
remainfresh

i
) Wat
erQual
it
y

Dr
inki
ngwat
er,orpot
abl
ewat
er,i
sdef
inedashavi
ngaccept
abl
equal
it
y

4
 i
nt er
ms ofi ts physical,chemical,bacteri
ologicaland accept
abili
ty
parameterssot hatitcanbesaf el
yusedf ordrinkingandcooking(WHO,
2004).WHO def i
nesdr i
nkingwat ertobesaf easl ongasitdoesnot
causeanysi gnifi
canthealthri
sksoveral ongt imeofconsumpt i
on,and
anef f
ortshoul
dbemadet omaintaindri
nking-
wat erqual
it
yatthehighest
l
evelpossible.

WHO andt heZambiaBureauofSt andards(ZABS)considerthebasi

c
quali
tyrequi
rements of dr
inki
ng wat er as out
li
ned below.These
requi
rement
scoverthebasichazardsofcontaminatedwatertohuman
healt
handthedist
ri
but
ioni
nfrast
ructur
e:

 Itshould beacceptablet otheconsumer.Bad t

asteorcolour
,
stai
ning,orunpleasantodourcan causea usert o choosean
alt
ernati
vesource
 Itshouldbefr
eefrom disease-
causingor
gani
sms
 Itshouldbefr
eefrom toxicchemicals

i
i) Quant
it
y(ser
vicel
evel
)

Thequant it
yofwat ercol
lectedandusedbyhouseholdshasani mpor
tant
i
nfluenceonheal t
h.Therei sabasichumanphysiol
ogicalrequi
rementfor
watertomai nt
ainadequat
ehydr at
ionandanaddi
ti
onalrequi
rementforf
ood
preparat
ion.

Ther ei sf urtherr equirementf orwat ertosuppor thygiene, whi chi snecessar y

forheal th.Est imat esoft hevol umeofwat erneededf orheal thpur posesvar y
widel y.I nder ivingWHO gui delineval ues,i ti sassumedt hatt hedai lyper
capi taconsumpt i
onofdr inking- wat eri sappr oximat el
y2l itr
esf oradul ts,
althoughact ualconsumpt ionvar iesaccor dingt ocl imat e,act ivityl eveland
diet.Basedoncur rentlyavai labledat a,ami nimum vol umeof7. 5l it
resper
capi taperdaywi llprovidesuf ficientwat erf orhydr at i
onandi ncor porat ion
i
nt of ood f ormostpeopl eundermostcondi ti
ons.I n addi t
ion,adequat e
domest icwat eri sneededf orf oodpr epar ation,l aundr yandper sonaland
domest ic hygi ene,whi ch ar ei mpor t
antf orheal th.Wat ermay al so be
i
mpor tantini ncomegener ationandameni tyuses.Thequant i
tiesofwat er
collect edandusedbyhousehol dsar epr imar ilyaf unct ionoft hedi stancet o
thewat ersuppl yoft otalcol l
ect i
ont imer equi red.Thi sbr oadl yequat est ot he
l
evelofser vice.Fourl evel sofser vicecanbedef i
ned,asshowni nser vice
l
eveli susef ulandeasi l
ymeasur edi ndi catort hatpr ovidesaval i
dsur rogat e
fort hequant i
tyofcol lectedbyhousehol dsandi st hepr eferredi ndi catorf or
sur veillance.Avai lableevi dencei ndicat est hatheal th gai nsaccr uef rom
i
mpr ovi ngser vicel evelint wokeyst ages:t hedel i
ver yofwat er1km or30
mi nut est otalcol l
ectiont i
me;andwhensuppl iedt oayar dl evelofser vice.
Fur ther ,heal thgai nsar el i
kelyt ooccuroncewat eri ssuppl i
edt hrough
mul tiplet aps,ast hiswi llincr easewat eravai l
abili
tyf ordi ver gehygi eni c
pract ices.Thevol umeofwat ercol lectedmayal sodependont her eli
abi lit
y
and costofwat er.Ther efore,col lection ofdat a on t hese i ndi catorsi s
i
mpor tant.

5
Uni
t3:Appr
oachest
odr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
ysur
vei
ll
ance

I
ntr
oduct
iont ounit3:Welcomet ouni t3.Thisunitnotonlymentionsthe
t
ypesofappr oachesemployedindrinking-
watersurvei
ll
ancebutdescri
bes
t
heseapproachesindetai
lsothatyouar eexposedtobothappr
oaches.

Uni
tObj ect
ive:Expl
aint
ypes ofappr
oaches t
o dr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
y
sur
vei
l
lance

Uni
tCont
ent
:

1.3.
1TypesofAppr oachestoDrinkingWat erQuali
tySurvei
ll
ance:Thereare
two typesofappr oachesto surveil
lanceofdr i
nking-
waterqualit
y:audit
basedappr oachesanddi r
ectassessmentappr oaches.Implementati
onof
survei
ll
ancewi l
lgeneral
lyi
ncl
udeami xt
ureoftheseapproachesaccording
tosupplytype.

1.3.1.1 Auditbased appr oach:I nt he auditappr oach to sur vei

ll
ance,
assessmentact i
vit
ies,i
ncludingver i
fi
cationtesting,areundertakenlargel
y
by t he supplier
,wi t
h third-par
ty audi t
ing to ver i
fy compl i
ance. The
i
mpl ement at
ion ofan audi t
-based appr oach placesr esponsi
bili
tyon the
drinki
ng-watersuppl i
ertoprovi dethesur vei
ll
anceagencywi thinformati
on
regardingsystem performanceagai nstagreedindicator
s.

Inaddi t
ion,apr ogrammeofannouncedandunannouncedvi si
tsbyaudi t
or s
todri
nki ng- watersuppl i
ersshouldbei mpl ement edt oreviewdocument at
ion
andr ecordsofoper ati
onalpr act
icei nordert oensur et hatdat asubmi t
ted
arer eli
able.Such an appr oach does notnecessar il
yi mplyt hatwat er
suppliersar elikel
yt ofal
sifyrecor
ds, butitdoespr ovideani mportant
meansofr eassuringconsumer st
hatt hereist r
uei ndependentver ifi
cat
ionof
theact i
vitiesoft hewat ersupplier.Thesur veil
lanceagencywi llnor
mal ly
ret
aint heaut hori
tyt oundertakesomeanal ysisofdr i
nking- waterquali
tyt o
veri
fyper formanceorent erintoat hi
rd-partyarrangementf orsuchanalysis.

1.3.
1.2Directassessmentappr oach:Underdi rectassessment,t
hedrinki
ng-
waterqualit
ysur veil
lanceagencycar ri
esout
i
ndependentt estingofwat ersupplies.Suchanappr oachoftenimpl
iesthat
theagency
hasaccesst oanal yt
icalfacili
ti
eswi thstafftrainedtocarryoutsampli
ngand
analysi
s.Directassessmental soimpl i
est hatsur vei
ll
anceagenciesadvise
watersupplier
sandcommuni tieswhenunsat i
sfactor
yareencounter
ed.For
communi ty-
managed dr inking-watersuppl ies,directassessmentmaybe
usedast heprincipalsystem ofsur veil
lance.

1.
3Uni
t4:Legaland i
nsti
tut
ionalf
ramewor
kfordr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
y
sur
vei
ll
ancei
nZambi
a:

6
Intr
oducti
ont ounit4:Wel cometounit4.Thisunitgi vesyouf r
amewor ks
thatyoushoul dknow indr i
nki
ng-
waterqual
it
ysur veil
lance.Theunitgives
youwhatpi ecesoflegi
slati
onthatyoucanusewhendeal ingwithissuesto
dowi t
hwat erandalsogivesyoual i
stofstakeholdersthatplayapar tin
waterissues.

Uni
tObject
ive:Descri
bethel
egalandi
nst
it
uti
onalf
ramewor
kfordr
inki
ng-
wat
erquali
tysurvei
ll
ancei
nZambia

Uni
tCont
ent
:

1.4.
1 Legal and i
nst
it
uti
onal f
ramewor
k f
or dr
inki
ng-
wat
er qual
it
y
survei
l
lancei
nZambi
a

1.
4.1.
1 LegalFramewor k:Thel egalframewor ki nZambiainvolvesthe
piecesoflegi
slat
iont hatcanandar ebeingusedinthecountryf
or
thepurposesofconf ormit
yandcompl iancetotheguidel
inesand
standar
ds.Thepi ecesofl egi
slat
ionar ediverseandareeasi l
y
avail
abl
eatalllevels.Theseamongot hersincl
ude:

 TheWat erAct ,Cap 198 ( 1948) .TheActempower st heBoar dto

cont r
olt heuseofwat err esour cesbychar gi
ngabst racti
onf ees
 TheWat erandSani tationAct( 28)of1997andi sr esponsiblefor
regulating t he pr ovision ofwat ersuppl y and sani tati
on ser vi
ces
throughoutt hecount ry.
 TheEnvi r onmentalPr otect i
onandPol l
ut i
onActno.12of1990andi s
empower ed t o,among ot hert hings,est abli
sh wat erqual i
ty and
polluti
oncont r
olst andar ds;det er
mi necondi ti
onsf orthedi schargeof
effl
uent si nt
oaquat i
cenvi ronmentandt husensur et hepr eservati
on
ofthei nt egri
tyofal lnat ur alwat erbodiesi ntheenvi r
onment .
 ThePubl icHeal t
hActCap295.TheMi nistr
yofHeal thisempower ed
tocont rolandpr eventout breaks,wat erqualitymoni tori
ng,among
others
 TheLocalGover nmentAct .TheMi ni
st r
yofLocalGover nmentand
Housi ngi sempower edt ocar ryoutact ivit
iesrelat
edt owat er
 TheNat ional Wat erPol icy2010
 TheWat erResour cesManagementAct2011
 TheWat erandSani tationAct1997

1.
4.1.
2 Inst
it
uti
onal Framewor k: Like in i ) above, this invol
ves
organi
sati
onsthatact
ivelyorpassivel
ytakepartindecidi
ngwater
quali
ty moni
tori
ng and surveil
lance i
ssues and generalwater
suppli
es.Amongtheonest hatareacti
velyi
nvolvedare:

NWASCO
ZEMA
Mini
str
yofHealt
h
Mini
str
yofLocalGover
nmentandHousi
ng

7
 Mi
nist
ryofWat
erDevel
opment
Mi
nist
ryofMi
nes,
EnergyandWat
erDevel
opment

1.
5 Dr
inki
ngWat
erQual
it
yGui
del
inesandSt
andar
ds

Uni
tObj
ect
ive:Descr
ibedr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
ygui
del
inesandst
andar
ds:

Uni
tCont
ent
:

1.
6 Wat erQualit
yGui deli
nes(WHO) :Whenconsi deri
ngachl ori
nat edand
treated watersuppl yt he question ofst andards isar el
ativel
y
straightf
orwardone.Thepr esenceofevenver ylowconcent rati
onsof
coliformsisindi
cativeofafail
ureint hetreatmentplantorsubsequent
polluti
onoft het r
eatedwater.Ther eforestandardsaretypicallyvery
ri
gor ous.TheWor l
dHeal t
hOr ganisation(WHO) ,1984)suggest sthe
foll
owi ngguidel
inesfortr
eateddrinkingwat er:

 Waterenteri
ng the di
str
ibut
ion syst
em shoul
d cont
ain no
col
if
orm or
ganisms

 Wat eratt
hetapshoul dcontainnocolif
or msi n95%ofsampl es
takeninanyoneyearandi tshoul dnevercont ainmor ethan3
colif
orms/100 mlorEscher i
chia coli
.To make sur et hat
drinki
ngwat eri sfr
eeofpat hogens( disease-causingmi cro-
organisms),af r
eechlori
neresidualshoul dbemai nt
ained.The
l
evelofchl orineresi
dualr equir
edvar ieswi tht ypeofwat er
supply and localconditi
ons.Ther e shoul d,however ,be a
mi ni
mum of0. 5mg/lresi
dualchlori
neaf ter30mi nutescont act
ti
mei nwater.

Wheretherei
sar i
skofchol
eraoranoutbr
eakhasoccur
red,
t
hefoll
owingchl
ori
ner
esi
dual
sshouldbemaint
ained:

Atallpointsinapi pedsuppl y:0.5mg/ l

Allstandpost sandwel ls:1.0/mg/ l
Intankertrucks,atfil
li
ng:2.0mg/ l
Inareaswher etherei slit
tleriskofachol eraout break,ther
eshouldbea
chlori
ner esi
dualof0. 2t o0. 5mg/ latal lpointsint hesupply.Thi
smeans
thatachl ori
ner esidualofabout1mg/ lwhenwat erleavesthetreatment
plantisneeded.Chl ori
ner esi
dualcanbet astedinwat erat0.8mg/ l
,thus
unlesshigherlevelsarevi t
alforhealthreasons, iti
sr ecommendedthatsuch
highlevel
sar eavoidedatpoi ntsofconsumpt ion.

8
Forunt reat
edwat ersuppl ies,andi nparti
cularf orthewat ersuppl i
esofr ur al
peopl ei nt het ropics,t hequest ion ofst andar dsi smuch mor edi f
ficult.
Untreat ed wat ersour cesar eal mosti nvariablycont ami nated withf aecal
mat terand cont ai
nf aecalcol i
forms and ot herindicatorbact eria.Iti s
therefore mor ei mpor t
antt o determine t he concent r
ati
on ofi ndicator
bacter i
ai nasampl eofwat erthansi mplyt odemonst ratetheirpresence.I n
gener al,surfacewat ersour cesmaybeexpect edtobesubst anti
allypolluted
i
nanyar eawi thsigni f
icanthumanorani malpopul ati
ons,wher easgr ound
watersour cesar eof t
en ofbet terqualit
y.However ,i twoul d beal most
i
nconcei vablet of ind anyunt reated wat ersuppl yi n anyvi l
lage in any
devel opingcount ryi nwhi chonecoul dnotdet ectfaecalcolif
ormsandot her
faecalbact eri
a.Ther efore,toappl ystandar dsasst ringentast hosel aid
downabovewoul dbet ocondemnt hewat ersuppl i
esusedbyt hegr eat
major it
yoft hepopul ati
onofmostdevel opi
ngcount r
ies.

Atbest ,such a r uling wil

lsimply be ignor ed and t hus bri
ng similar
regulati
onsi ntodisr eput
e;att hewor stitmayf or
cepeopl et oabandon
i
mpr ovedbutsli
ghtlycont aminatedsuppli
esinf avouroftheonl yal
ternati
ve,
whi ch may be uni mpr oved and heavil
y polluted sources ofwat er.For
exampl e,therehavebeencaseswher eover zealousheal thoffi
cial
shave
closeddownshal low t ubewel l
sbecauset heywer ef oundt ocont ai
n50
faecalcoliforms/
100ml sandhavet husf orcedvi ll
agerstousepol lut
ed
i
rrigatedcanalscont aini
ngfarmuchmor ecoli
forms/ 100ml s.

A usef ulrolef orbacteri

ologicalwat erqual it
yt esting in vil
lages using
untreatedwatersuppl i
esistosel ectbetweenal t
ernativesourcesofwat er.I
f
anumberofal ternati
vesourcesar etested,iti
spossi bletodet erminewhi ch
consistentl
ypr ovideswateroft hebestbact eri
ologicalquality-part
icularl
y
aft
err ain.I
nt heUK,asuppl yiti srecommendedt hatwat erf r
om suppl i
es
servinglessthan10, 000peopleshoul dbet estedweekl y,andlargersuppl i
es
dai
ly.

Unit2.0:Dr i
nking-waterqual
it
ypar ameters:Par
ameterinthewaterlargel
y
dependonwat erimpur i
ti
espresent.Iti
si mport
antatthi
spointtodiscuss
theimpurit
iesf oundi nwaterast hiswillhaveabearingont hetypeand
concentr
ati
onofpar ameter
s.

Int
roduct i
ontounit2:Wel comet ounit2.Thisuni twillgiveyouskill
sand
knowl edge on how you woul d be ablet o sel
ectwhi ch dri
nking-wat
er
paramet ersofmedi calandhealthimpor t
ancef r
om t hesomanyt hatare
avail
abl et
omoni t
or.Theseparameterswi l
lbegotf r
om thediff
erenttypesof
i
mpur iti
es which are suspended,coll
oidal,microbialand radiol
ogicalin
nature.

Uni
tObj
ect
ives:Thesei
ncl
ude:

 Demonst
rat
ehow toselectdr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
ypar
amet
erst
obe
i
ncl
udedinasur
vei
ll
anceprogr
amme

9
  Descr
ibemi
crobi
ologi
calpar
amet
ers

 Descr
ibephysi
calpar
amet
ers

 Descr
ibechemi
cal
spar
amet
ers

Uni
tCont
ent
s:

 Selecti
onofdr i
nking-waterqual it
ypar ameterst obei ncl
udedina
survei
llancepr ogramme
 Microbiologicalpar ameters:E-coli,t
hermotolerantcol i
forms(faecal
col
iforms)andt otalcoli
for
ms.
 Physicalpar ameters:turbi
dit
y, t
aste,odour,
andcol our.
 Chemi calspar ameters:nit
rate,arseni
c,l
ead,fluoride,i
ron,manganese,
al
umi nium, pH, r
esiduechlorine,copperandpest icides.

2.0Impuri
ti
esi
nWat
er:Al
lthei
mpur
it
iesofwat
ercanbel
ist
edbr
oadl
yas
fol
lows:

a)Suspended Impur it
ies:These i mpur it
ies are dispersion ofsol i
d
part
icl
esthatarelar geenought ober emovedbyf i
lt
rationonsur face
andheavieronesset tl
edown.Thesuspendedpar ti
cleswhichhave
thesamespeci ficgr avi
tyast hatofwat er,aremi xedi nthewat er.
Suspendedimpur i
tiesincludecl ay,algae,f
ungi,organicandi norganic
mattersandmi neralmat teretc.Allthesei mpurit
iesar emacr oscopic
andcauset urbidi
tyi nt hewat er.Theconcent r
ationofsuspended
matterint
hewat erismeasur edbyi tsturbi
dity.

b)Coll
oidalImpur iti
es:Thisi sver yfi
nel ydisper sionofpar ti
clesi nwat er.
Thesepar ti
clesar esosmal lthatt heycannotber emovedbyf ilters
andar enotvi sibletot henakedeye.Asamat t
eroff actal lcol l
oi dal
i
mpur it
iesar eel ectr
icallychar gedandr emai nincont inuousmot ion.
Theelectri
cchar geisduet oduet ot hepr esenceofabsor bedi onson
thesurfaceoft hesol id.Acidorneut ralmat eri
alssuchassi lica, gl ass,
andmostor gani cpar ti
clesacqui renegat ivechar gei nneut r alwat er,
whereas basi c mat eri
als such as met alli
c oxi des are posi tively
charged.Theseel ectri
cchar gesont hesur facesofpar t
iclesar el ar ge
enoughi ncompar i
sonwi t
ht heirmasst ocauset hepar t
iclest or epel
oneanot herwhent heyar ewi thi
nt hespher eofact i
onofeachot her ’
s
charge.Duet ot heser epelli
ngact ionsal lthecol l
oidalpar t
iclesr emai n
i
nmot i
onanddonotset t
le.Thati swhyt heirr emovali sdi fficul t
.
These colloidali mpur iti
es ar e gener ally associ ated wi t
h or gani c
mattercont ainingbact eri
aandar et hechi efsour ceofepi demi cs.
Mostoft hecol ouroft hewat erisduet ocol loidalimpur i
ti
es.

c)Di
ssol
vedI
mpur
it
ies:Somei
mpur
it
iesar
edi
ssol
vedi
nwat
erwheni
t

10
 movesovert her ocks,soiletc.Sol
ids,l
iquidsandgasesaredissolved
i
nnat uralwaters.Thesedi ssolvedimpur i
ti
esmaycont ai
nor ganic
compounds,i norganicsaltsandgaseset c.Theconcent
rati
onoftot al
dissolvedsoli
dsi susual lyexpressedi nP. P.M.andisobtainedby
wei ghi
ng ther esi
dueaf terevapor at
ion oft hewatersamplef rom
fi
lteredsample.Seet hetableofsummar ybelow:

DISSOLVEDIMPURI
TIES
Cal
cium and Carbonat
e -
Magnesium
Sul
phate Har dness
Bi
carbonat
e Alkal i
nity and
softening
Fluori
des Mot tledenamelt eeth
Sodi
um Chlori
de Tast e
Manganese Blackorbr owncol our
Ir
onoxi de Tast e,Cor rosiveness,
hardnessandr ed
Met
al Lead Leadpoi soning
Arsenic Poisoni ng
Oxygen Corr odemet al
s
Carbondioxi
de Acidi t
y and cor r
ode
met als
Gases Hydrogensulphat
e Rot ten- egg odour,
acidity and cor r
ode
met als
ORGANI CIMPURITIES
Suspended Vegetable Colour ,taste,aci di
ty
Dissol
ved Animal Har mf ul disease
germs
SUSPENDEDI MPURI TI
ES
Bacteri
a Causedi sease
Algae Odour ,t ur
bidity and
colour
Clay Turbi dit
y

Uni
tObjecti
ve:Demonstr
atehowtosel
ectdr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
ypar
amet
ers
t
obeincludedinasurvei
ll
ancepr
ogr
amme

2.
1Select
ionofWaterQual
it
yParamet
ers:Thi
swil
ldependonwhattypeof
testorexaminat
ionisneededonwhichparamet
er.Inal
lcaseswater

11
 qual
it
yparameterswil
lbeobt
ainedfr
om t
hechemical
,physi
cal
,micr
obi
al
andradi
ologi
calpar
ameter
swhi char
egi
venindet
ailf
rom 2.
2below.

2.
2Mi
crobi
alPar
amet
ersandI
ndi
cat
ors:

Microbialcontami nat
ionr eferstowat er-bornemi cro-or
ganismsf r
om ani
mal
andhumanf aecalwast es.Thesewast escont ainawi der angeofbact eri
a,
vi
rusesandpr ot
ozoat hatmaybewashedi nt
odr inki
ngwat ersuppli
es.A
drop off aecalmat tercan cont ain mi ll
ions ofmi croorganisms,which
degradet heaquat i
cenvi ronmentandconst it
uteaheal t
hr i
skduet othe
i
ntroductionofpat hogeni cmi cr
oorganismst hatcausewat er-bornedi
seases.
Mostmi crobest hatlivei nsoi landwat erar ehar mlessbutsomecause
di
seasesi npeople.At ypeofmi croorganism cal l
edcol i
form bacteri
um was
di
scover edin1885andi spr esentinanimalandhumanf aecesandsewage.
Thef ol
lowingar ethetypesofmi croorganisms:

2.
2.1 Viruses:These ar et he smal lestof allmi crobes and
measur ebet ween0. 02-0.
2mi crons.Theyr equi r
eahostcel l
tor eplicat
e.Exampl es incl ude:i nfl
uenza,hepat i
ti
s and
manyot hers
2.
2.2 Bacter i
a:Thesear eor ganismst hatmeasurebet ween02-5
micronsand ar et hemostpr evalentofmi croorgani
sms.
Exampl esincludeamongot herschol era,t
yphoi detc
2.
2.3 Protozoa:Thesemeasur ebet ween4- 20mi cr onsandmay
beabl et oform cyststhatcanst ayalivewithouthost sand
i
n har sh envi ronment s and exampl es ar e mal ari
a,
amoebi asisetc
2.
2.4 Helmi nths:Thesemeasur ebet ween 40-100 mi cr
onsand
these i ncl
ude wor ms,par asites that depend f or t
heir
survivalont hehostandt ypi calexampl esar e:tapewor ms,
guineawor mset c.

Colif
orm Bact eria:Colifor
m bact eri
a ar e a col
lecti
on ofmi croor
gani
sms
l
ivinginl argenumber sint hei
ntest i
nesofhumans,war m- bl
oodedandcol d-
blooded ani mal s.Col i
form bacteria are needed int he process offood
digesti
on.Thi sgr oupincludesEscher ichi
acol i(
E.coli)
,whichi ssepar
ated
fr
om t otalcoliform groupbyi tsabi l
it
yt ogrowathi ght emperatur
esandi ts
characteristi
cs ofbei ng associ
at ed wi t
h onlyf aecalmat eri
alofwar m-
bloodedani mal s.

Ther
ei sar ecentl
ydi scover
edst rai
ncal l
edE.col i
,whi chcausessever e
di
seaset hatmaybef atalinsmal lchil
drenandt heel der
ly.Water-
rel
at ed
di
seasesi ncludediarr
hoealdiseasesduet omi croorganismsandchemi cals
i
ndrinki
ngwat er.Diar
rhoeaisoneoft heprincipalcausesofmor bidit
yand
mort
alit
yi n developi
ng count r
ies.About1. 8 mi ll
ion people di
ef rom
di
arr
hoealdi seaseseveryyear,ofwhom 90%ar echildrenunder5years.

E.col
iarealwayspresenti
nfaeces;mostar
enotpathogeni
c,al
thoughsome
are a majorcause ofchi l
dhood di
arr
hoea thr
oughoutthe world.I
na
chl
ori
natedwatersupplysystem t
hati
sworkingwell
,al
lcol
ifor
m organi
sms

12
willhavebeenki ll
ed.Ther eforet hepr esenceofanycol i
for m organi sms,
eveni nver yl ow concent rations,i sindi cat iveof,notnecessar i
lyofaheal th
hazar d, butcer tainl
yofaf ailurei nthechl or inati
onsyst em.I fthechl orinated
wat eri sbei ngt estedatat apatsomedi stancef r
om t het reatmentwor ks,
then t he pr esence of col iforms may i ndicate t he i ntroduction of
cont ami nat i
onatsomepoi nti nt hedi stribut ionsystem.Un- treat edwat er,like
anyot hernat uralwat er
,cont ainsact ivepl antandani mallifeandwi llcont ain
manybact eri
a.Near lyal
lt hesebact eriawi llhavenoheal thsi gnifi
canceand
theirpr esencei nt hewat eri squi teirrelevantt othepubl icheal thwor ker .The
onlybact er i
awhi charei ndi cati
veofaheal thhazar dar ethest r
ictl
yf aecal
bact eria.Int estinganunt reatedwat ersuppl y,i
tisnecessar yt oenumer at e
bact eriaofdef initefaecalor igin.Thef aecalcol iforms( E.col i
)ar emost
commonl yusedf orthi
spur posebutot her ssuchasf aecalst reptococcior
thecl ost r
idiamaybeusedasal ternatives.

Microbi
alanal
ysisisnottheonlyapproach.Reli
abl
eandmor einformati
ve
resul
tsmaybeobt ainedmorequi
ckl
yandcheapl yfrom asanit
arysurveyof
anunt r
eat
edwat ersuppl
ytocheckfordefectssuchasleaksinwel ll
ini
ngs
andpipesandthepr oxi
mit
yoflat
ri
nes,rubbishdumpsandot hersourcesof
poll
uti
on(WHO, 1985).

TheWHO(
WHO,
1984)suggest
sthef
oll
owi
nggui
del
inesf
ort
reat
eddr
inki
ng
water
:

 Waterent
eri
ngt hedi
str
ibut
ionsystem shoul
dcontai
nnocolifor
m
or
ganisms
 Wateratt
hetapshoul
dcont ai
nnocolif
ormin95%ofsamplestaken
i
nanyoneyearandshoul dnevercont
ainmorethan3col
if
orms/100
mlsoranyE.col
i.

THERMOTOLERANT( FAECAL)BACTERI ARISKCATEGORI ESFOR

TREATEDRURALWATERSUPPLI ES
COUNTPER100ML RISKCATEGORY
0 Conformswi t
hWHOGui del
ines
0-10 Lowr i
sk
10-100 Int
ermediat
e
100-1000 Highri
sk
>1000 Veryhighri
sk
nd
Source:Guidel
inesforDri
nkingWat
erQualit
y,2 Edi ti
on,
VolumeI I
I.
Surveil
lanceandControlofCommunitySuppli
es,Geneva.1997

I
ndi
cat
orOr
gani
sms:Theseorgani
smsaremeasur
edi
nCFU/
100ml
.The
t
wocommonindi
cat
ormicroor
ganismsar
e:

 TotalCol
if
orms:Theseoriginatefr
om botht
heenvironmentand
faeces
 FaecalCol
ifor
ms:theseoriginatef
rom t
hesmallintest
inesofwarm
bloodedanimalsi
ncludi
ngman.Anexampl eofthisistheEscher
ichi
a
coli(
E.col
i)
.

13
Organisms,whosepr
esencei
ndi
cat
eli
kel
yoccur
renceofwat
er-
bor
ne
pathogens:

I
ndi
cat
orFaecalcont
ami
nat
ion Pat
hogens=Di
sease

I
deali
ndi
cat
orsshoul
dful
fi
lsever
alcr
it
eri
a:

 Alwaysbepr esentwhenpat hogensar epresent

 Sharesimi
larpersist
enceandgr owthcharacteri
sti
cs
 Existi
nlar
geconcent rat
ionsforeasydet ecti
on
 Detect
iontestsshouldber el
ativel
ysimple,inexpensi
ve
 Detect
iontestsshoulddetectindicat
ororganismsonl y
 Detect
iontestsshouldbeappl i
cabletoalltypesofwat er

PATHOGENSVsINDI
CATORORGANI SMS
PATHOGENS INDICATORORGANI SMS
Causediseasedirect
ly Mostarenotpat hogeni
c
Greatvar
iet
y Speci
fi
ct argetgr
oups
Dif
fi
culttoi
solate Easyt odet
ectandenumer ate,
Takeslongertodetect usuall
ywithin24-48hours
Somear eopport
unisti
c

Tot
alCol
if
orms
• Usedasani ndi
cat orsincetheearly1900s
• Doesnotal waysi ndicatefaecalcontaminati
on
– Or iginall
y,4gr oupsofbact eri
awer eident
if
iedandal lwere
foundi nfeces
– Nowt herear e19gr oupsofbact eri
athatf
allundertotal
coliforms
– Onl y10oft he19gr oupsareassoci at
edwithfaeces
• Doesnotmeetcr iter
iaforagoodi ndicator
– Tot al col
iformsar ealsoassoci at
edwi t
hsoil,
vegetation,
and
wat ersediment s
– Abl et oreplicateintheenvironment

Thermot
olerant(faecal
)Colif
orms
• Sub-groupoft ot
alcoli
forms
• Usedt obecal l
edfaecalcoli
forms
• 96.
4%ofbact eri
ainhumanf aecesarether
mot ol
erantcol
if
orms
• Abletogrowathi ghertemper at
ures(42-44.
5oC)
• Bett
erindicatoroffaecalcontaminat
ionthantotalcol
if
orms

Escher
ichi
acoli(E.coli
)
• Foundmai nlyinfecesofwar
m- bl
oodedanimal
s
• Majori
tyofE.coliisharml
ess(non-pat
hogeni
c)
• Meetscrit
eriaforagoodindi
catorandisthemosti
mpor
tant

14
 – Mostspeci
ficf
orfaecalcont
aminati
on
– Li
mit
edabili
tytosurvi
veandreproducei
nwat
er
– Non-
pathogeni
c

Itshoul dbenot edthatbacteriali

ndicat
orsarenotintendedt obeabsolute
i
ndi catorsfort hepr esenceofpat hogens.Rat
hert hepr esenceoft hese
bact er
ialindicatorsinawat ersampl eisconsi
stentwitht hefactthatthe
wat erwasl ikelycontaminatedwi thfaecesandatahi gherr i
skforcausing
disease.Faecal lycont aminated watermayormaynothavepat hogenic
mi croorgani
smsi nit
.Pleaseseet heform bel
ow:

15
16
2.
3Physi
calPar
amet
ers:Thesear
egi
venbel
ow:

Int
roducti
ontoPhysicalPar
amet
ers:Thi
sgiveyouanaccountofphysi
cal
parametersthatarecommonlyfound i
n water
.Thestandar
dsoft hese
parameterswil
lbegi
ven

Uni
tObj
ect
ive:Descr
ibephysi
calpar
amet
ers

Uni
tCont
ent
:Asgi
venbel
ow:

2.
3.1Tur
bidi
ty:

Watert hatisnotcl earbutdi r

ty,int hesenset hatl i
ghtt
ransmissioni s
i
nhibited,i
sconsideredt urbid.Turbi
ditycanbecausedbymanymat eri
als.In
thetreatmentofwat erfordr inki
ngpur poses,tur
bidit
yi sofgr
eatimportance,
fi
rstbecause ofaest hetic considerati
ons,second because pat hogeni c
organismscanhi deon( orin)thet i
nycol l
oidalparti
clesandthir
dbecause
hydrophobicsubst ancesl i
keor ganochloridepest i
cidescan cli
ng on t he
surfacesofcoll
oids.Thest andardforcalibr
atingturbi
dimeter
sisdefinedas:

1mg/
lofSi
O2=1nor
mal
isedt
urbi
dit
yuni
t(NTU)

Turbi
dityistheamountofcl
oudinessinthewater
.Thi
scanvaryfr
om ariver
ful
lofmudandsi l
twherei
twouldbei mpossi
bletoseet
hroughthewat er
(hi
ghturbidit
y),t
oaspringwaterwhichappear
stobecompletel
yclear(
low
tur
bidi
ty).Turbi
dit
ycanbecausedby:

 Si
lt
,sandandmud

 Bact
eri
aandot
herger
ms

 Chemi
cal
preci
pit
ates

Itisimpor t
antt omeasur et het urbi
dit
yofdomest icwatersuppli
es,ast hese
suppliesof t
enunder gosomet ypeofwat ertreat
mentwhi chcanbeaf fected
byt urbidi
ty.Forexampl e,dur i
ngt her ainyseasonwhenmudandsi ltare
washedi ntoriver
sandst reams,hi ght urbidit
ycanqui ckl
yblockfil
ter
sand
stopt hem f r
om wor ki
ngef f
ect i
vel
y.Hi ght urbi
dit
ywi llal
sofil
ltanksand
pipeswi thmudandsi l
t,andcandamageval esandt aps.Wherechlori
nation
ofwat erispr acti
ced,evenqui tel owturbiditywil
lpreventthechl
orinekill
ing
theger msi nthewat ereffi
ciently.

Somet reat
mentsyst emssuchassedi mentor
s,coagulat
orsandgr avelpr
e-
fi
lt
ersar edesi
gnedt oremoveturbi
dit
y.Measuringthet urbi
dit
yofwat er
befor
e and aftereach partoft he syst
em can tellthe operat
orwher e
maintenanceorcleaningisr
equi
red.

Turbi
dit
ycanbemeasur edusi
ngeit
heranelect
roni
ct urbi
dit
ymet erora
tur
bidi
tytube.Bot
hmet
hodshaveadvant
agesanddisadvantages.Tur
bidi
ty

17
i
smeasuredinnephelometr
ict
urbi
dit
yunit
s(NTU).OrJacksont
urbi
dit
y
uni
ts(
JTU)dependi
ngonthemet
hodusedformeasur
ement

i
) Tur
bidi
tyGui
del
inesf
orDr
inki
ngwat
er:

 Dri
nki
ng watershoul
d have a t
urbi
dit
y of5 NTU/JTU orless.
Tur
bidi
tyofmorethan5NTU/ JTU wouldbenot
icedbyuser
sand
maycauserej
ect
ionoft
hesuppl
y

 Wherewaterischlor
inat
ed,t
urbidi
tyshoul
dbelesst
han5NTU/ JTU
andpref
erabl
ylessthan1NTU/ JTUforchl
ori
nat
iont
obeef
fect
ive

2.
3.2Col
ourandOdour

Colourandodourar ebot hi mportantmeasur ement sinwat ertr

eatment.
Alongwi t
ht urbidi
tyt
heyar ecal l
edphysicalpar ametersofdr i
nki
ngwat er
quali
ty.Colourandodourar eimportantf
rom thest andpoi
ntofaestheti
c.If
waterlookscol our
edorsmel l
sbadpeopl einsti
nctivel
yavoidusingit
,even
thoughitmi ghtbeperfect
lysaf efr
om thepublicheal t
haspect.Bothcolour
andodourmaybeandof tenar ecausedbyor ganicsubstancessuchas
algaeorhemi ccompounds.

2.
3.3Sol
ids:

Indiscussi
onofwat ertr
eatment
,bot
hdissolvedandsuspendedmater
ials
arecall
edsoli
ds.Thesesoli
dscanbesub-
divi
dedinvol
ati
leandfi
xedsol
ids.

2.
3.4Temper
atur
e:

Themostdesi rabl edri

nkingwat er
sar econsi st
ent
lycoolanddonothave
temper at
urefluct uat
ionsofmor et han af ew degrees.Groundwaterand
surfacewaterf rom mount ai
nousar easgenerall
ymeett hesecrit
eri
a.Most
i
ndividualsfi
ndt hatwat erhavi
ngt emperaturebetween10and15degr ees
Celsius(50and60degr eesF)ismostpalatable.

2.
4Chemi
calPar
amet
ers:

Uni
tObj
ect
ive:Descr
ibechemi
cal
par
amet
ers

Assessmentofwat erquali
tybyi t
schemi st
ryi
ncl udesmeasuresofelements
andmol eculesdissol vedorsuspendedi nwater .Chemicalmeasurescanbe
usedt odi r
ectl
ydet ectpollutantsandi mbalanceswi thi
nt heecosystem.
Mostchemi calsf rom wat ersourcesar eofheal t
hconcerninhumansasa
resul
t of exposur et hr
ough dr inki
ng. Commonl y measured chemi cal
parametersi nclude ar seni
c,cadmi um,calcium,chl ori
de,fluor
ide,t
ot al
hardness,nit
rate,andpot assium

18
Uni
tCont
ent
:Asgi
venbel
ow:

2.
4.1Ar
seni
c:

Arseni
ci sasemi -metalthatisusedasar atpoi
son.Inhumans, iti
sessenti
al
i
nsmal lquant i
ti
esf ortheintegri
tyoftheimmunesyst em,skinandt hehai
r.
Theconcent rati
onofar seni
ci nunpoll
utedwaterislesst han0.01mg/ l
.It
l
eads t o ski n lesions, sensory loss in the peripheral ner
ves and
gastr
ointest
inalsympt omswhenf oundinincreasedconcentrati
onsabove
0.
5mg/ li
ngr oundwat er.

2.
4.2Cadmi
um:

Cadmi um i
sahighl
ypoi
sonousmet al
,usedfortheprotect
ionofmet
alsfr
om
corrosi
on.Theconcent
rati
onofcadmi um inunpol l
utedwaterisnormall
y
0.01mg/ l.El
evat
edconcentr
ati
onsexceeding0. 05mg/ lfoundinground
watercanl eadtonausea,vomiti
ng,diar
rhoea,kidneydamageandbone
pains.

2.
4.3pH:

ThepHofasol uti
onisameasur eofhydrogenionconcentr
ati
on,whi
chi
n
tur
ni sameasur eofitsaci
dit
y.Purewat erdissol
vessli
ghtl
yint
oequal
concent
rat
ionsofhydr
ogenandhydroxyl(
OH)ions.

H2O H+OH

Anexcessofhydrogenionsmakesasol ut
ionaci
dic,wher
easadear
thof
hydr
ogeni
ons,oranexcessofhydr
oxyli
ons,makesi
tbasic.

2.
4.4Cal
cium:

Calcium isanal kali

neear thmetalt
hatreact
swithwat ertofor
m calci
um
hydroxide.I
tisessent i
alf ort
hebuil
dingandmaintenanceofhealt
hybone
structur
e.Itisnor mall
yl essthan10mg/ li
nrai
nwat erorsof
twater.High
calcium concentrat
ionsabove10mg/ lleadtot
hedevel opmentofkidney
stonesinsensiti
vepeopl e.

2.
4.5Chl
ori
de:

Chlor
ide ist he negati
vel
y charged componentoft abl
e sal
t.Its high
concentr
ationsimpartasal tytastetowaterandacceler
atecorr
osionof
metals.I
nf reshwater,i
tsconcentr
ati
onisl
essthan10mg/ l
.Healt
hef f
ects
suchasnauseaandvomi t
ingmayoccuratconcentr
ati
onabove1,200mg/ l
i
nsensi t
iveindi
vidual
s.

2.
4.6Fl
uor
ide:

Fluori
deisanelementneededduri
ngtoothfor
mati
onforthehardeni
ngof
thetoothenamel
.Theconcent
rat
ionoff
luor
idei
nunpol
lut
edwateris0.
1-0.
3

19
mg/l.Pr
olongedint
akeoffluor
ideabove1.
5mg/
lcandamaget
heskel
eton,
causebri
tt
lebonesandleadtocri
ppli
ng.

2.
4.7Ni
tr
ate:

Nit
rateistheendproductofoxidat
ionprocessbetweenammoni aandni
trit
e,
anditisneededasapl antnutri
ent.Iti
spr oducedbythedecayofpl ants,
ani
malandhumanwast e.Nitr
ateconcentrat
ionisusual
lyl
essthan2mg/ li
n
unpoll
utedwaterandmor ethan20mg/ linpoll
utedwater
.Increasedni
tr
at e
concentrat
ionsl
eadt otir
edness;f ai
lur
et othri
veinsensiti
vepeopleand
i
nfants.

2.
4.8Tot
alHar
dness:

Totalhardnessiscal cul
ated ascal ci
um and magnesium concentrati
ons
expressedasmg/ lcalci
um carbonate.Tot
alhar
dnessindicateswhetherthe
waterissof torhard,anditrelat
est otheeaseordiff
icult
yoflatheringof
soap.Increaseintotalhardness(>300mg/ l
)leadstoscal i
ngproblemsi n
pipes.

2.
4.9Pot
assi
um:

Potassium i
san alkal
imet al,which i
sr egarded asan essenti
aldiet
ary
consti
tuent
.Exposuretoincreasedconcentrat
ion(>100mg/ l
)ofpotassi
um
l
eadst odisr
upti
onofhear tandmuscul arfuncti
on,ir
ri
tat
ionofthemucous
membr anesandalsocausesnauseaandvomi ti
ng.

2.
4.10Al
kal
ini
ty:

Apar amet erreleasedt opHi sal kaline, orthebuf fer

ingcapacit
yoft hewater
againstaci ds.Wat erthathasahi ghal kal i
nitycanacceptlargedosesofan
aci
dwi thoutl ower i
ngthepHsi gnificant ly.Wat er
swi t
hlowalkalini
ty,suchas
rai
nwat er
,canexper i
enceadr opi nt hepH wi thonlyami noraddi t
ionof
hydrogeni ons.
In nat ural wat ers much of t he al kali
nit
y i s provided by t he
carbonate/bicarbonatebuf fer
ingsyst em.Car bondioxide(CO2)di ssol
vesin
waterandi si nequili
brium witht hebi car bonateandcar bonat
ei ons.

CO2(gas)=CO2( di
ssol
ved)
CO2(di
ssolved)+H2O=H2CO3
H2CO2=H+HCO2

Anychanget hatoccur sint hecomponent soft hi

sequat i
oni nf
luencest he
solubili
ty of CO2.I f acidi s added tot he water,t he hydrogen i on
concent rat
ionisi ncreased,andt hi
scombi neswi t
hbot hthecar bonateand
bicarbonateions, dri
vingt hecarbonateandbicarbonateequil
ibri
at otheleft
,
releasingcarbondi oxidei ntotheat mosphere.Theaddedhydr ogeni ons
absor bedbyr eadjustmentofal ltheequi l
ibr
iaandt hepH donotchange
mar kedly.Onlywhenal loft hecarbonateandbicarbonateionsar edepleted
willtheadditi
onalaci daddedt othewat ercauseadropi npH.

20
2.
5Radi
ologi
calChar
act
eri
sti
cs:

Uni
tObj
ect
ive:Descr
iber
adi
ologi
calpar
amet
ers

Uni
tCont
ent
:Thi
sisdescr
ibedbel
ow:

Thedevel opmentanduseofat omi cener gyasapowersour ceandmi ni

ngof
radioactivemat erial
s(e.g.uranium mi ninginSi avongaandLumwanai n
Zambi a)havemadei tnecessar yt oest abli
shl i
mi tingconcent rat
ionsf or
i
ntakei ntot hebodyofr adi
oactivesubst ances, i
ncl udingdr i
nkingwat er
.The
effectsofhumanexposur etor adiati
onorr adioact i
vemat eri
alsareviewed
ashar mf ulandanyunnecessar yexposur eshoul dbeavoi ded.
Humanshaveal waysbeenexposedt onat uralradi ationfrom water,food,
andai r.Theamountofr adiat
iont owhi cht heindividuali snormallyexposed
varies wi th the amount of backgr ound r adioact ivit
y. Water of high
radioactivit
yisunusual .Nevertheless,itisknownt oexi stincertai
nar eas,
eit
herf rom naturalorman-madesour ces.

Uni
t3:Dr
inki
ng-
wat
ersampl
ing

Int
roducti
ontounit3:Wel cometothi
sunit.I
nt hi
sunityouwi llbeexposedto
dri
nkingwatersampl ingshowi ngplanf orsampl i
ng,sampl i
ngf r
equency
cri
ter
ia,sampli
ngprocedur esfordi
ff
erenttypesofsour ces.Youwi llf
urt
her
beexposedt olabel
li
ngt hesampledocument ,tr
ansport
at i
onandst orageof
thesampl ebetweensampl i
ngandanal ysisatt helaboratoryandqual i
ty
assuranceandcontrolinwatersampli
ng.

Cont
entObj
ect
ive:Thesei
ncl
ude:

 Developaplanfordrinki
ng-watersampl i
ng
 Developasamplingf r
equencycrit
er i
a
 Coll
ectsamplesfrom vari
ousdr i
nkingwat ersour
ces
 Labelwatersamples
 Describehowtotransportandstoredr i
nking-
watersampl
es
 Demonst r
atequalit
yassur anceandqual itycontr
olindr
inki
ng-
wat
er
sampling

Uni
tContent
:
 Planfordr
inki
ng-wat
ersampli
ng
 Sampl i
ngfr
equencycri
ter
ia

21
 Typesofsampl e
 Season,
 Diseasepr eval
ence,
 Riskofcont aminati
on,and
 Availabil
it
yofresources
 Sampl ingproceduresforvari
ousdri
nkingwatersources
 Wells,
 Taps, and
 Borehol e
 Labelli
ngofwat ersampl es
 Transpor t
ati
onandst orageofdri
nking-
watersamples
 Qualityassuranceandqual i
tycont
rolindr
inki
ng-watersampl
ing
 Multiplesampling
 Duplicatesampl es
 Blanksampl ing

3.
1Planfordri
nking-
watersampl
ing:Whendoi
ngt
his,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
o
consi
derthefoll
owing:

 Samplingpointsshouldbeselect
edsothattheyar er
epresent
ati
veof
thediffer
entsourcesfrom whichwateri
sobt ainedbyt hepubl
icor
enter
st hesystem.Wher emor ethanonesourcesuppliesasystem,
samplingpoi nt
sshouldbel ocatedsoast ot akeintoaccountthe
numberofi nhabit
ant
ssuppli
edbyeachsource.

 Toensur ethatwatersampli
ngi
sspeci
fic,
tar
getedandcostef
fect
ive,
awat ersamplingplanshoul
dbedevel
oped.Theplanmayincl
udethe
fol
lowing:

3.1.
1Pur poseforsampling( formalori nformal)
3.1.
2Sampl ingpoints(
locat i
onandnumber )
3.1.
3Fr equencyandpat ternsofsampl i
ng
3.1.
4Det er
mi neparameterst obemoni tored
3.1.
5Det er
mi nenumberofsampl est obecol l
ected
3.1.
6Det er
mi nemethodofsampl i
ng( graborcomposi te)
3.1.
7Somesampl esshoul dbet akenf rom point
srepresent
ati
veof
sources or pl aces int he syst em t hat ar e morel i
kelyto be
contami nated
3.1.
8Sampl epointsshoul dbespr eaduni formlythr
oughoutapiped
dist
ributionsystem,inpr opor t
iont othenumberofl i
nksorbranches,
taki
ngi ntoaccountpopul ati
ondi stribut
ion

3.
2Sampli
ngfr
equencycr
it
eri
a:Thef
requencyofsampl
ingi
sdependent
onsever
alf
act
orsamongthem:

3.
2.1 Typeofsample:Thetypeofsamplehasabear i
ng on the
numberofsampl
estobecol
lect
edandsubsequent
lyanal
ysed.
From t
heheal
thpoi
ntofvi
ew,bact
eri
ologi
calsampli
nghast o

22
 be done r egul arlyi n accor dance wi tht he gui del ines and
standar dsasl ai ddownbyt hepi ecesofl egi slat i
ons.I twoul d
be pr udentt o expectand i ti saf actt hatbact eriological
sampl i
ng demands mor ef requentsampl ing t han chemi cal
,
physi calandr adi ologicalf ort her easont hatbact eriological
sampl es ar e mor e l ikely t o cont ain di sease causi ng
mi croor gani sms.
3.
2.2 Season:Thebact erial oadi sexpect edt obeheavi eront he
sur f
aceoft hegr oundorear tht hananyot hernat ur alhabi tat
.
Thi si sbecauset hesur faceoft heear thi smor el i
ablet o
cont ami nat ionbysever alcauses.I nt hi sl i
ght ,thebact eriaload
i
sal so expect ed t o beheavi erdur ing t her ainr eason t han
dur i
nganyot herper iod.Thi si sbecauset her ainwat eri slikely
towashawayi ntowat erbodi esal lsur f acecont ami nant sand
any ot herpar ticles.You woul dt her efor e expectt hatmor e
sampl es woul d be col lected dur ing t he r ainy season t han
dur i
nganyot herseason.
3.
2.3 Diseasepr eval ence:Thepr esenceorabsenceofdi seaseal so
hasabear ingont hef requencyofsampl ing.Anar eawher ea
diseasei sendemi cwi llbeexpect edt ohavemor ef requent
sampl i
ngt hananar eawher edi seasei snotsocommon.The
mor ef requentsampl ingi sdonei nsuchanar ea,t hemor e
i
nf ormat i
onwi llbeavai lableonwhet hermeasur esbei ngputi n
placehaveani mpact .
3.
2.4 Riskofcont ami nat i
on:Hi ghr iskar easorpl aceshavemor e
chancesofcont ami nat ion.Such ar easi ncl udear easwher e
therear ef ew orpoormeansofwast eandsewer agedi sposal;
wher e educat ion st andar ds ar el ow whi ch gi ve r ise t o
compr omi sedbehavi our s.Wat ersuppl ysour cesi nt hisr egar d
woul d bemor epr onet o cont ami nat ion i n hi ghl ypopul at ed
areas;l ow- lyingar eas;ar easpr onet of l
oodi nget c.
3.
2.5 Avai l
abi li
ty of r esour ces:I nr emot e ar eas,f requency of
sampl i
ngi sr eallycompr omi sed.Thi si sbecauser esour cesar e
notr eadi l
y avai l
abl e.The avai lability ofr esour ces woul d
war rantmor esampl ingbei ngdone.Theser esour cesi nclude
human, funds, tr anspor tandanyot her s.

3.
3Sampl ingpr
oceduresf
orvari
ousdr
inki
ngwatersour
ces:Procedure
tofoll
ow whentaki
ngsamplesfr
om dif
fer
entsour
cesisdoneint he
fol
lowingmanner:

Uni
tObj
ect
ive:Col
lectsampl
esf
rom var
iousdr
inki
ngwat
ersour
ces

Uni
tCont
ent
:

3.3.
1Wells/Borehol
esandwat ertanksfitt
edwithpumps:Clean
thetapusingsoapandwat eroral coholtoremovedi r
t;Open
thetapandl etwaterf
low f
or1- 5mi nutestoclearthesurf
ace
l
ine;usi
ngi gnitedcot
tonsoakedi nalcohol;ster
il
izethetap

23
untilitbecomesr edhot .Agasbur nerorci garet
teli
ghtermay
also beused.I ft het ap ismadeofpl asti
c,usest eri
li
zing
solutionssuchashypochl ori
te;Opent het aponcemor eand
all
owwat ert ofl
owf oraboutami nute;Taket hebottl
ecapof f
while avoi ding the mout h of t he bot t
le; Hold the cap
downwar ds t o pr event entry of dust and any ot her
contami nant s;Coverwi t
h aluminium f oil
;Labelt he bottl
e
appr opri
at elywithpoi ntofsampl ing,time,dat e,andper son
sampl i
ng;Pl acethebot t
leinsuitablecontainerandt r
ansportto
thelabor atorywithin24hour s.

3.
3.2 Taps:Thef ollowi ngmustbef oll
owed: Cleant het ap
usingsoapandwat eroral coholt oremovedi rt
;Opent he
tap and letwat erf l
ow f or1- 5 mi nutes to cl
eart he
surface l
ine;usi ng igni ted cot ton soaked in alcohol ;
steri
li
zethet apunt i
litbecomesr edhot.Agasbur neror
cigaret
teli
ght ermayal sobeused.I ft
het apismadeof
plasti
c,usest eril
izingsol utionssuchashypochl orite;
Opent het aponcemor eandal l
ow watert of l
ow f or
aboutami nut e;Taket hebot tl
ecapof fwhileavoi ding
themout h oft hebot tle;Hol dt hecap downwar dst o
prevententr yofdustandanyot hercontaminants;Cover
withalumi nium f oil
;Labelt hebot tleappropri
atelywi th
pointofsampl ing,t ime,dat e,and per son sampl i
ng;
Placethebot tleinsui tablecont ainerandtransporttot he
l
abor at
orywi thin24hour s.

3.
3.3 Openwell
sandr eser
voi
rs:Forwel
landreser
voi
rtanks
t
hecol
lect
ionshouldbedoneint
hefol
lowi
ngmanner:

3.
3.3.
1 Preparet hebot tl
ewi thaspi eceofst r
ing
3.
3.3.
2 Attachacl eanst oneorpl umpbobt ot
hebott l
e
3.
3.3.
3 Attacht hebot tl
et ot hest ring.Takeenough
l
engt hofcl eanst ri
ngandt ietot hebottl
e
3.
3.3.
4 Opent hebot tl
e
3.
3.3.
5 Lowerandf il
lthebot tl
ewei ght eddownbyt he
stonei nt
ot hewel l
,maki ngsur et hatt
hebot tl
e
doesnott oucht hewel lsides.
3.
3.3.
6 Immer se t he bot t
leint he wat ercompl et
ely
andf i
llit
3.
3.3.
7 Oncet hebot t
lei sfull
,liftit,avoidthebot tl
e
touchingt hesi des
3.
3.3.
8 Discardsomewat ertoprovideai rspace
3.
3.3.
9 Corkthebot t
le

24
 3.
3.4 Ri
ver
sandst
reams:Thi
sisdonei
nthef
oll
owi
ngmanner
:

3.
3.4.
1 Pr eparethebot tleasment ionedabove
3.
3.4.
2 Hol dthebot t
leatt hebaseupsi dedownso
thatthemout hpointsdownwar ds
3.
3.4.
3 Removet hecap
3.
3.4.
4 I mmer sethebot t
leintot hewat ert oadepthof
about30cm whi lemaki ngsur et hatthehand
doesnotcont aminatet hewat erinanyway
3.
3.4.
5 Sl i
ght l
ytil
tt hebot tlesot hatt hewat ercan
gainaccess
3.
3.4.
6 I ft hewat erdoesf low t i
ltt hebot t
leint he
directi
onoft heincomi ngcur r
ent
3.
3.4.
7 I fthewat erdoesnotf low,cr eateanar t
if
icial
cur r
entbymovi ngthehandacr osst hewater
3.
3.4.
8 Removet hebot tl
efrom t hewat er
3.
3.4.
9 Cr eateanai rspaceasabove
3.
3.4.
10 Capi tqui
cklyandputi tinasui tablecontai
ner

3.
4 Labell
ingofwat ersampl ing:Assoonast hesampl ehasbeen
takenandwr appedt helabelmustbeat tachedt othebottl
e.Thi
s
l
abelmustcont ai
ni nf
ormat ionrel
evantt ot hesampl esuchas
pointofsampling,typeofsour ceofwat er
,typeoft estr
equi
red,
ti
meofsampl ing,dateofsampl etaking,per sonwhot ookthe
sample,methodofdi si
nfectionofcontainerifanyetc.

3.
5 Transportati
onandst or
ageofsampl es:Oncet hesampl eshave
beencollected,t
heymustbewr appedi nal umini
um f oiltoavoid
heatandl i
ghtandshouldbeplacedi nacoolpl ace( coolbox)ata
temperaturebetween2degr eesand10degr eesCel sius..
The
samplesmustbet ranspor
tedtot heCent ralLaboratoryassoon
aspossibl e,pr
efer
ablywit
hin6hour sbutmustnotexceed24
hours.Any sampl et hatis notexami ned wi t
hin24 hour s of
samplingmustber eject
edanddi scarded.

3.
6 Qualit
yassuranceandqual i
tycont
roli
ndr i
nking-
watersampl i
ng:
Qualit
yassuranceandqual i
tycontr
ol(QA/ QC)proceduresar e
veryimpor
tantf orwaterquali
ty
test
ing.These pr ocedures assur
e accuracy and preci
sion in
watersampl i
ng t hrough getti
ng mult
ipl
e sampl i
ng,dupl i
cate
samplesandbl anksampl ingamongothers.

3.
6.1 Multi
ple sampl
ing: mul
ti
ple sampling means independent
samplestakenfrom samewatersour
ceatthesamet imeordoingmul ti
ple
test
s on the same watersample. Thi
si s done f
orquali
ty assurance
purposes.

3.
6.2Dupl
icat
esampl es:dupl
icatesamplesareindependentsampl
estaken
fr
om t
hesamel ocat
ionatappr oxi
matel
yt hesametime.Byt aki
ngdupl
icat
e

25
sampl es,you can check the r
eli
abi
li
ty ofyourt esti
ng procedures and
averagetwosampl estogetmoreaccurateresult
s.Ideal
ly,
allwatersamples
shouldbedupl i
cated,butthi
scanbeexpensi veandi snotf easi
blefor
routi
nepur poses.Dependi
ngonyourr esources,youshouldtrytodupli
cate
atleast10%ofyoursampl es.

3.6.
3Bl anksampl ing:t
estdi
sti
ll
edwaterasyourbl anksample(f
reefr
om
contaminati
on).Blanksampli
ngensuresyoursampl
ingandtesti
ngmethods
arefreefrom secondarycont
aminat
ion.Recommendedi s1blanksampl
ing
forevery20sampl es.

Uni
t4:Dr
inki
ng-
wat
ert
est
ingmet
hods:

I
ntr
oduct
iont
ouni
t4:

Welcomet ot hi
sunit.Themai nr i
skt opeopleusi ngsmal lcommuni tywat er
suppliesi sfrom faecal-
oraldi seasessuchaschol era,typhoid,hepatit
isA
andot herdi arr
hoealdiseaseswhi charepassedf r
om excr etaintothewat er
supply.Tot estforthebacter i
awhi chcauset hesedi seaseswoul dbever y
expensi veandt ime-consumi ng,sot hemet hodgener allyusedt ocheckt he
hygienicqual it
yofawat ersuppl yistot estf oracer taintypeofbact eria
foundi nlargenumber sinexcr eta.Thesebact eria,knownasf aecalcolif
orms,
areeasyandcheapt otestforbot hinal aboratoryandwi thportabletestkits.
Othermet hodsuset hosethatcanbeappl iedonsi t
eorr i
ghtatt hepoi nt
wher ewat erisbeingused.Themet hodsareeasi l
yusedbyt heheal t
hf ield
worker sinthef orm ofEnvironment alHealthTechnol ogists.Thesemet hods
i
nshor twil
lincludeboththeonsi t
eandt heof fsit
eones.

Uni
tObj
ect
ives:

 Descr
ibeonsi
tewat
erqual
it
ytest
ing

 Describeof
fsi
te/central
isedl
aborat
orywat
erquali
tytesti
ng
 Analysedri
nki
ng-watersamplesformicr
obi
ologi
calparameter
s

 Anal
yse dri
nki
ng-
wat
er sampl
es f
or chemi
cal and physi
cal
par
ameter
s

Uni
tCont
ent
s:

 Onsitewaterqual i
tytesti
ng
 Obser vati
on
 Pr esence/ absencet ests
 Useofpor tablelabs
 Offsi
te/cent r
ali
sedl aboratory
 Microbi
ologicaltesti
ngmet hods
 Pr esence/ absencet est
 Mostpr obabl enumbert est

26
  Membr anefil
tr
ati
ont est
 Chemicalandphysicaltesti
ngmet hods
 Vol umetri
ctit
rati
on
 Col ori
metri
cmet hods
 At omicabsorpti
onspect rometry
 Chr omatography
 Resi dualf
reechlori
net est

4.
1Onsit
eWat erQuali
tyTesting:Therear eseveralmethodsthatcanbe
employedatt hepointofwateruse.Thesemet hodsaremostoftenused
bytheEnvironmentalHealt
hTechnologistswhoar et
rai
nedtodoso.This
hasseveraladvant
agesaswi llbeseenlater
.Thesemethodsare:

4.
1.1Observati
on:Wat erqual
it
ytesti
ngtel
lsyouaboutthequali
tyattheti
me
ofsampli
ng,buti tcannotgiveyouinformati
onont hecausesofpol l
uti
on.
Si
mpleobservationisaver yusefult
ooltoident
if
ypotenti
alr
isksthatcould
af
fectt
hecur r
entandf utur
equali
tyofdri
nkingwater
.

Ifcontaminati
onissuspectedthroughobservi
ngthelocalenvi
ronment,t
hen
test
ingisthenextst eptoconfir
mt hewaterqual
it
y.Sanitar
yinspect
ionisa
usefulobservat
ionaltechni
que.Itneedsnospeci
alequipmentanditi
squick
andcheap.

Advantagesofobser vati
oninclude;qui
ckandeasy,i nexpensive,doesnot
requir
especial
izedequipment,doesnotrequir
ehighl
ytrai
nedst affandgives
i
nf or
mation aboutthe causes ofpol lut
ion and possi
blef uturetrends.
Disadvantagesincl
ude;quali
tati
ve–l ow preci
sionandaccuracyanddoes
notconfir
mt hespecif
ictypeofcontaminati
on

4.1.
2Pr esence/absence(P-A)tests:Iti
st hesimplestmethod.Addwat er
samplet oabot t
lecontai
ningbrothandl eti
tsitfor24-48hours.Colourwil
l
changeifindicat
ororganism i
spr esent
.Howeveri tdoesnotshownumber s
ofbacteri
a!.I
fthesampl eisposit
ive,t
hewat ershouldbere-
testedusingMF
todeterminethenumberofbact eri
a.

4.
1.2 Use ofpor tabl
el abs:These are port
ablelaborat
ori
es t
hatare
equippedwithal
lnecessar
yi t
emsinsit
usothatsuchalabor
ator
ycan
bet aken t
o anywat ersourcet otakesamplesasneed maybe.
Parameterswil
lbedoneasf orcent
rall
abor
ator
y.

4.2Off sit
e/Cent r
ali
sedlaboratory:Youcanal sosendyourwat ersampl est o
aGover nmentorcommer ciallaboratoryfortesti
ng.Thesel abor atori
esar e
usuall
yl ocated inl ar
ger citi
es and have dedi cated f aciliti
es,t rained
technicians and speciali
zed equi pment .Labor ator
ies use i nternati
onal
standar dsfortest
ingandcanpr ovidemor econsistent,accur ateandpr ecise
resul
ts.I nZambi aallDWQSf ormalsampl esshoul dbeanal yzedbyatFood
andDr ugCont rolLaborat
oryatUTH.Li censedl aborator
iesi nZambi af or
i
nf or
malsampl esincl
ude:Zambi aBur eauofSt andardsLabor atoryi nLusaka,
UNZA Envi ronmentalEngineering Laboratory,Alfred Knightl abor at
oryi n

27
Ki
tweandSeedsofHopeLabor
ator
yinNdol
aamongot
her
s.

Advantagesoftaki
ngsampl estoacent rali
zedl aborator
yi nclude;contr
oll
ed
envi
ronment,high levelofpr ecision and accur acy,high levelofqual it
y
assurance,mor
econsi stentresults,andmor esampl escanbepr ocessedin
ashor t
erti
me.Disadvant agesinclude;relativel
yexpensi ve,lackoff l
exi
bil
it
y
toconductownt esti
ngandusual lylocat edi nur banar eas,mayr equi
re
samplestobetransportedoverl ongdistances.

4.
3Mi
crobi
ologi
calt
est
ingmet
hods:

Int
roducti
on:Ther earethr
eemai ntest
ingmethodst
odet
ermi
net
he
presenceofindicatorbacter
iaindr
inki
ngwater:
 Presence-Absence( P-A)
 MostPr obableNumber( MPN)
 Membr aneFi l
tr
ati
on(MF)

Uni
t Objecti
ve: Anal
yse dr
inki
ng wat
er sampl
es f
or mi
crobi
ologi
cal
par
ameters

Uni
tCont
ent
:

4.3.
1Pr esence/absencetest
:Iti
st hesi
mplestmethod.Addwat ersampleto
abot t
lecont ai
ningbrot
handl etitsitf
or24-48hours.Colourwil
lchangeif
i
ndicatoror ganism is pr
esent.Howeveri tdoes notshow number s of
bacteri
a!Ifthesampl ei
spositi
ve,thewatershoul
dber e-
testedusingMFt o
determinethenumberofbact eri
a.

4.3.
2 Mostpr obablenumbert est:TheMPN i salso cal
led multi
ple-
tube
met hod.Unli
ketheMFmet hod,iti
sbasedonani ndirect
assessmentofmi crobi
aldensityint he watersampl e by ref
erence to
stati
sti
calt
ablestodeter
minethemostpr obablenumberofmi croorgani
sms
presentintheorigi
nalsampl
e.Itisessentialf
orhighlytur
bidsampl esthat
cannotbeanalysedbymembr anefilt
rat
ion.

Themul ti
ple-tubemet hoddependsonthesepar ateanalysisofanumberof
volumesoft hesamesampl e.Eachvolumei smi xedwithculturemedi um
andincubat ed.Theconcentrati
onofmicroorganismsi ntheor i
ginalsampl e
cant henbeest i
matedf r
om thepatt
ernofposi tiveresul
ts(thenumberof
tubesshowi nggr owt
hi neachvolumeseries)bymeansofst atisti
caltables
thatgivet
he“ mostpr obabl
enumber”per100mloft heori
ginalsampl e.

Appropr iatevolumesofwat erareaddedasept i

call
yt otubesorot hervessel
s
containingst eri
lenutr
ientmedi um ofaconcent rat
iont hatwillensurethe
mixturecor r
espondstosingle-
strengthmedium.Thet ubemustal socontai
n
asmal linvertedgl
asst ube(Durham tube)tof aci
lit
atet hedetectionofgas
product i
on.Gr owthinthemedi um isconfir
medbyvi sibleturbi
dityand/ora
colourchange.Tubesar eincubatedwithoutresuscit
ati
on, andthenumberof
positi
ver eacti
onsisrecordedaf ter24and/ or48hour s,dependingont he

28
t
ypeofanal
ysi
s.

Advant agesofMPN i nclude;provi

dessemi -quanti
tati
ver esul
ts,r el
ati
vel
y
si
mpl et ounderst
andanduse,r elat
ivel
yi nexpensivef oroccasionaltesti
ng
andcanbeusedwi t
ht urbi
dwat er.Disadvant agesinclude;resultsarea
stat
isti
calestimat
e,mor elabourint
ensivet hanP- At esti
ng,requiressome
tr
aining,andrequi
resmoreequipmentt hanP- A.

4.3.
3Membr anefil
trati
ont est(MFT):InMFmet hod,ami nimum volumeof
10mloft hesample( ordil
utionofthesample)isintr
oducedasept i
cal
lyi
ntoa
ster
il
ef i
lt
rati
onassembl ycont ai
ningasteril
emembr anefil
ter
.Avacuum i s
appli
edandt hesampl eisdr awnt hr
oughthemembr anefil
ter.Alli
ndi
cator
organi
smsar eret
ainedonorwi thi
nt hef
il
ter,whichisthent r
ansfer
redtoa
suit
ableselecti
vecultur
emedi um i
naPetridish.

Foll
owing a per iod ofr esuscit
ati
on,during which the bact eri
a become
accli
mat i
zed tot he new condi ti
ons,the Petridish i
st ransf er
red to an
i
ncubat orattheappr opri
ateselecti
vetemperatur
ewher eitisincubat edfora
suit
ablet i
met oal l
ow ther epl
icat
ionofthei ndi
catororgani sms.Vi sually
i
dentifi
ablecoloniesar eformedandcount ed,andt heresult
sar eexpressed
i
nnumber sof“ colonyforminguni t
s”(CFU)per100mlofor iginalsampl e.
Thistechniqueisi nappropri
ateforwaterswithalevelofturbi
di tythatwould
causet hefil
tertobecomebl ockedbeforeanadequat evolumeofwat erhad
passedt hr
ough.

Advant agesi ncl

ude;providesquant i
tativeresult
s,mostaccur atemet hodto
deter minet henumberofi ndicatorbact er
ia;resultsareobt ai
neddi r
ectlyby
count ingt henumberofi ndi catorbact eri
acol onies,manysampl escanbe
testedatonce,andi nternat i
onallyrecogni zedtestmet hod.Disadvant ages
i
ncl ude;mor elabourint
ensi vethanP- AorMPNt est i
ng,mor ecompl i
catedto
under stand and r ead r esults;r equires mor et rai
ning,r equires mor e
equi pmentt hanP-AandMPNt esti
ng( e.g.
,powersour ce,i
ncubator ,pipet
tes,
fil
terpaper ,Petr
idishes),mor ediffi
culttot estturbidwat er(i.
e.,diluti
onis
requi r
ed)andcostofconsumabl escanbeexpensi ve.

4.
4Chemi
calandphysi
calt
est
ingmet
hods:

Uni
tObj
ecti
ve:Anal
ysedr
inki
ngwat
ersampl
esf
orchemi
calandphysi
cal
par
amet
ers

Uni
tCont
ent
:

4.4.
1Vol umetri
ct i
tration:Volumetri
cort itr
imetr
icanalysesarequant it
ati
ve
analyti
calt echniqueswhi chempl oyat it
rati
onincompar inganunknown
with a st andard. I nat i
tr
ation,a vol ume ofa st andardized soluti
on
containingaknownconcent rati
onofr eactant"A"i
saddedi ncrementallytoa
sampl econt ai
ninganunknownconcent rationofreact
ant" B"
.Thet i
trati
on
proceedsunt i
lreact ant"B"isj ustconsumed( stoi
chiometri
ccompl eti
on).
Thisi s known as t he equival
ence poi nt. Att hi
s pointthe numberof
equivalentsof"A"addedt otheunknownequal st
henumberofequi valentsof

29
"
B"or
iginall
ypr
esenti
ntheunknown.Vol
umet
ri
cmet
hodshavet
hepot
ent
ial
f
oraprecisi
onofupto0.1%.

Forvol umet r
ic met hods t o be usef ul,the react i
on mustr each 99%+
compl etioninashor tperiodoft ime.I nalmostal lcases,abur etisusedt o
met eroutt het i
trant.Whenat it
rantreactsdi r
ectlywithananal yte(orwit
ha
reacti
ont hepr oductoft heanal yteandsomei nter
medi at
ecompound) ,the
procedur eist ermedadi rectti
trati
on.Theal ternat
ivet echni
quei scall
eda
backt i
trati
on. Her e,ani nt
ermediater eactanti saddedi nexcessoft hat
required t o exhaustt he anal yte,then t he exactdegr ee ofexcess i s
determinedbysubsequentt i
tr
ationoft heunr eactedi ntermediat
ewi t
ht he
ti
trant. Regar dlessoft het ypeoft i
tr
ation,ani ndicatorisalwaysusedt o
detecttheequi val encepoi nt.

Mostcommonar ethei nternalindicat ors,compoundsaddedt other eact i

ng
solutionst hatunder goanabr uptchangei naphysi calpr opert
y( usual l
y
absor banceorcol or)atorneart heequi valencepoi nt
. Somet imest he
analyteort i
trantwil
l servet hisfunct i
on( autoindi cati
ng).Externalindicators,
el
ect rochemi caldevicessuchaspH met ers,mayal sobeused. I deally,
ti
trati
onsshoul dbest oppedpr eciselyatt heequi valencepoint.However ,t
he
ever-presentr andom and syst emat ic er ror,of ten resul
tsi nat itrati
on
endpoi nt,t
hepoi ntatwhi chat i
trati
oni sstopped,t hatisnotqui t
et hesame
ast heequi valencepoi nt.For t
unat ely,thesyst emat icerr
or,orbi asmaybe
estimat edbyconduct ingabl ankt itr
at i
on.I nmanycasest het i
trantisnot
availableinast abl
ef orm ofwel l-
def inedcomposi t
ion. I
ft hisist r
ue,t he
ti
trantmustbe st andar dized ( usual l
ybyvol umet ri
c analysis)agai nsta
compoundt hati savai lablei nast abl e,hi ghlypur ef orm( i
.e.
,apr i
mar y
standar d).Thebasi cr equirement sorcomponent sofavol umet r
icmet hod
are:

1.Astandardsol uti
on( i.
e.,tit
rant)ofknownconcent rat
ionwhi ch
reactswi ththeanal ytewi t
haknownandr epeatable
stoichiomet ry(i.
e.,acid/base, precipitat
ion,redox,
compl exat
ion)
2.Adevicetomeasur ethemassorvol umeofsampl e(e.g.,
pipet,
graduat edcyl i
nder ,volumet r
icf l
ask, analyti
calbalance)
3.Adevicetomeasur ethevol umeoft het it
rantadded( i.e.
,buret
te)
4.I
fthetit
rant-analytereact i
oni snotsuf f i
cientl
yspeci f
ic,a
pretreatmentt or emovei nter
ferents
5.Ameansbywhi cht heendpoi ntcanbedet ermined.Thi smaybe
ani nternalindicator(e.g.,phenol phthalein)oranext er
nal
indicator(e.g.,pHmet er).

Table:
Vol
umet
ri
cMet
hodsforEnvi
ronment
alAnal
ysi
s

Anal
yte Ti
tr
ant I
ndi
cat
or Pr
etr
eat
me Met
hod
nt

30
 Aci
d/Base
Al
kali
nit
y HCl methylorange none
Aci
dit
y NaOH phenolphthal
ein none
N(-
II
I) H2SO4 methylred di
gest/dist
i Macro-
l
l(N Kj
eldahl&
NH4OH) Aci
dimet r
ic
Volat
il
e NaOH phenolphthal
ein di
sti
ll
ation Distil
lat
ion
Acids
Preci
pit
ati
on
Chlor
ide Ag potassium
chromat e
Chl
ori
de Hg diphenylcar
bazo Mercur
ic
ne Ni
tr
ate
Compl exationorChelation
Ca EDTA EriochromeBlue
BlackR
Hardness EDTA Eriochrome
BlackT
CN Ag p-
dimethylamino
benzalrhodani
n
e
Oxidation/Reduction
Dissolved Na2S2O3 starch Mn(+II),
I(- Winkler
O2 I)
Ca MnO4 auto oxal
at e Permangana
teTit
r
Chlorine/Cl Na2S2O3 starch I(
-I
) I
odomet ri
c
O2
SO3-2 Na2S2O3 starch I(
-I
) I
odomet ri
c
Chlorine/Cl FeSO4 DPD DPDFer rous
O2 Tit
r.
COD Fe(NH4)2(
SO f erroi
n K2Cr2O7
4)
2

Volumet ri
cmet hodsmaybebasedonaci d/ baser eacti
ons.Pr ecipit
at i
on
reacti
ons, complexati
onr eacti
onsandr edoxr eacti
ons.Tabl e16.1pr esents
asummar yofthevol umet ri
cmet hodscommonl yusedf orenvironment al
analysis.Theaci d/basemet hodsgener all
yuseast r ongacidorbaseasa
ti
trantwi th methylor ange/red (acidt i
trat
ion)orphenol phthalei
n( base
ti
trati
on)ast heindicator.Foral lbutaci dit
yandal kalini
tydeterminat ions,
theanal yt
emustbesepar atedfrom t hemaj orcat i
onsandani onspr iorto
ti
trati
on.

Preci
pitat
ivevol umetr
icanalysisr
eli
esont heformationofsoli
dphasewith
averylowsol ubil
it
yproductconstant
.Inenvi r
onment alanal
ysi
s,i
tmaybe
usedf orchl ori
dedet er
mination. Speci
fi
ci ndicat
orsar eusedtodetect
excess silver or mer cury. Compl exomet r
ict i
trati
ons oft
en employ

31
ethyl
enediami netet
raaceti
c acid or EDTA
[HOOCCH2) 2NHC H2CH2NH( CH2COOH) 2].Thisi sahexadent ateligandwhi ch
binds very strongl
yt o many met als. Forcal cium and t otalhar dness
determinati
on, acoupleofspeci fi
cdyesar eusedt odeterminet hepr esence
ofexcesscat ion. Manyoxi dat
ion/ reducti
on based vol umet ri
cmet hods
employt hei odomet r
icmet hod. Thi si nvolvest heoxidationofi odi
det o
i
odineandsubsequentt it
rationwi t
hsodi um thiosulf
ateusingst ar
chasan
i
ndicator. Many oft hese empl oy a ser ies ofr edox r eacti
ons. The
permanganat emet hodf orcal ci
um i ssomewhatuni queint hatthecal ci
um
i
spr ecipi
tatedast heoxal ate,andi tist hesolid-
phaseoxal ategr oupwhi ch
parti
cipat
esi ntheredoxr eaction,nott hecalcium.

4.4.
2Colorimetr
icmethods:Colori
met ri
ct esti
ngisawi del
yusedmet hodof
watertesti
ng.A chemicalreagent(e.g.DPD t abl
ets)isaddedt oaknown
sampleofwat er
.Theintensit
yofcol ourist henmeasur edtodeterminethe
concentr
ati
onofapar t
icul
archemi calpr esentinthewat er(
eg.Chl or
ine)
.
Theconcent r
ati
onofthepar ametercanbedet er
mi nedwithacol or
imeter
,
ei
theraCompar at
or&Di sc,(vi
sualsyst em)oraphot ometer(elect
ronic/
digi
tal
)system.

Differ
entchemi calsubstances absorb di
ff
erentand var
ying vi
sualli
ght
frequencies.Si nce t
he absorpti
on ofa substance i
s pr
oport
ionaltoits
concentration,ieamor econcent rat
edsoluti
ongivesahigherabsorbance
reading,thereforetheconcent r
ati
onofaknownsol utecanbemeasur ed
usingacol orimeter.

Sinceabout1865,t
heLovibondComparatorsystem hasbeenusedar ound
theworldf
orchemicalanal
ysisofwat
er,dai
ry,beer,f
ruitj
uices,medi
cal,et
c.
Thediscsaref
it
tedwithguarant
eedcol
ourstable,non-f
adingglassfi
lt
ers.

Sel
ect
ionCr
it
eri
a:

 Vi
sual(
manual
)ordi
git
al?

Thevisualsyst
ems(CheckitCompar atororComparator2000+)ar
ebasedon
vi
sualcompar i
sonwithcolouredfil
ters,whi
char ecali
brat
edtoallow di
rect
measurementofconcentrati
onlevels.(Thevisualsyst
emsar euser-
fr
iendly
androbust,f
orbothf
iel
dandl aborator
yuse.)

Themi cr
o-pr
ocessordigi
talsystemsar
eeasi
ert
ouse,ar
emor eaccurate
and havehighl
yr epr
oducibl
er esul
tsast
heyarenotdependenton the
humaneye.

32
Moder
nel
ect
roni
cLovi
bondphot
omet
er

 Glassorpl ast
icdiscs?
Thepl asti
cdiscs( usedwi t
ht heCheckitCompar ator)arelower
cost,howeversl i
ghtlylessaccur ateanddurablethant heglass
discs(usedwi ththeCompar at
or2000+) .Theplasti
cdiscshave
anexpi rydateduet oUVf ading,whereast heglassdi scsare
guaranteedcolourstable.Glassdi scsar
emor epreciseandhave
alargerselect
ionoft estdi
scsf ormor eparameter
s.

Gl
asscompar
atordi
scs

 Levelofexperti
seofper
sonnel
?
Whenusi ngt heusualCompar at
orandDi scsystem,the
operatorneedstohaveagoodeyef orcol
ouranditisbest
to have the same per son doi
ng test
si nt he same
envir
onmentf orgood repeat
abil
it
y.Thedi gi
talsyst
ems
requi
renoexper ti
se.

33
  Whatl evelofaccur acydoyour equi r
e?
Compar ator&Di scaccur acydependsont hehumaneye
and envi ronment al / l i
ght i
ng condi ti
ons t hat t he
measur ement sar edonei n–t husaver ysubj ectivemeans
ofanal ysis.Wi thPhot omet er/di gitaluni ts,thei naccur acy
i
s±0. 5 – 1% oft hef ullscal e.Di gitaluni tsar emor e
accur at ethanvi sualcol orimet ers.
 Cost per t est once you have pur chased t he initial
equipment ?
As you ar e awar e,t her e ar e many chemi calanal ysis
systemsont hemar ket.I tisimper ativet hatyoupoi ntout
toyourcust omert hatt heyneedt ocompar et hecostper
testwhen consi der i
ng var i
ous opt i
ons.Af tert he initial
purchase,t he cost per t est f or bot h t he Lovi bond
Compar atorsandphot omet ersi sl owert hanmanyot her
product s.Thecostpert estf oravi sualvsadi git
alsyst em
i
st hesame, ast hesamer eagent sar er equired.
 Whati st heGuar ant ee?
The guar ant ee f or bot h Lovi bond vi sualand di gital
systemsi stwoyear s.TheGer manqual it
yi srenownedand
Selectech hascust omer st hatar est il
lusi ng t hesame
visualCompar ator2000+syst em f or20+year s!
 Whendoyouneedal i
ght inguni t?
Thisisr ecommendedi nbui ldi
ngswher ether ei snonat ur al
l
ightingorchangi ngl ightcondi tions,e. g.chi ckencoups,
processi ng/pr oduct ionpl ants,labor atories,et c.
 Whendoyouneedanessl er i
ser?
Anessl eri
seri susedwhenver ylow concent rat
ionsneed
tobeanal ysed.I fyour ef ert ot hehandbook,” Lovibond
Simpl eMet hodsofWat erAnal ysis”,i tindicat eswhet her
theanal ysisi sbasedonei theraNessl eri
serorCompar ator
met hod, whenyousel ectt her equi redpar amet er .

4.4.3 Atomic absor pti

on spect rometry:Atomic absor pt
ion spectrometry
(AAS)i s an anal yti
calt echni
que thatmeasur es the concent rat
ions of
elements.At omi cabsor ptionissosensi ti
vethatitcanmeasur edownt o
partsperbill
ionofagr am ( μgdm–3)i nasampl e.Thet echniquemakesuse
oft he wavel engths ofl ightspecifi
call
y absorbed by an el ement.They
correspondt ot heener giesneededt opr omoteelectr
onsf r
om oneener gy
l
evelt oanot her,hi gher,ener gylevel
.Atomicabsor pt
ionspect r
omet r
yhas
manyusesi n
diff
erentareasofchemi stry.

34
4.4.
3.1Cli
nicalanal
ysi
s.Anal
ysi
ngmet
alsi
nbi
ologi
calf
lui
dssuchasbl
ood
andurine.

4.4.
3.2Envir
onment alanal
ysi
s.Monitor
ingourenvironment– e.
g.f
indi
ng
outthelevel
sofvar i
ouselementsinri
vers,seawater,dr
inki
ngwat
er,ai
r,
petr
olanddrinkssuchaswine,beerandfrui
tdr
inks.

4.4.3.
3Pharmaceuti
cal
s.Insomepharmaceut
icalmanufactur
ingpr
ocesses,
mi nut
equanti
ti
esofacat al
ystusedintheprocess(usuall
yamet al
)ar e
somet i
mespresenti
nthefinalpr
oduct
.Byusi
ngAASt heamountofcatalyst
presentcanbedeter
mined.

4.
4.4 Chromatography: I on-exchange chr omatography ( or i on
chromatography)isaprocesst hatal
lowstheseparationofi onsand
polarmoleculesbasedont hei
raffi
nit
ytotheionexchanger .Itcanbe
usedforalmostanykindofchar gedmolecul
eincludinglar
gepr otei
ns,
smallnucleot
idesandami noacids.

4.4.5Resi dualf r
eechl ori
netest:Themet hodsusedf ortest
ingchlor
ine
residual in wat er empl oys a chemi cal known as DPD ( N, N-
diethyl
paraphenylenediamine).Previousmet hodsinvol
ved theuseofOT
(Orthotoli
dine)and starch-pot
assium iodine.OT isnow known to cause
cancerandsoi ti
snotr ecommended,andst archpot
assi
um onlymeasures
totalchlori
ner esi
dualandi sther
ef orenotrecommendedexceptwhereitis
i
mpossi bl
et oobtainDPD.

Therear emanyt ypesofequipmentf ormeasur ingchlor

ineusingtheDPD
reagent.Thesimplestandcheapesttype,thechlori
necomparatoristheone
used.Mostcompar at
ors ar
e designed foruse wi t
ht he manufactur
er’
s
reagentswhichnor mall
ycomeassmal ltabletspackedinfoilstri
ps.I
tis
i
mpor tanttokeepagoodst ockofther eagents.Thi
smeanst hattesti
ngcan
becarriedoutqui
cklyinthefi
eldwit
houthavi ngtomakeupDPDsol uti
ons.

ADPDsol ut
ioncanal sobeusedf ormeasurementofchl ori
ner esidual
.This
howeverneeds to be done inal aborat
ory as a spectromet er,a fi
lt
er
photomet
erandt i
trati
onequipmentar erequi
red.TheDPD sol utionalso
requi
rest
hepreparationofabuff
ersoluti
onandot herreagents.Thismet hod
canbeveryaccurate.

4.4.
5pHt est
:Thisisameasur eoftheaci di
tyoft hewat erwhichcanaf f
ect
theabil
it
yofchlor
inetokillmicroor
ganisms.Itisi mpor tantt
omeasur epHat
thesamet i
measchl orineresidual
,sincechlorinewor ksmostef fecti
velyat
pH valuesbetween6. 5and8. 5.Outsidethisr ange,t hewat ermayneed
addit
ionofchemicalstobufferthepH.Thi sisusual lydonet hroughaddi t
ion
ofli
met oacidi
cwat er(pHbel ow 6.5)orofal umi nium sulphatetoal kal
ine
water(pHabove8. 5).Somechl ori
necompar atorsal l
ow pHt obet estedat
thesamet i
measchl ori
neresidualusingat abletr eagentknownasphenol
red.Themet hodofuseofonet ypeofchl orinecompar atortomeasur e

35
chl
ori
neinwat eri
sasfoll
ows:
 Ri nsethecomparatorcel
lsthreeti
meswit
hthewat
ert
obet
est
edand
fi
nall
yfil
lal
lthecomparatorcell
switht
hesamewat
er

 Tearaf oilst
ri
pcontai
ningDPDNo.1t abl
etsandal
low onet
abl
ett
o
fal
lint
ot hecellmar
kedchlor
inei
nthecomparat
or

 Ift
hecompar atorhasacel
lmarkedphenolr
edorpH,tearafoi
lst
ri
p
contai
ningphenolredt
abl
etsandal
lowonetofal
li
ntot
hatcel
l

 Replacethel
idonthecompar
atorandshaket
hecompar
atorunt
ilt
he
t
abletshavedi
ssol
ved

 Holdthecompar atoruptoallow plent

yofdayl i
ghttoenterthecells
and lookatt hewat ercell
s.Ifchl or
inepresentint hewat er
,the
dissol
vedt abletshouldgiveapi nkcol ourt
ot hewater.Mat chthis
colourtothenear estcol
ouront hecolourscal
ewhichi spermanently
fi
xedt othecompar at
orandreadt heamountofchl or
ineinthewat er
fr
om thescal e

 Ift
hecompar
atorhasapHcell,
compar
ethecol
ourofthewat
erint
he
cel
lwit
hthepermanentcol
ourscal
eonthecompar
atorandreadt
he
pHofthewat
erfrom t
hescal
e.

 Whenthetesti
scomplete,r
emovethetopofthecomparat
orandpour
t
hewaterontothesoil
,noti
ntowatersuppl
iesorot
herwat
ersour
ces.
Washthecomparatoroutwithcl
eanwaterandstor
einaplacewhere
i
tcannotbedamaged.

Uni
t5:I
nter
pret
ati
onandanal
ysi
sofdr
inki
ng-
wat
ersur
vei
ll
ancedat
a

Int
roducti
ontouni
t5:Welcometot
heuni t
.Thisuni
twil
ldi
scusswi
thyout
he
dif
ferentmet
hodsofint
erpr
eti
ngwaterquali
tysur
vei
ll
ancedat
a.

Uni
tObj
ect
ives:

 I
nter
pretwat
erqual
it
ysur
vei
ll
ancedat
a

 Compi
lear
epor
tfordr
inki
ng-
wat
erqual
it
ysur
vei
ll
anceact
ivi
ty

Uni
tcont
ent
:Thesear
easshownbel
ow:

 Met
hodsofint
erpret
ingandanal
ysi
ngwat
erqual
it
ysur
vei
ll
ancedat
a
o Comparisonanalysi
s
o Trendanalysi
s
o St
ati
sti
calanal
ysi
s

36
  For
matf
ordr
inki
ng-wat erquali
tysur
vei
ll
ancer
epor
t:
 Intr
oduct i
on;
 Objectives;
 Mat er
ialsandmet hods;
 Results;and
 Conclusion
 Recommendat i
ons.

5.
1 Met
hodsofi
nter
pret
ingandanal
ysi
ngwat
erqual
it
ysur
vei
ll
ancedat
a

5.
1.1 Comparisonanalysis:
Acompar isonanalysi
sisusual
lycarr
iedouttodet
ermi
netheexist
ing
si
tuat
ioncompar edwi t
hnati
onalst
andardsorWHOguidel
ines.

TableShowi
ngWHOgui
del
inesf
orsel
ect
edmicr
obiol
ogicalpar
amet
ers
Organi
sms WHOGuidel
inevalue

Allwaterintendedfordrinking
E.coliorthermot ol
erant Mustnotbedet
ect
edi
nany100mlsampl
e
coli
forms
Treatedwat erenteri
ngthe
dist
ribut
ionsyst em
E.coliorthermot ol
erant Mustnotbedet
ect
edi
nany100mlsampl
e
coli
forms Mustnotbedet
ect
edi
nany100mlsampl
e
Totalcoli
forms
Treatedwat erinthedist
ributi
on
system
E.coliorthermot ol
erant Mustnotbedet ectedinany100mlsampl e
coli
forms Mustnotbedet ectedinany100mlsampl e.I
nt he
Totalcoli
forms caseoflargesupplies,
wheresuffi
cientsamples
areexamined,mustnotbepr esenti
n95%of
samplestakenthroughoutany12mont hper
iod

Tableshowi ngWHOgui delinesl

imi
tsforsel
ectedchemi
calparameters
Paramet er WHOGui del
ine
Nitr
ate <50mg/ L
Arsenic <0.1mg/L
Fl
uor i
de <1.5mg/L
I
ron Notofheal t
hconcernatlevel
scausi
ngacceptabi
li
typrobl
emsi
ndr
inki
ng
-water
Manganese Notofheal t
hconcernatlevel
scausi
ngacceptabi
li
typrobl
emsi
ndr
inki
ng
-water
Aluminium <
Pesti
cides <

37
Tabl
eshowingWHOguidel
ineslimi
tsforselectedphysi
calpar
ameters
Par
ameter WHOGui del
ine
Chl
ori
neresi
due(
onl
yfort
r eat
ed 0. 2-0.5mg/ L
wat
er)
Col
our Aestheti
cvalueof<15TrueColourUni
ts(
TCU)
Odour Aest
het
iconl
y,noheal
thbasedval
uei
sproposed
Temperat
ure Aest
het
iconl
y,noheal
thbasedval
uei
sproposed
Tur
bidi
ty <5Nephel
ometri
cTurbi
dit
yUnit
s(NTU)

5.
1.2 Tr
endanal
ysi
s:

Trend analysi
s shows how a physi cal, chemical or
microbiol
ogi
calpar
amet erchanges wit
ht i
me and l ocat
ion.
Graphingisanexcel
lentwaytodi spl
ayyourdata,andisver y
helpf
ulwhenyouareanalysi
ngtr
endsandcorr
elat
ions.

38
5.
1.3St
ati
sti
calanal
ysi
s

Stati
sticalanalysi
scanbedoneforacademicpurposesandsci
enti
fi
c
research.Comput ersof
twar
ee.g.SPSSandEpi-I
nfoisavai
labl
etoprocess
numer icaldataandperf
orm st
ati
sti
calt
est
s.

I
nter
pretdatainr
elat
iontotheobj
ecti
ves
Theobjecti
vesoftheDWQSpr ogram needtobekepti
nmi ndwhenyouare
i
nter
preti
ngyourtestresul
ts.Dif
fer
entobject
ivescanresul
tinadif
fer
ent
i
nter
pretat
ionoft
hesamet estdat
a.

Reportt
her esult
s
Theobjecti
vesoft heDWQSpr ogram needt obekeptinmi ndwhenyouar e
i
nter
preti
ngyourt estr
esults.Di f
ferentobjecti
vescanr esulti
nadi ffer
ent
i
nter
pretat
ionoft hesamet estdat a.Itisimportantt
oshar etheresul
tswith
theusersand/ orcommuni t
ysot hatt heyareawar eoftheirdri
nkingwater
qual
it
yandunder st
andifcorrecti
veact ionsneedtobetaken.

Ther epor tshouldcont ai

nt hef ol
lowingsecti
ons:i ntr
oduction,obj ect
ives,
methodol ogy,resul
ts,datainter
pret
ationandconcl usi
on&r ecommendat ions
5.
2 For matf ordri
nking-waterqual i
tysurvei
ll
ancer eport
:Af terther esult
s
havebeenobt ained,itisimpor t
antatthi
sst aget ogiveaf eedbackt o
i
nt erestedpart
iesthatincludethecommuni ty.Thisfeedbackmustbei n
thef orm ofar epor t
.Ther eportshouldbeofst andarddesi gn.Itmay
var ybutgener allyitshouldi ncludebutnotl i
mitedt ot hef oll
owing
headi ngs:

39
5.
2.1 Int
roduct ion;
5.
2.2 Objectives;
5.
2.3 Materialsandmet hods;
5.
2.4 Results;
5.
2.5 Conclusion
5.
2.6 Recommendat ions.

Uni
t6:Sani
tar
yinspect
ions

Int
roductiont ounit6:Wel comet ot hesani t
aryinspecti
onunit.Thiswil
l
expose you whatsani taryi nspecti
on is and the types ofheal
thr i
sks
associatedwi t
hwat erpoints.Itwil
lalsogiveyouinsightofthef
requencyof
sanit
aryi nspecti
onsandt heappr opriat
ef or
mst ouseandt hemet hodof
i
nspect i
ngt heactualsourcesofwat ersupply.

Obj
ect
iveofUni
t6:

 Def
inesani
tar
yinspect
ion

 Describetypesofhealt
hrisksassoci
atedwit
hwaterpoi
nts
 Outl
inefrequencyofsanitar
yinspect
ions
 Developsanitar
yinspecti
onforms
 Demonst rat
esanit
aryinspecti
onsofwatersuppl
ysyst
ems

Uni
tCont
ent
:

 Definit
ionofsanitaryinspecti
on
 Typesofheal thri
sksassoci atedwit
hwat
erpoi
nts
 Frequencyofsani taryinspect
ions
 Sanitaryinspect
ionf orms

 Sani
taryinspecti
onsofwat ersupplysyst
ems:
 Boreholeswithhandpumps;
 Handdugwel lswit
hawi ndl
ass;
 Springs
 Conventionalwatertr
eatmentplants
 I
nterpr
etati
onofsanitaryinspecti
ondata
 Writ
ingsanitar
yinspecti
onr epor
t

6.
1Definit
ion ofsani t
aryinspecti
on:A sani taryi nspecti
on i
s an on-site
inspectionofawat ersupplytoi dentif
yact ualandpot enti
alsourcesof
contami nat
ion.Thephysi calstr
uct ur
eandoper ati
onoft hesystem and
externalenvironmentalfactor
s( suchasl atri
nel ocati
on)areevaluated.
Thei nformationcanbeusedt osel ectappr opri
ateremedialactionto
improveorpr otectt
hewat ersuppl y.

Sanit
aryinspect
ionsshouldbecar
riedoutforallnew sourcesofwater
befor
etheyar eusedfordri
nki
ngwat er
,andonar egularbasisoncethe
supplyi
sr eadyforuse,ort
hesour
cei sinoper
ati
on.Inspecti
onsshould

40
becarri
edoutbyasui t
ablytrainedpersonusi ngsimple,cl
earreportfor
m.
Theseformsconsi stofasetofquest ionswhi chhaveyesornoanswer s.
Thequest i
onsar estr
ucturedsot hatyesanswer sindicat
ethatthereisa
ri
skofcont aminati
onandnoanswer si ndicatethattheparti
cularri
ski s
absent.Eachyesanswerscor esonepoi ntandeachnoanswerscor es
zeropoint.Attheendoft hei nspect
iont hepoi nt
sar eaddedup,andt he
higherthetot
althegreaterther i
skofcont aminati
on.

Theresul
tsofsanitar
yi nspectionsandther emedialacti
onst hatneedto
betakent
oimpr ovecondi t
ionsshouldbedi scussedwi t
ht hecommuni t
y.
Insmallwatersuppli
esi tisof tenpossi
blef orcommuni tymember sto
car
ryoutmostoft heinspectionsthemselvesusingast andardform.

Somesani taryinspectionsshouldbedonei nconj uncti

onwi thwat er
quali
tytest
ing.Thisiscal l
edsanitarysur
vey.Forfurtherinf
ormati
onon
waterquali
tyt est
ing,sanitaryi
nspectionandsani t
arysur veyscanbe
foundinWHOGui del
inesf ordr
inkingwaterqual
it
y,Vol umeI I
I(Geneva,
1985).

Anexampleofar
epor
tfor
mforasani
tar
ysur
veyofadugwel
lisher
eby
gi
venbel
ow:

SANI
TARYI
NSPECTI
ONOFADUGWELL

41
 GENERALI
NFORMATI
ON

Locat
ion(
Town,
Vil
lage,
Str
eetet
c)…………………………………………….
.

Wat
erAut
hor
it
y/LocalCommi
tt
ee…………………………………………………….

Dat
eofI
nspect
ion…………………………………………………………………………………

Wat
erSampl
eNo………………………………………………………………………………….

FaecalCol
if
orm Gr
ade………………………………………………………………………….
.

SANI
TARYI
NSPECTI
ONOFADUGWELL

Code Speci
fi
cInf
ormat
ion Ri
sk Comment
s

Yes No

1 I
sther
ealat
ri
newi
thi
n30met
ersof
t
hewell
?

2 I
sthenear
estlat
ri
neonhi
ghergr
ound
t
hanthewell
?

3 Ist
hereanyothersour
ceofpol
lut
ion
wit
hin30metresofthewel
l?(
e.g.
ani
malexcret
a,rubbi
shet
c)

4 Ist
hereanypondi
ngofwaterwit
hin2
metresoft
hecementf
loorofhand
pump?

5 Isthehandpumpdrainagechannel
fault
y?(e.
g.br
oken,
permitt
ing
ponding)?

6 I
sther
einadequatef
enci
ngaroundt
he
i
nst
all
ati
on,whichwoul
dall
owanimals
i
n?

7 I
sthecementfloorl
essthan1met
re
r
adiusal
lroundthehandpump?

42
8 I
sthereanypondi
ngont
hecement
f
looraroundt
hewell
?

9 Arethereanycracksont
hecement
fl
ooraroundthewell?

10 Isthebucketalsoi
nuseandlef
tina
placewhereitcoul
dbecont
aminated?

11 Isthehandpumpl ooseatthepointof
att
achmentt obase(whichcould
permitwatertoentert
hecasing)
?

12 Isthecoveroft
hewel
lnotpr
oper
ly
clean?

13 Arethewal l
soft
hewel
linadequately
sealedatanypoi
ntf
or3met resbelow
groundlevel
?

RECOMMENDATI
ONS

Recommendat
ions Proposed Responsibl
e Appr
oxi
mat
e
I
mpl ementat
ion Person/
Agency Cost
Date

COSTGUI
DESHEET

43
S/
N I
TEM UNI
TOF UNIT QUANTI
TY COST
MEASURE COST

6.
2Typesofheal t
hr i
sksassoci at
ed with waterpoi
nt s:Ther earemany
heal
thri
sksthatari
sefr
om t heassociat
ionwithwaterpoi nt
s.Theser
isks
aremainlyt
odowi t
hdiseases.Someoft hesearedi seasesassoci
ated
wit
hwat ersuchas:water-borne;water-
rel
ated;water-basedandwat er
-
washed.Mostoftheser
iskscomef r
om suchconditi
onsas:

 Cont ami natedsur f

aceoft hegroundwi thfaecalmat t
er
 Pr oxi mity ofpossi ble sources ofcont amination such as latr
ines,
refusepi tset c
 Unf encedof fsupply
 Pr oxi mityofwashr ooms
 Ani mal s
 Bi rds
 Di rtyhabi t
s, suchashandl i
ngofthebucket
6.
3Frequency ofsani taryinspect i
ons:The numberofi nspect
ions and
fr
equency depend on sever alfactor
s among t hem t ype ofsour ce,
construct i
onmat eri
als,pur
poseoft heinspecti
on,locationofsour ceetc.
Thef ollowingar ear oughgui detothefrequencyofi nspections:

S/
N TYPE OF TYPEOFI
NSPECTOR
SOURCE
Qual
if
ied Survei
ll
ance Communi
ty/
Year
Per
son/Year Agency/Year
1 Borehole 4 1 4
2 Tubewel l 4 1 4
3 Dugwel l 6 1 6
4 Protect
edspr ing 2 1 2
5 Conventional
tr
eatmentpl ants 4 1 N/
A

6.
4Sani
tar
yinspecti
on forms:Differ
enttypesoff or
msmayhavet o be
desi
gnedbuti
ngener alter
ms,thefor
msf oreachcommuni
tysour
cewil
l
notbemuchdiff
erentfr
om theoneshowni n6.
1above.

44
6.
5Sanit
aryinspecti
ons ofwatersupply syst
ems:The fol
lowi
ng isthe
descri
pti
onoft hesanit
aryi
nspect
ionsofdi f
fer
entsour
ces.Theseare
di
scussedbelow:

6.
5.1 Boreholes/Tubewel l
swi t
hhandpumps:Bor ehol
es/
tubewells
requir
er egul
armonitori
ngtoensuret hatanadequateandsaf e
watersuppl yismaintai
ned.A suggestedfrequencyofsanit
ary
i
nspect i
onsisfourt
imesayearconduct edbyt hecommunit
yand
atleastonceayearbyanext er
nalsur
veill
anceagency.

Wher eawel lservesacommuni ty,

wat erqualit
yt estingshouldbe
donet wiceayear ,oncei nt hedryseasonandoncei nt hewet
season.Wher etherear emanyhousehol dwel l
s,thesur veil
lance
agencyshoul donlyt estaf ew ofthewel l
si nacommuni t
yeach
year. Thewel l
ssel ectedshoul dbegener all
yr epresentati
veof
wellsint hecommuni t
y,thuswel l
sinl ocationswher etherear e
severalwellsnearbyshoul dbeselected.Ther esult
soft hewat er
quali
ty anal ysi
s of t he wells willshow whet her therei s
contamination,and t he result
s oft he sani t
aryi nspection wil
l
enablet he causes of cont aminati
on t o be i denti
fied and
eli
minated.

6.5.
2Handdugwel l
swithawi ndl
ass:Sanitaryi
nspecti
onsshouldbecarri
ed
outont radi
ti
onalandimprovedwel ls.Wher etr
aditi
onalwellsareused,a
sani
taryinspect
ionwil
lindi
catethemai ncausesofcont aminati
onandhow
they can be eli
minat
ed through improvement.I mproved well
s,li
ke all
prot
ected watersuppli
es,requireregularmoni t
oring to ensur
ethatan
adequateandsaf ewat
ersupplyismai nt
ained.

The communi ty shoul

d conduct sanitar
y inspect
ions of dug well
s
approxi
matel
y sixtimes a yearand atl eastonce a yearan ext
ernal
survei
ll
anceagencyshoul
dmakeani nspecti
on.

Wher eacommuni tyisservedbyadugwel l,wat

erqual
it
ytest sshouldbe
carr
iedouttwiceayear,onceinthewetseasonandonceinthedr yseason.
Ift
herearemanyhousehol dwel l
sinacommuni t
y,t
hesurveil
lanceagency
shouldonl
yt estafew ofthewellsi
nthecommuni t
y,sowellsinl ocat
ions
wherether
ear esever
alwellsnear
byshoul
dbeselect
ed.

Theresul
tofthewat erquali
tyanal
ysisoft
hewel l
swi l
lshowwhetherthere
i
scontaminati
on,andt heresul
tsofthesanit
aryinspect
ionswi
llenabl
et he
causesofcontaminati
ontobei dent
if
iedandeliminat
ed.Theformattouse
wheninspect
ingadugwel lisshownin6.1above.

6.5.
3Springs:Prot
ectedspr
ing-fedwatersourcesneedregul
armonitor
ingto
ensureanadequateandasaf esuppl yi
smai ntai
ned.Asuggestedfr
equency
ofsanit
aryinspect
ionsisatleasttwiceayearconductedbyt hecommunity
andatleastonceayearbyanext er
nalsurvei
ll
anceagency.Someti
mest he

45
watersuppl
yagencymayalsoconductanannualsanit
aryi
nspect
ion.Inthe
i
nspecti
onitisimport
antt
hatbot
htheprot
ectedspringandthedist
ribut
ion
syst
em arechecked.

Wat erquali
tymoni t
ori
ngandt est
ingshouldbecar r
iedoutatl easttwi
cea
year,onceint hewetseasonandoncei nthedryseason.Thewat ercoming
fr
om t hespr i
ngandanyst oragetanksshouldbet ested,andsampl esfr
om
outlet
sinthedi st
ri
buti
onsystem taken.I
nlargersupplies,whichservemany
people,wat erquali
tytestsshouldbeunder t
akenmor efrequentl
yandi f
chlori
nati
oni susedr esidualchlori
neshouldbeanal yseddai l
y.Thekey
pointstotakeintoconsi
derati
onwheni nspecti
ngaspr ingare:

 Lat
ri
nesmustbeatl
east30met
resawayanddownhi
ll

 Spr
ingmusthaveadi
ver
siondi
tchuphi
llofi
t

 Spr
ingmustbepr
oper
lypr
otect
edbyaspr
ingbox

 Spr
ingboxshouldhaveasani
tar
yinspect
ioncover
,asani
tar
yvent
pi
peandasanitar
yoverf
low

 Spr
ingmustbef
encedof
f

 Ani
mal
sshoul
dbekeptawayf
rom t
hespr
ingandsur
roundi
ngar
ea

 Stor
agetankshouldhaveasani
tar
yinspect
ioncover
,asani
tar
yai
r
ventandasani
tar
yoverfl
ow

 Pi
pesshoul
dnothavel
eaks

 Br
eakpr
essur
etanksshoul
dhavecover
s

 Tapst
andshoul
dbef
enced

 Tapshoul
dnotl
eak

 St
oraget
anksshoul
dnotbecr
acked

 Nohumanf
aecalmat
teront
hegr
oundar
ound

 Pl
int
hshoul
dnotbecr
acked,
norshoul
dital
lowst
andi
ngwat
er

 Tapst
andshoul
dbeadequat
elydr
ained

6.5.
4Convent i
onalwat
ertreat
mentplants:Wheninspecti
ngaconventi
onal
water plant
,iti simport
antt o which part
s or areas ar
e cri
ti
calto
contaminati
on.Theseshouldbeidenti
fi
edandi nspect
edsot hatr
emedial

46
act
ion can be t
aken.The par
tst
hatneed r
egul
ari
nspect
ions ar
ethe
fol
lowi
ng:

6.5.
4.1Set
tl
ingTanks:thei
nspecti
onoftheseshouldbedoneregul
arl
yto
ensuret
hatthetanksar
eregular
lyandpr
operl
ycleanedandar
efunct
ioni
ng
well
.Keypoint
stoconsi
derare:

 Thedr ainvalveshouldbef unct

ionalandgr eased
 Thefloorofthet anksshouldber egularl
ycleaned
 Thetur bi
dit
yoft hewat erattheout l
etshouldbe70- 90percentl
ower
thanthet urbidi
tyoft heraw wat er.Iftheturbidi
tyreduct
ioni
sless
than50%t het anksshouldbedr ainedandcl eaned.

6.
5.4.2Pre-
fi
lt
ers:Sanitar
yinspect
ionsofpre-
fi
lter
sshoul
dbeconductedon
aregularbasi
ssot hattheyarefunct
ioni
ngpr operl
yandthatanadequat
e
watersuppl
yismai ntai
ned.Point
stotakenoteofare:

 Theturbidityofthewat erl eavingthepr e-

fil
tersshouldbel esst han10
NTU.Ther eshoul dbea70- 90% reductioni ntur bi
dit
ybet weent he
waterattheout letandt her awwat er
 Theflowr atethrought hef il
tershouldbecont rol
ledintherangeof0. 5
-
1met reperhour
 Theregul ari
tyandef fectivenessofcl eaningshoul dbechecked.The
l
att
eri s done by anal ysing a sampl e ofgr avelfrom t he fil
ter
i
mmedi at
elyaftercleaningt omeasur ethesi l
tcontent
 Thefil
terandf il
trateshoul dbepr otectedfrom birdsandani mal s
 Thepr e-f
ilt
ersmustnothaveanycr ackst hatallow waterint hefil
ter
tol
eakoutorsur f
acewat ertoenterthef i
lt
er.

6.
5.4.3Slow sandFi
lt
ers:Poi
ntst
otakenot
eofwhendoi
ngani
nspect
ion
i
nclude:

 Thetur bidi
tyofthei nletwatershouldbebelow10TU
 Thetur bidi
tyoftheout l
etwat ershoul
dbebelow5TU
 Thef l
ow r ateint hef i
lt
ershoul dbeconstantandintherange0.1to
0.3met resperhour
 Thedept hoft hesandi nthef i
lt
erbedshouldbeatl
east0.7metr
es
 Thef i
ltershouldhaveami nimum headdevicewhichisinwor ki
ng
orderandi noper ation.
 Thet ankshoul d haveno l eakswhi ch woul
d al
low f
il
terwaterto
escapeandsur facewat ertoenter
 Sandr emoveddur i
ngcl eani
ngshoul dbewashedandrepl
aced

6.
5.4.
4Coagul
ator
s,Fl
occul
ator
s,andCl
ari
fi
ers:Poi
ntst
oconsi
derar
e:

 Checkandrecordtheturbi
dit
yofthewaterflowingi
ntotheplantand
l
eavingthesettl
ingtank.Thewaterl
eavingt heset
tl
ingtankshould
haveaturbi
dit
yoflessthan5TU
 Checkthatdosingequipmentforcoagulat
ingchemicalsiswor ki
ng

47
 corr
ectl
y.Usecoagul antstockinr ot
ationsothatol derst ocksare
usedfi
rst
 Keeprecordsofchemicalsused;maintainst
ocks;or
derr eplacements
asnecessary
 Checkandkeepr ecordoff low rat
es;ensurethatt heyar ewi thi
n
desi
gnranges
 Coagul
ator,fl
occul
atorandcl ar
if
iershouldallbestructurallysound
andhavenol eakswhereuntreat
edwat ercanent
er

6.
5.4.
5St
orageTanks:Thei
mpor
tantpoi
ntst
oincl
ude:

 Storaget anksshoul dhaveasani taryinspecti

oncover,asani
tar
yai
r
ventandasani t
aryover f
low
 Pipesshoul dnothavel eaks
 Storaget anksshouldnotbecr acked
 Breakpr essuretanksneedsani t
arycover s
 Storaget anksshouldnotbecr acked
 Tapst andshouldbef encesoff
 Tapshoul dnotl
eak
 Theremustbenof aecalmat t
eront heground
 Tapst andshouldbeadequat el
ydrai ned
 Pli
nthshoul dnotcr acked,norshouldnotallowstandi
ngwater

6.
5.4.
6Rapi
dSandf
il
ter
s:I
mpor
tantaspect
stoi
ncl
ude:

 Checkt hefil
tr
ationr at
et hrought hefi
lter
;thi
sshoul dnotexceedt he
designf lowof5- 12met resperhour
 Checkt her ateandf requencyofbackwashi ngtoensur ethatthefil
ter
i
sbei ngpr operl
ycl eaned
 Checkt hesanddept htoseewhet herornotsandi sbeingl ostduri
ng
cleaning
 Checkf ormudbal l
sandcr acki nginthesandbed.I fthesear efound,
thent hesandmayneedr eplacementorbackwashi ngwi thairand
wat er
.Al soyoucoul dseekexper t
iseadvice.
 Checkout l
etturbidi
tyandi nfluenttur
bidit
y.Theseshouldbeover90%
reductioninturbidity

6.
6Interpretati
onofsani taryi nspect i
ondat a:Dependingonwhatt ypeof
dat ahasbeengener atedf oll
owi ngani nspecti
on,aninter
pret
ati
onmust
now be made i n ordert o expl aint he situati
on and come up wi th
interventionstocorrectthesi tuation.Thedeci siont
obemadewoul dbe
dependentupont heout comeoft heinspectionandreportfi
ndi
ngsont he
toolasshowni nthesani taryinspect i
onofadugwel lasanexampl e.The
repor ttobewr i
tt
enwoul dtherefor edependont hedefect
sfoundonwhat
typeofwat ersour
ce.

48
6.
6.1I
nfor
mat
ionmanagement

Iti
simport
antthatt
hedatageneratedbydri
nkingwaterquali
tysur
vei
llance
agencyisstor
edandmanagedef fecti
vel
yandi sanal
ysedappropri
atelyto
ensuret
hati
tbecomesusefuli
nformati
onfordeci
sionmaking.

6.
6.2I
nvent
ory,
wat
eruseandot
hersur
veys

Surveysareusuall
ycar r
iedouttoassessavail
abili
tyanduseofwat er.These
surveysareoftenbasedonquest i
onnair
es.Col l
ect
eddatacanbest oredina
var
ietyofdatabasepackagese. g.,Epi-
InfoandSPSSbef or
eanal ysis.The
i
ndicatorsmostcommonl yusedt oevaluatecommuni t
ywat ersuppliesare
quali
ty,quant
it
y,coverage,cost(
aff
ordabil
it
y),andconti
nui
ty.

Exampleofquestionnair
e
Nameofprovince:___
_________
______
______
_ __
_______
___
Nameofdistr
ict:_
______
__ _
______
______
_________
_______
Nameofchief:___
______
__ _
______
______
_________
_______
Nameofvi
llage:____
_________
______
______
__ _
_______
____

Nameofi
ntervi
ewer
:_ _
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
__
Dat
eofi
ntervi
ew:___
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
____

Q1.Whati st he main source ofdri

nki
ng-
waterformember s ofyour
household?______
____
__
Q2.How l ong does ittake t
o go ther
e,getwat er
,and come back?
___
_ __
_____
_ _
______
____
Q3.Whousual l
ygoest ot
hissourcetofet
chthewaterforyourhousehold?
___
_ __
_____
_ _
__
Q4.Do you t r
eatyourwat erin any way to make itsaferto drink?
___
_ __
_____
_ _
______
____
Q5.Ifyestoabovequest i
on,whatdoyouusuall
ydot othewatertomakei t
safertodri
nk?___

49
6.
6.3 Wat
erqual
it
yandsani
tar
yinspect
iondat
a

Waterqualit
yandsanitaryinspecti
ondat ashoul
dbest or
edi nadatabase
thatensureseach data can ber etr
ieved si
mult
aneousl
yf oranalysi
sof
causes off ai
lur
e.Itisi mportantto ensurethatdatai slinked t
ot he
geographi
calarea,t
own,populat
ionsservedandtypeofsupply.

6.
6.4 Diseasesincidence/prevalencedata
Dataondi seaseincidence/prevalencecanbecol l
ectedfrom healt
hcentr
es
l
ocatedint hecatchmentar eaofconcer n.Thecol l
ecteddatacant henbe
uti
li
zedtopl anforinterventi
ons.I nter
venti
onsmayi nclude;dri
nkingwater
quali
tysur
veill
ancepr ogramsandpr otect
ionofwatersources

6.
6.5 Dat
aanal
ysi
s

Dat a analysi
si sthe pri
nci
palmechani sm by which r
aw dat
a can be
t
r ansferr
ed into usabl
einfor
mat i
on fordecisi
on makers.Raw datais
relati
velylit
tl
euse.Whati srequir
edissi mpl
e,dir
ectandcomprehensi
ve
i
nf ormationthatcanbeusedwithoutf
urthermani
pulati
onandi
smeaningf
ul
t
ot hetar
getaudience.

6.
6.6 Dat
aint
erpr
etat
ion

Theanal ysedDWQSdat awi l

lneedt obeinter
preted.Therearethreemai n
approachesf orinterpret
ingther esult
sfrom DWQSpr ogr
amme:
 Ther esultscanbecompar edtonationalwat erqual
it
ystandardsor
t
heWor l
dHeal t
hOr ganization(WHO)Gui del
inesforDri
nkingWat er
Qualit
y.
 Ther esultscanber eviewedt oseehow t heychangeovert i
meand
l
ocat i
ont oidentif
yanyt rendsorcorrelat
ions.
 St ati
sticalanalysiscanbedonef oracademi cpurposesandscienti
fic
research.

St
epsf
ordat
aint
erpr
etat
ion

St
ep1:Coll
ectdataforanal ysis
St
ep2:Checkt hedataqual it
y
St
ep3:Chooseanappr opriateanal
ysi
s
St
ep4:I
nterpretdat
ai nrelationtot
heobj
ect
ives
St
ep5:Reporttheresults

St
ep1:Col
lectdat
aforanal
ysi
s

Datar ecor
dingfor
msar eusedtodocumentyourwat ersampl
esandt est
resul
ts.Entert
hedatai
nanappropr
iat
etabl
e,spr
eadsheetordat
abase.

50
St
ep2:Checkt
hedat
aqual
it
y

Thedat ar ecordformsneedt obecheckedt horoughlytoensurethatall

i
nf or
mat i
onwas
recorded clearl
y,correctl
y,and complet
ely.Ifany dat ai s mi
ssing or
i
ncompl ete,anothersampl eshould betaken and/ orthetestshould be
repeated to getcorr
ectand compl et
einformation.Addressanyunusual
resul
ts.Forexampl e,i
ft henumberofE.col ii
shi gheri
nt hetr
eat
edwat er
compar edtosour cewat er
,itwoul
dbegoodt oretakesamplesondiffer
ent
daysandt imes.

6.
7Writi
ng sanit
aryinspect
ion r
eport
:The reportt
hatshoul
d be writ
ten
fol
lowingthecompl et
ionoftheinspect
ionshoul
dincl
udethef
ollowing
butnotli
mitedto:

o I
ntroduction;
o Aim/gener alobjecti
ve
o Specifi
cobj ecti
ves
o Typeofwat ersource
o Populati
onser ved
o Equipmentused
o Material
sandmet hods;
o Results/
findings;
o Conclusion
o Recommendat ions.

ASSESSMENT
 Conti
nuousassessment 40%
o 1theoret
icaltest
s 15%
o 1practi
caltest 15%
o 1Assignment s 10%

LEARNI
NGTI
PS

I
. Thecour
sewi
ll
take64hour
s

51
II
. Act i
vit
iessuchascasestudi
es,self
-assessmentquesti
ons,sel
f-
testedquestionshavebeeni
ncluded
I
II
. Letterswil
lbewr i
tt
entothenearestHeathFaci
li
tyforyour
attachmentforpracti
cal
s

Ref
erences

GovernmentoftheRepubl
icofZambia(2011)
:CLTSManualForZambi
a:
Nati
onalRuralWaterandSani
tat
ionProgr
amme;Lusaka

GovernmentoftheRepubl
icofZambia(
2010):Nati
onalCl
imat
eChange
ResponseStr
ategy(NCCRS);Gover
nmentPri
nter
;Lusaka

GovernmentoftheRepubli
cofZambia(
2012)
:Part
ici
pator
yHygi eneand
Sani
tati
onTransfor
mation(PHAST)
;Par ;3rdEd.Lusaka
t1:Manual

http:
www.monitor2manage.com.au/user
dat
a/downl
oads/p_
/sanit
ary%20wa
ter
Kar ,
K;Chambers,R.(
2008):HandbookonCommuni ty-
LedTotalSanit
ati
on;
Insti
tut
eofDevelopmentStudies;Nair
obi

Mor
gan,
P.(
1977)
:Rur
alWat
erSuppl
iesandSani
tat
ion:ATextf
rom

52
Zi
mbabwe’
sBl
airResear
chLabor
ator
y

WHO;Choler
aandOtherEpi
demi
cDi
arr
hoealDi
seasesCont
rol
:FactSheet
s
onEnvi
ronment
alSani
tat
ion

WHO(
2005)
:Int
ernat
ionalHeal
thRegul
ati
ons:SecondEdi
ti
on;Geneva

WHO( 1997)
:Guidel
inesfordri
nking-wat
erquali
ty:Sur
vei
ll
anceandCont
rol
nd
ofCommunitySupplies;2 Ed:vol.3;Geneva

SELF-
TESTEDQUESTI
ONS:

EXAMINATI
ONCOUNCILOFHEALTHSCI ENCES/
UNZA
YOUTHDEVELOPMENTTRAINI
NGCENTRE
FI
RSTTEST
FOR2
DIPLOMAINENVI
RONMENTALHEALTHTECHNOLOGI ST
WATERQUALI
TYMANAGEMENTI II(
WQM 232)

TI
MEALLOWED:3HOURSFROM:08.
00-
10.
00
TH
DATE:8 MARCH,
2016

Candi
dat
es
Exami
nati
on:
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Candi
dat
esNRC

53
Number:.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
Examinat
ionCentre:
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
I
NSTRUCTI ONSTOCANDI DATE
1.TimeallowedisTWO( 2)HOURS.

2.I
ndicateyourExaminat
ionNumber,NRCnumberandExami
nat
ion
Centr
einthespacesprovi
dedabove.

3.DoNOTst
artwr
it
ingbef
oreyouar
etol
dtodoso.

4.Readt
heQuest
ionVERYCAREFULLYbef
oreat
tempt
ingt
oanswer
.

5.Ther
ear
eFOUR(
4)Sect
ionsi
nthi
spaper
:A,
B,CandD.

CELLPHONESANDPROGRAMMEDCALCULATORSARENOTALLOWEDI
NTHE
EXAMINATI
ONROOM.

DONOTTURNTHI
SPAGEUNTILYOUARETOLDTODOSOBYTHE
INVI
GILATOR

SECTIONA-MULTIPLECHOICEQUESTI
ONS
CIRCLECORRECTANSWERONLY
ANSWERALLQUESTI ONS
EACHQUESTI ONCARRIESONE(1)MARK
1.Thefol
lowi
ngaresomeoft
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofWHOLESOMEwat
er
except
:

a)I
tshoul
dbef
reef
rom bact
eri
awhi
chmaycausedi
sease

b)I
tshoul
dbecol
our
lessandspar
kli
ngwhi
chmaybeaccept
edby
t
hepubli
c

c)I
tshoul
dnotcor
rodepi
pes

d)I
tshoul
dbef
reef
rom al
lunobj
ect
ionabl
emat
ter

e)I
tshoul
dnotcor
rodepi
pes

2.Al
limpur
it
iesofwat
ercanbel
ist
edbr
oadl
yasf
oll
ows:

a)Suspended

b)Col
loi
dal

c)Di
ssol
ved

54
 d)Al
ltheabove

e)aandc

3.Amongthedi
ssol
vedmatter
,Hydr
ogensul
phat
egi
vesr
iset
ooneof
t
hefol
lowi
ngcondi
ti
ons:

a)Har
dness

b)Poi
soni
ng

c)Tur
bidi
ty

d)Rot
ten-
eggodour

e)Col
ourchange

4.Thepri
nci
pleformonit
ori
ngandassessi
ngt
hemi
crobi
alsaf
etyof
dri
nki
ngwatersuppl
iesdependson:

a)I
sol
ati
onofpat
hogensi
nwat
er

b)Fi
ndi
ngchol
erager
msi
nwat
er

c)Fi
ndi
ngi
ndi
cat
orbact
eri
ainwat
er

d)Knowi
ngt
hepat
hogeni
cit
yinwat
er

e)Noneoft
heabove

5.Thesampl
esi
zeofabact
eri
ologi
calsampl
eis:

a)100ml

b)200ml

c)300ml

d)400ml

e)500ml

6.Thesampl
esi
zef
orchemi
calanal
ysi
sshoul
dbe:

a)Atl
east500ml

b)Atl
east600ml

c)Atl
east700ml

d)Atl
east900ml

e)Atl
east1000ml

55
7.TheWor ldHeal
thOrgani
sat
ion(WHO,1984)suggest
soneofthe
fol
lowingasaguidel
inef
ortreat
edt
apwatersampletakeni
nanyone
year:

a)Nocoli
for
m organi
smsi
n95%ofsampl
es;notmor
ethan10
col
if
orms/100mls

b)Nocoli
for
m organi
smsi
n100%ofsampl
es;notmor
ethan6
col
if
orms/100mls

c)Nocoli
for
m organi
smsi
n95%ofsampl
es;notmor
ethan3
col
if
orms/100mls

d)Nocoli
for
m organi
smsi
n 95%ofsampl
es;notmor
ethan1
col
if
orm/100ml

e)Noneoft
heabove

8.WHOsuggest
sthefol
lowingstandar
dofwat
eri
nar
easwher
ether
eis
l
it
tl
eri
skofachol
eraoutbreak:

a)0.
2to2.
0mg/
lchl
ori
ner
esi
dual

b)0.
2to1.
5mg/
lchl
ori
ner
esi
dual

c)0.
2to1.
0mg/
lchl
ori
ner
esi
dual

d)0.
2to0.
8mg/
lchl
ori
ner
esi
dual

e)0.
2to0.
5mg/
lchl
ori
ner
esi
dual

9.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sanotar
easonf
orwat
erdi
sinf
ect
ion?

a)Tor
emovedi
ssol
vedoxygen

b)Tor
emovecol
our
,odour
,andt
ast
e

c)Tor
emovebact
eri
a

d)Tor
emovecol
our

e)Tor
emovet
ast
e

10.
Inwatertest
ingt
her
ear
etwocr
it
icalt
est
sthatar
erecommended.
Theseare:

a)Faecalcol
if
orm andmembr
anef
il
tr
ati
onTest
s

b)FaecalCol
if
orm andTur
bidi
tyTest
s

c)Faecalcol
if
orm andmul
ti
plet
ubet
est
s

56
 d)Membr
anef
il
tr
ati
onandmul
ti
plet
ubet
est
s

e)Tur
bidi
tyandMul
ti
plet
ubet
est
s

11.
WHO(
1984)suggest
sthatTur
bidi
tyshoul
dbe:

a)1NTU/
JTUandl
esst
han1NTU/
JTUf
orchl
ori
nat
iont
obeef
fect
ive

b)2NTU/
JTUandl
esst
han1NTU/
JTUf
orchl
ori
nat
iont
obeef
fect
ive

c)3NTU/
JTUandl
esst
han1NTU/
JTUf
orchl
ori
nat
iont
obeef
fect
ive

d)4NTU/
JTUandl
esst
han1NTU/
JTUf
orchl
ori
nat
iont
obeef
fect
ive

e)5NTU/
JTUandl
esst
han1NTU/
JTUf
orchl
ori
nat
iont
obeef
fect
ive

12.
Coli
form bacter
iaareacoll
ect
ionofmicr
oorganismslivi
nginlar
ge
numbersi ntheint
esti
nes.Thi
sgroupi
ncludesE.coliwhichis
charact
erist
icofbeingassoci
atedwi
thonlyfaecalmateri
alof
:

a)Manonl
y

b)Ani
malonl
y

c)Al
lwar
m-bl
oodedani
mal
s

d)Pr
imat
esonl
y

e)Noneoft
heabove

13.
Thedef
ini
ti
onofWHOLESOMEWATERi
s:

a)Thewat
ert
hati
stast
efulf
ordr
inki
ngandaest
het
ical
lypur
e

b)Thewaterthati
snotchemi
cal
lypur
e,butdoesnotcont
ain
anyt
hingharmfult
ohumanhealt
h

c)Thewatert
hathasbot
hthechar
act
eri
sti
csofwhol
esomeand
pal
atabl
ewater

d)Thewat
ert
hatcont
ainsundesi
rabl
esubst
ances

e)Thewat
ercont
aini
ngpat
hogeni
cor
gani
sms

14.
Whatistheessenceofaddi
ngsodi
um t
hiosul
phat
etot
he
bact
eri
ologi
calsampli
ngbott
le?

a)Ki
llanypat
hogensi
nthesampl
ingbot
tl
e

b)Pr
otectE.col
ii
nthesampl
e

c)Fi
ndi
ngi
ndi
cat
oror
gani
smsi
nwat
er

57
 d)Al
ltheabove

e)Noneoft
heabove

15.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngdescr
ibest
hesuspendedor
gani
cimpur
it
ies:

a)Veget
abl
eandal
gae

b)Veget
abl
eandani
malmat
ter

c)Bact
eri
aandal
gae

d)Cl
ayandveget
abl
emat
ter

e)Ani
malmat
terandal
gae

16.
Oneoft
hefol
lowi
ngprovi
desasaf
ewatersuppl
ysourceonceal
l
measur
eshavebeent
akentopr
eventr
econt
aminat
ion:

a)Spr
ing

b)Rai
n

c)Bor
ehol
e

d)Tap

e)Reser
voi
r

17.
Thefrequencyofwatersampl
ecol
lect
ionf
orbact
eri
ologi
calanal
ysi
s
from atubewel
lis:

a)Onceever
ymont
h

b)Onceever
yyear

c)Twi
ceever
yyear

d)Twi
cequar
ter
ly

e)Noneoft
heabove

18.
Thefrequencyofwat ersamplecoll
ect
ionforphysi
ochemi
calanal
ysi
s
from gr
oundwat erwithaproducti
onoflessthan240,
000cubic
metresfortur
bidit
yis:

a)1

b)2

c)3

58
 d)4

e)5

19.
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
etr
ueofpat
hogensexcept
:

a)Causedi
seasedi
rect
ly

b)Ofgr
eatvar
iet
y

c)Easyt
oisol
ate

d)Takel
ongert
odet
ect

e)Oppor
tuni
sti
c

20.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
str
ueabouti
ndi
cat
oror
gani
sms:

a)Theycausedi
seasedi
rect
ly

b)Ofgr
eatvar
iet
y

c)Di
ff
icul
ttoi
sol
ate

d)Takel
ongt
odet
ect

e)Noneoft
heabove

21.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sthecor
rectsequenceofevent
s?

a)Faecalcont
ami
nat
ion-
Indi
cat
oror
gani
sm-
Pat
hogens-
Disease

b)Faecalcont
ami
nat
ion-
Pat
hogens-
Indi
cat
oror
gani
sms-
Disease

c)I
ndi
cat
oror
gani
sms-
Faecal
cont
ami
nat
ion-
Pat
hogens-
Disease

d)I
ndi
cat
oror
gani
sm-
Disease-
Faecal
cont
ami
nat
ion-
Pat
hogens

e)Noneoft
heabove

22.
Thefoll
owingareadvant
agest
hepoi
ntoron-
sit
esampl
inghasover
labor
ator
ytest
ingexcept
:

a)Sampl
esneedt
obet
ranspor
tedt
othesi
te

b)Sampl
esdonotneedt
imet
odet
eri
orat
e

c)Resul
tsar
eavai
labl
elocal
ly

d)Act
ioncanbet
akenqui
ckl
y

e)Localpeopl
ecanbei
nvol
ved

59
23.
Theef
fecti
venessoft
hewat
erqual
it
ymonitor
ingsyst
em once
est
abl
ishedisbasedont
hef
oll
owingbasi
cfactor
sexcept
:

a)El
aborat
ionandappl
icat
ionofanappr
opr
iat
esampl
ing
pr
ogramme

b)Ensuri
ngthatt
hecost
sofwat
erqual
it
ymoni
tor
ingi
sref
lect
edi
n
theyearl
ybudget

c)I
nadequacyofsampl
ecol
lect
ionandpr
eser
vat
ion

d)Anal
ysi
sandr
ecor
dingofr
esul
ts

e)Repor
ti
ngandr
ecor
dkeepi
ng

24.
Whensampl esf orwat erquali
tyanalysi
sar
etaken,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
hat
theyarerepresentati
veoft hesupplyasawholeandalso
represent
ati
veofcondi t
ionsatplacesmostvul
nerabl
eto
contaminati
on,whi chare:

a)Low-
pressur
epoi
nts

b)Endsofsyst
ems

c)St
oraget
anks

d)Al
ltheabove

e)Noneoft
heabove

25.
Int
heUK,iti
srecommendedthatwat
ersuppl
iesser
vingmor
ethan
10,
000peopl
eshouldbetest
ed:

a)Dai
ly

b)For
tni
ght
ly

c)Mont
hly

d)Quar
ter
ly

e)Bi
-annual
ly

26.
Thefrequencyofsampl
ingi
ngener
alt
ermsdependsonamong
other
s:

a)Typeofsour
ce

b)Useofwat
er

c)Ri
skf
act
ors

60
 d)Al
ltheabove

e)aandc

27.
Tomostpeople,waterhavi
ngtemperaturerangesasshownbel
owi
s
themostpal
atable.Choosethecor
rectrange:

a)Bet
ween10and15degr
eesCel
sius

b)Bet
ween15and20degr
eesCel
sius

c)Bet
ween20and25degr
eesCel
sius

d)Bet
ween25and30degr
eesCel
sius

e)Bet
ween30and35degr
eesCel
sius

28.
Inaccordancewit
hGuidel
inesForDrinki
ngWaterQual
it
y,2ndEdit
ion,
VolumeI I
I:Sur
vei
ll
anceandControlofCommunitySul
li
es,Geneva,
therecommendedcolif
orm count
/100mlis:

a)0

b)0-
10

c)10-
100

d)100-
1000

e)>1000

29.
Thepurposeofwat ermonitori
ngistoensur et
hatthewatert
hati
s
suppl
iedtothecommuni t
yisofaccept abl
equali
ty.Toensur
ethi
s,
sever
alaspectsaretakenintoconsiderati
on.I
dentif
ywhicht
ypesof
monit
oringaretakenintoconsider
ation:

a)Management
/tr
anspor
t/equi
pment

b)Management
/equi
pment
/pr
ogr
amme

c)Management
/fi
nance/
progr
amme

d)Fi
nance/
progr
amme/
equi
pment

e)Noneoft
heabove

30.
Inatownwit
hapopulat
ionof1,
000,
000peopl
e,themini
mum
sampli
ngfr
equencyf
orlar
gewatersuppl
yinayeari
nanurban
set
ti
ngwouldbe:
a)90sampl
es

61
 b)100sampl
es
c)110sampl
es
d)120sampl
es
e)130sampl
es

SECTI
ONB:TRUEORFALSEQUESTI ONS
 Answeral
lquest
ionsf
rom t
hissect
ion

 Eachquest
ioncar
ri
esONEmar
k

 Ci
rcl
ethecor
rectansweraccor
dingt
oyourchoi
ce

1.Int
heplanni
ngofwaterdi
str
ibut
ion,t
herearebasi
cal
lyt
hreet
ypesof
net
worksyst
emsthatarecommonl yused.TRUEorFALSE

2.Inanur bansetti
ng,t
henumber sofbact
eriol
ogi
calandresi
dual
chlori
nesampl esperyearperpar
ameterforanannualwater
productionoflesst
han240,000cubicmetersar
e12and48
respecti
vely.TRUEorFALSE

3.Themostimport
antorcrit
icalt
est
srecommendedi nwat
erqual
it
y
monit
ori
nginaccordancewithWHO( 1984)gui
del
inesar
eFaecal
Col
if
orm andTurbi
dit
y.TRUEorFALSE

4.E.colii
sanindi
cat
ionoffaecal
cont
aminat
ioni
nrespect
iveoft
he
sourceoff
aecalmatt
er.TRUEorFALSE.

5.Oneofthedif
ferencesbetweenapat
hogenandanindi
catororgani
sm
i
sthatapathogent akesl
ongert
odet
ectwhil
eanindi
catororgani
sm

62
 canbedet
ect
edwi
thi
n24-
48hour
s.TRUEorFALSE

6.Afaecalcol
if
ormt
estal
wayspr
ecedesat
otalcol
if
ormt
est
.TRUEor
FALSE

7.TheMostprobabl
enumbermethodofwat
ert
est
ingi
sthesameas
theMul
ti
pleTubeTest.TRUEorFALSE

8.Whenthenumberoff
aecalcol
if
ormsint
hesamplewateri
sbet
ween
1and10noacti
onisneededasthef
igur
eisconsi
der
ablyl
ow.TRUE
orFALSE

9.Chorineinwat
erworksbet
terwi
tht
hecor
respondi
ngi
ncr
easei
n
tur
bidit
y.TRUEorFALSE.

10.
Onlynet
workonewhereonetreat
mentpl
antser
vest
wosepar
ate
dist
ri
but
ionzoneshaspr
ovi
sionofbot
hsingl
eanddoubl
enet
works.
TRUEorFALSE

SECTI
ONC:SHORTANSWERQUESTI ONS
 Answeral
lquest
ionsi
nthi
ssecti
on

 Eachquest
ioncar
ri
esFI
VE(
5)mar
ks

 Wr
it
eyouranswer
sint
hespacepr
ovi
ded

1.Def
inewhatt
hef
oll
owi
ngmean:

a)Pal
atabl
e
water
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b)Pot
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2.Whatdoyouunder standbyt heterm CHLORI NE
DEMAND? ..
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3.Descr
ibewhatcolloi
dalmat t
erinrel
ationto
water
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4.Gi
vetheWHOr ecommendedchl ori
neresidual
s:

a)I
ntankert
racks.
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b)Atal
lpoi
ntsi
napi
pedsuppl
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.

5.Whatdoyouunder standbytheterm a“
repr
esent
ati
ve
sampl
e”?
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6.Bri
efl
ydescribeanyt wofactor
sonwhi chsampl ingcanbe
done.
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SECTI
OND:ESSAYTYPEQUESTI
ONS

 Ther
ear
etwo(
2)quest
ionsi
nthi
ssect
ion.

 Answerbot
hquest
ions.

 Eachquest
ioncar
ri
esFI
FTEEN(
15)mar
ks

1.Youhavebeenr equest
edasanEHTt ocoll
ectandtransporttothe
Food and Drugs Laborat
ory a watersamplef orbact er
iol
ogical
anal
ysi
s.How wouldyoucol l
ectsuchasampl efrom ariverwithor
wit
houtmovingwat erandwhatpr ecaut
ionswouldyout akei nthe

64
 pr
ocess?I
ncl
udeal
laspect
sinvol
vedupt
othel
abor
ator
y.

2.Therearet hr
eetypesofnetwor
ksyst
emst hatareincommonuse.As
anexpertandaqual i
fi
edEHTyouhavebeenr equestedtoaccompany
theDist
rictMedicalOff
icertotheDi
str
ictDevelopmentCoordi
nati
ng
Commi t
tee( DDCC)sot hatyoumakethatpr esent
ati
on.Descri
bein
ful
lthet
hr eesystemscommonlyused.

SELF-
ASSESSEDASSI
GNMENTWATERQUALI
TYMANAGENTI
II

A GROUP OF STUDENTS WOULD LIKE TO KNOW WHAT WHOLESOME

WATERTOKNOW WHATWHOLESOMEWATERI SANDWHATI MPURITI
ES
MAY BE FOUND IN WATER.IN DETAI
LDESCRI BE WHAT WHOLESOME
WATERISANDWHATI MPURI
TIESMAYMAYBEFOUNDI NWATER.

65