List of Mathematical Symbols

List of mathematical symbols 1
List of mathematical symbols

This list is incomplete.
This is a listing of common symbols found within all branches of mathematics. Symbols are used in mathematical
notation to express a formula or to replace a constant.
It is important to recognize that a mathematical concept is independent of the symbol chosen to represent it when
reading the list. The symbols below are usually synonymous with the corresponding concept (ultimately an arbitrary
choice made as a result of the cumulative history of mathematics) but in some situations a different convention may
be used. For example, the meaning of "≡" may represent congruence or a definition depending on context. Further, in
mathematical logic, the concept of numerical equality is sometimes represented by "≡" instead of "=", with the latter
taking the duty of representing equality of well-formed formulas. In short, convention rather than the symbol dictates
the meaning.
Each symbol is listed in both HTML, which depends on appropriate fonts being installed, and in TeX, as an image.
Symbols
SymbolSymbolName Explanation Examples

in in Read as
HTML TeX
Category
= equality
is equal to;
x = y means x and y represent the same thing or value. 2 = 2
1 + 1 = 2
equals
everywhere
≠ inequality
is not equal to;
x ≠ y means that x and y do not represent the same thing or
value.
2+2≠5
does not equal (The forms !=, /= or <> are generally used in programming
languages where ease of typing and use of ASCII text is
everywhere
preferred.)
< strict inequality

is less than,
x < y means x is less than y.
x > y means x is greater than y.
3 < 4
5 > 4
> is greater than

order theory
proper subgroup H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G. 5Z < Z

is a proper subgroup of A3 < S3
group theory
≪ (very) strict inequality

is much less than,
x ≪ y means x is much less than y.
x ≫ y means x is much greater than y.
0.003 ≪ 1000000
≫ is much greater than

order theory
asymptotic comparison f ≪ g means the growth of f is asymptotically bounded by g. x ≪ ex

is of smaller order than, (This is I. M. Vinogradov's notation. Another notation is the
is of greater order than Big O notation, which looks like f = O(g).)
analytic number theory

≤ inequality x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.

is less than or equal to, x ≥ y means x is greater than or equal to y.
3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
≥ is greater than or equal to (The forms <= and >= are generally used in programming
languages where ease of typing and use of ASCII text is
order theory
preferred.)
subgroup H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G. Z ≤ Z

is a subgroup of A ≤S
3 3
group theory
reduction A ≤ B means the problem A can be reduced to the problem B. If

is reducible to Subscripts can be added to the ≤ to indicate what kind of
reduction.
computational complexity then
theory
≦ congruence relation 7k ≡ 28 (mod 2) is only true if k is an even integer. Assume

...is less than ... is greater that the problem requires k to be non-negative; the domain is
10a ≡ 5 (mod 5) for 1 ≦ a ≦ 10
≧ than... defined as 0 ≦ k ≦ ∞.
modular arithmetic
vector inequality x ≦ y means that each component of vector x is less than or
... is less than or equal... is equal to each corresponding component of vector y.
greater than or equal... x ≧ y means that each component of vector x is greater than or
equal to each corresponding component of vector y.
order theory
It is important to note that x ≦ y remains true if every element
is equal. However, if the operator is changed, x ≤ y is true if
and only if x ≠ y is also true.
[1]
≺ Karp reduction
is Karp reducible to;
L1 ≺ L2 means that the problem L1 is Karp reducible to L2. If L1 ≺ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
is polynomial-time
many-one reducible to
computational complexity
theory
∝ proportionality
is proportional to;
y ∝ x means that y = kx for some constant k. if y = 2x, then y ∝ x.
varies as
everywhere
[2] A ∝ B means the problem A can be polynomially reduced to If L1 ∝ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
Karp reduction
the problem B.
is Karp reducible to;
is polynomial-time
many-one reducible to
computational complexity
theory
+ addition
plus;
4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9
add
arithmetic
disjoint union A1 + A2 means the disjoint union of sets A1 and A2. A1 = {3, 4, 5, 6} ∧ A2 = {7, 8, 9, 10} ⇒
the disjoint union of ... and A1 + A2 = {(3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (6,1), (7,2), (8,2), (9,2),
... (10,2)}
set theory
− subtraction
minus;
9 − 4 means the subtraction of 4 from 9. 8−3=5
take;
subtract
arithmetic
negative sign −3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5

negative;
minus;
the opposite of
arithmetic
set-theoretic complement A − B means the set that contains all the elements of A that are {1,2,4} − {1,3,4} = {2}
minus; not in B.
without (∖ can also be used for set-theoretic complement as described
below.)
set theory
± plus-minus
plus or minus
6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 − 3. The equation x = 5 ± √4, has two solutions, x = 7 and x
= 3.
arithmetic
plus-minus 10 ± 2 or equivalently 10 ± 20% means the range from 10 − 2 If a = 100 ± 1 mm, then a ≥ 99 mm and a ≤ 101 mm.
plus or minus to 10 + 2.
measurement
∓ minus-plus
minus or plus
6 ± (3 ∓ 5) means both 6 + (3 − 5) and 6 − (3 + 5). cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(x) sin(y).
arithmetic
× multiplication
times;
3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4.
(The symbol * is generally used in programming languages,
7 × 8 = 56
multiplied by where ease of typing and use of ASCII text is preferred.)
arithmetic
Cartesian product X×Y means the set of all ordered pairs with the first element of {1,2} × {3,4} = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}
the Cartesian product of ... each pair selected from X and the second element selected
and ...; from Y.
the direct product of ... and
...
set theory
cross product u × v means the cross product of vectors u and v (1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =
cross (−22, 16, − 2)
linear algebra
group of units R× consists of the set of units of the ring R, along with the
the group of units of operation of multiplication.
ring theory This may also be written R* as described below, or U(R).
* multiplication
times;
a * b means the product of a and b.
(Multiplication can also be denoted with × or ⋅, or even simple
4 * 3 means the product of 4 and 3, or 12.
multiplied by juxtaposition. * is generally used where ease of typing and use

of ASCII text is preferred, such as programming languages.)
arithmetic
convolution f * g means the convolution of f and g.

.
convolution;
convolved with
functional analysis
complex conjugate z* means the complex conjugate of z. .

conjugate ( can also be used for the conjugate of z, as described
below.)
complex numbers
group of units R* consists of the set of units of the ring R, along with the
the group of units of operation of multiplication.
×
ring theory This may also be written R as described above, or U(R).
hyperreal numbers *R means the set of hyperreal numbers. Other sets can be used *N is the hypernatural numbers.
the (set of) hyperreals in place of R.
non-standard analysis
Hodge dual *v means the Hodge dual of a vector v. If v is a k-vector within If are the standard basis vectors of ,
Hodge dual; an n-dimensional oriented inner product space, then *v is an
Hodge star (n−k)-vector.
linear algebra
· multiplication
times;
3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 · 8 = 56
multiplied by
arithmetic
dot product u · v means the dot product of vectors u and v (1,2,5) · (3,4,−1) = 6
dot
linear algebra
placeholder A · means a placeholder for an argument of a function.

(silent) Indicates the functional nature of an expression without
assigning a specific symbol for an argument.
functional analysis
[3]
⊗ tensor product, tensor
product of modules
means the tensor product of V and U.
means the tensor product of modules V and U over the ring R.
{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊗ {1, 1, 2} =
tensor product of
linear algebra
÷ division (Obelus)
divided by;
6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of 6 by 3. 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5
12 ⁄ 4 = 3
⁄ over
arithmetic
quotient group G / H means the quotient of group G modulo its subgroup H. {0, a, 2a, b, b+a, b+2a} / {0, b} = {{0, b}, {a, b+a},
mod {2a, b+2a}}
group theory
quotient set A/~ means the set of all ~ equivalence classes in A. If we define ~ by x ~ y ⇔ x − y ∈ ℤ, then
mod ℝ/~ = { {x + n : n ∈ ℤ } : x ∈ [0,1) }
set theory
√ square root
the (principal) square root
means the nonnegative number whose square is .
of
real numbers
complex square root if is represented in polar coordinates with

the (complex) square root , then .
of
complex numbers
x mean
overbar;
(often read as “x bar”) is the mean (average value of ). .
… bar
statistics
complex conjugate means the complex conjugate of z. .

conjugate (z* can also be used for the conjugate of z, as described
above.)
complex numbers
finite sequence, tuple means the finite sequence/tuple . .

finite sequence, tuple
model theory
algebraic closure is the algebraic closure of the field F. The field of algebraic numbers is sometimes denoted
algebraic closure of as because it is the algebraic closure of the rational
numbers .
field theory
topological closure is the topological closure of the set S. In the space of the real numbers, (the rational
(topological) closure of This may also be denoted as cl(S) or Cl(S). numbers are dense in the real numbers).
topology
â unit vector
hat
(pronounced "a hat") is the normalized version of vector
having length 1.
,
geometry
|…| absolute value;

modulus
|x| means the distance along the real line (or across the
complex plane) between x and zero.
|3| = 3
|–5| = |5| = 5
absolute value of; modulus | i | = 1
of | 3 + 4i | = 5
numbers
Euclidean norm or |x| means the (Euclidean) length of vector x. For x = (3,-4)
Euclidean length or
magnitude
Euclidean norm of
geometry
determinant |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

determinant of
matrix theory
cardinality |X| means the cardinality of the set X. |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.

cardinality of; (# may be used instead as described below.)
size of;
order of
set theory
||…|| norm
norm of;
|| x || means the norm of the element x of a normed vector
space.
[4]
|| x + y || ≤ || x || + || y ||
length of
linear algebra
nearest integer function ||x|| means the nearest integer to x. ||1|| = 1, ||1.6|| = 2, ||−2.4|| = −2, ||3.49|| = 3
nearest integer to (This may also be written [x], ⌊x⌉, nint(x) or Round(x).)
numbers
∣ divisor, divides
divides
a|b means a divides b.
a∤b means a does not divide b.
Since 15 = 3×5, it is true that 3|15 and 5|15.
∤ number theory
(This symbol can be difficult to type, and its negation is rare,
so a regular but slightly shorter vertical bar | character can be
used.)
conditional probability P(A|B) means the probability of the event a occurring given if X is a uniformly random day of the year P(X is May
given that b occurs. 25 | X is in May) = 1/31
probability
restriction f|A means the function f restricted to the set A, that is, it is the The function f : R → R defined by f(x) = x2 is not
restriction of … to …; function with domain A ∩ dom(f) that agrees with f. injective, but f|R+ is injective.
restricted to
set theory
such that | means “such that”, see ":" (described below). S = {(x,y) | 0 < y < f(x)}
such that; The set of (x,y) such that y is greater than 0 and less
so that than f(x).
everywhere
|| parallel
is parallel to
x || y means x is parallel to y. If l || m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n.
geometry
incomparability x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.

is incomparable to
order theory
exact divisibility pa || n means pa exactly divides n (i.e. pa divides n but pa+1 23 || 360.
exactly divides does not).
number theory
# cardinality
cardinality of;
#X means the cardinality of the set X.
(|…| may be used instead as described above.)
#{4, 6, 8} = 3
size of;
order of
set theory
connected sum A#B is the connected sum of the manifolds A and B. If A and B A#Sm is homeomorphic to A, for any manifold A, and
connected sum of; are knots, then this denotes the knot sum, which has a slightly the sphere Sm.
knot sum of; stronger condition.
knot composition of
topology, knot theory
primorial n# is product of all prime numbers less than or equal to n. 12# = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 = 2310
primorial
number theory
ℵ aleph number
aleph
ℵα represents an infinite cardinality (specifically, the α-th one, |ℕ| = ℵ0, which is called aleph-null.
where α is an ordinal).
set theory
ℶ beth number
beth
ℶα represents an infinite cardinality (similar to ℵ, but ℶ does
not necessarily index all of the numbers indexed by ℵ. ).
set theory
ᵒ cardinality of the
continuum
The cardinality of is denoted by
lowercase Fraktur letter C).
or by the symbol (a
cardinality of the
continuum;
c;
cardinality of the real
numbers
set theory
: such that
such that;
: means “such that”, and is used in proofs and the set-builder
notation (described below).
∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
so that
everywhere
field extension K : F means the field K extends the field F. ℝ:ℚ

extends; This may also be written as K ≥ F.
over
field theory
inner product of matrices A : B means the Frobenius inner product of the matrices A and
inner product of B.
The general inner product is denoted by ⟨u, v⟩, ⟨u | v⟩ or
linear algebra
(u | v), as described below. For spatial vectors, the dot product
notation, x·y is common. See also Bra-ket notation.
index of a subgroup The index of a subgroup H in a group G is the "relative size"

index of subgroup of H in G: equivalently, the number of "copies" (cosets) of H
that fill up G
group theory
! factorial
factorial
n! means the product 1 × 2 × ... × n. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24
combinatorics
logical negation The statement !A is true if and only if A is false. !(!A) ⇔ A

not A slash placed through another operator is the same as "!" x ≠ y ⇔ !(x = y)
placed in front.
propositional logic
(The symbol ! is primarily from computer science. It is avoided
in mathematical texts, where the notation ¬A is preferred.)
~ probability distribution
has distribution
X ~ D, means the random variable X has the probability
distribution D.
X ~ N(0,1), the standard normal distribution
statistics
row equivalence A~B means that B can be generated by using a series of

is row equivalent to elementary row operations on A
matrix theory
same order of magnitude m ~ n means the quantities m and n have the same order of 2 ~ 5
roughly similar; magnitude, or general size. 8 × 9 ~ 100
poorly approximates (Note that ~ is used for an approximation that is poor, but π2 ≈ 10
otherwise use ≈ .)
approximation theory
asymptotically equivalent x ~ x+1

f ~ g means .
is asymptotically
equivalent to
asymptotic analysis
equivalence relation a ~ b means (and equivalently ). 1 ~ 5 mod 4

are in the same
equivalence class
everywhere
≈ approximately equal x ≈ y means x is approximately equal to y.

is approximately equal to This may also be written ≃, ≅, ~, ♎ (Libra Symbol), or ≒.
π ≈ 3.14159
everywhere
isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is isomorphic (structurally Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,

is isomorphic to identical) to group H. where Q is the quaternion group and V is the Klein
(≅ can also be used for isomorphic, as described below.) four-group.
group theory
≀ wreath product A ≀ H means the wreath product of the group A by the group H.
wreath product of … by … This may also be written A wr H.
is isomorphic to the automorphism group of
the complete bipartite graph on (n,n) vertices.
group theory
◅ normal subgroup
is a normal subgroup of
N ◅ G means that N is a normal subgroup of group G. Z(G) ◅ G
▻ group theory
ideal I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring R. (2) ◅ Z

is an ideal of
ring theory
antijoin R ▻ S means the antijoin of the relations R and S, the tuples in R S=R-R S
the antijoin of R for which there is not a tuple in S that is equal on their
common attribute names.
relational algebra
⋉ semidirect product N ⋊φ H is the semidirect product of N (a normal subgroup) and

the semidirect product of H (a subgroup), with respect to φ. Also, if G = N ⋊φ H, then G
⋊ group theory
is said to split over N.
(⋊ may also be written the other way round, as ⋉, or as ×.)
semijoin R ⋉ S is the semijoin of the relations R and S, the set of all R S= a
1,..,an(R S)
the semijoin of tuples in R for which there is a tuple in S that is equal on their
relational algebra
⋈ natural join
the natural join of
R ⋈ S is the natural join of the relations R and S, the set of all
combinations of tuples in R and S that are equal on their
relational algebra
∴ therefore
therefore;
Sometimes used in proofs before logical consequences. All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. ∴
Socrates is mortal.
so;
hence
everywhere
∵ because
because;
Sometimes used in proofs before reasoning. 3331 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer factors other
than itself and one.
since
everywhere
■ end of proof
QED;
Used to mark the end of a proof.
(May also be written Q.E.D.)
□ tombstone;
Halmos symbol
∎ everywhere
▮ D'Alembertian It is the generalisation of the Laplace operator in the sense that
‣ non-Euclidean Laplacian it is the differential operator which is invariant under the

isometry group of the underlying space and it reduces to the
vector calculus
Laplace operator if restricted to time independent functions.
⇒ material implication
implies;
A ⇒ B means if A is true then B is also true; if A is false then
nothing is said about B.
x = 2 ⇒ x2 = 4 is true, but x2 = 4 ⇒ x = 2 is in
general false (since x could be −2).
→ if … then (→ may mean the same as ⇒, or it may have the meaning for
⊃ propositional logic, functions given below.)

[5]
Heyting algebra (⊃ may mean the same as ⇒, or it may have the meaning
for superset given below.)
⇔ material equivalence
if and only if;
A ⇔ B means A is true if B is true and A is false if B is false. x + 5 = y + 2 ⇔ x + 3 = y
↔ iff
propositional logic
¬ logical negation
not
The statement ¬A is true if and only if A is false.
A slash placed through another operator is the same as "¬"
¬(¬A) ⇔ A
x ≠ y ⇔ ¬(x = y)
˜ propositional logic
placed in front.
(The symbol ~ has many other uses, so ¬ or the slash notation
is preferred. Computer scientists will often use ! but this is
avoided in mathematical texts.)
∧ logical conjunction or
meet in a lattice
The statement A ∧ B is true if A and B are both true; else it is
false.
n < 4 ∧ n >2 ⇔ n = 3 when n is a natural number.
and; For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∧ B(x) is used to mean
min; min(A(x), B(x)).
meet
propositional logic, lattice
theory
wedge product u ∧ v means the wedge product of any multivectors u and v. In

wedge product; three dimensional Euclidean space the wedge product and the
exterior product cross product of two vectors are each other's Hodge dual.
exterior algebra
exponentiation a ^ b means a raised to the power of b 2^3 = 23 = 8

b
… (raised) to the power of (a ^ b is more commonly written a . The symbol ^ is generally
… used in programming languages where ease of typing and use
everywhere of plain ASCII text is preferred.)
∨ logical disjunction or join

in a lattice
The statement A ∨ B is true if A or B (or both) are true; if both n ≥ 4 ∨ n ≤ 2 ⇔ n ≠ 3 when n is a natural number.
are false, the statement is false.
or; For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∨ B(x) is used to mean
max; max(A(x), B(x)).
join
propositional logic, lattice
theory
⊕ exclusive or
xor
The statement A ⊕ B is true when either A or B, but not both,
are true. A ⊻ B means the same.
(¬A) ⊕ A is always true, A ⊕ A is always false.
⊻ propositional logic,
Boolean algebra
direct sum The direct sum is a special way of combining several objects Most commonly, for vector spaces U, V, and W, the
direct sum of into one general object. following consequence is used:
(The bun symbol ⊕, or the coproduct symbol ∐, is used; ⊻ is U = V ⊕ W ⇔ (U = V + W) ∧ (V ∩ W = {0})
abstract algebra
only for logic.)
∀ universal quantification
for all;
∀ x: P(x) means P(x) is true for all x. ∀ n ∈ ℕ: n2 ≥ n.
for any;
for each
predicate logic
∃ existential quantification
there exists;
∃ x: P(x) means there is at least one x such that P(x) is true. ∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
there is;
there are
predicate logic
∃! uniqueness quantification
there exists exactly one
∃! x: P(x) means there is exactly one x such that P(x) is true. ∃! n ∈ ℕ: n + 5 = 2n.
predicate logic
=: definition
is defined as;
x := y, y =: x or x ≡ y means x is defined to be another name for
y, under certain assumptions taken in context.
:= is equal by definition to (Some writers use ≡ to mean congruence).

P :⇔ Q means P is defined to be logically equivalent to Q.
≡ everywhere
:⇔
≜
≝
≐
≅ congruence
is congruent to
△ABC ≅ △DEF means triangle ABC is congruent to (has the
same measurements as) triangle DEF.
geometry
isomorphic G ≅ H means that group G is isomorphic (structurally .

is isomorphic to identical) to group H.
(≈ can also be used for isomorphic, as described above.)
abstract algebra
≡ congruence relation
... is congruent to ...
a ≡ b (mod n) means a − b is divisible by n 5 ≡ 2 (mod 3)
modulo ...
modular arithmetic
[6]
{ , } set brackets
the set of …
{a,b,c} means the set consisting of a, b, and c. ℕ = { 1, 2, 3, …}
set theory
[6]
{ : } set builder notation
the set of … such that
{x : P(x)} means the set of all x for which P(x) is true.
P(x)} is the same as {x : P(x)}.
{x | {n ∈ ℕ : n2 < 20} = { 1, 2, 3, 4}
{ | } set theory
{ ; }
[6]
∅ empty set
the empty set
∅ means the set with no elements. { } means the same.
2
{n ∈ ℕ : 1 < n < 4} = ∅
{ } set theory
[6]
∈ set membership
is an element of;
a ∈ S means a is an element of the set S; a ∉ S means a is
not an element of S.
[6]
(1/2)−1 ∈ ℕ
2−1 ∉ ℕ
∉ is not an element of
everywhere, set theory
⊆ subset
is a subset of
(subset) A ⊆ B means every element of A is also an element of (A ∩ B) ⊆ A
B.
[7] ℕ ⊂ ℚ
⊂ set theory (proper subset) A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B but A ≠ B.

ℚ ⊂ ℝ
(Some writers use the symbol ⊂ as if it were the same as ⊆.)
⊇ superset
is a superset of
A ⊇ B means every element of B is also an element of A.
A ⊃ B means A ⊇ B but A ≠ B.
(A ∪ B) ⊇ B
ℝ ⊃ ℚ
⊃ set theory
(Some writers use the symbol ⊃ as if it were the same as ⊇.)
∪ set-theoretic union
the union of … or …;
A ∪ B means the set of those elements which are either in A,
or in B, or in both.
[7]
A ⊆ B ⇔ (A ∪ B) = B
union
set theory
∩ set-theoretic intersection
intersected with;
A ∩ B means the set that contains all those elements that A and {x ∈ ℝ : x2 = 1} ∩ ℕ = {1}
B have in common.
[7]
intersect
set theory
∆ symmetric difference
symmetric difference
A ∆ B means the set of elements in exactly one of A or B.
(Not to be confused with delta, Δ, described below.)
{1,5,6,8} ∆ {2,5,8} = {1,2,6}
set theory
∖ set-theoretic complement
minus;
A ∖ B means the set that contains all those elements of A that
are not in B.
[7]
{1,2,3,4} ∖ {3,4,5,6} = {1,2}
without (− can also be used for set-theoretic complement as described

set theory above.)
→ function arrow
from … to
f: X → Y means the function f maps the set X into the set Y. Let f: ℤ → ℕ∪{0} be defined by f(x) := x2.
set theory, type theory
↦ function arrow
maps to
f: a ↦ b means the function f maps the element a to the
element b.
Let f: x ↦ x+1 (the successor function).
set theory
[8]
∘ function composition
composed with
f∘g is the function, such that (f∘g)(x) = f(g(x)). if f(x) := 2x, and g(x) := x + 3, then (f∘g)(x) = 2(x + 3).
set theory
o Hadamard product
entrywise product
For two matrices (or vectors) of the same dimensions
the Hadamard product is a matrix of the same
dimensions with elements given by
linear algebra
. This is often used in matrix
based programming such as MATLAB where the operation is
done by A.*B
ℕ natural numbers
N;
N means either { 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or { 1, 2, 3, ...}.
The choice depends on the area of mathematics being studied;
ℕ = {|a| : a ∈ ℤ} or ℕ = {|a| > 0: a ∈ ℤ}
N the (set of) natural

numbers
e.g. number theorists prefer the latter; analysts, set theorists
and computer scientists prefer the former. To avoid confusion,
always check an author's definition of N.
numbers
Set theorists often use the notation ω (for least infinite ordinal)
to denote the set of natural numbers (including zero), along
with the standard ordering relation ≤.
ℤ integers
Z;
ℤ means {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. ℤ+ or ℤ> means {1, 2, 3, ℤ = {p, −p : p ∈ ℕ ∪ {0} }
...} . ℤ* or ℤ≥ means {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} .
Z the (set of) integers
numbers
ℤn integers mod n
Zn;
ℤn means {[0], [1], [2], ...[n−1]} with addition and
multiplication modulo n.
ℤ3 = {[0], [1], [2]}
ℤp the (set of) integers

modulo n
Note that any letter may be used instead of n, such as p. To
avoid confusion with p-adic numbers, use ℤ/pℤ or ℤ/(p)
Zn numbers
instead.
Zp p-adic integers Note that any letter may be used instead of p, such as n or l.
the (set of) p-adic integers
numbers
ℙ projective space
P;
ℙ means a space with a point at infinity. ,
P the projective space;

the projective line;
the projective plane
topology
probability ℙ(X) means the probability of the event X occurring. If a fair coin is flipped, ℙ(Heads) = ℙ(Tails) = 0.5.
the probability of This may also be written as P(X), Pr(X), P[X] or Pr[X].
probability theory
ℚ rational numbers
Q;
ℚ means {p/q : p ∈ ℤ, q ∈ ℕ}. 3.14000... ∈ ℚ
π ∉ ℚ
Q the (set of) rational

numbers;
the rationals
numbers
ℝ real numbers
R;
ℝ means the set of real numbers. π ∈ ℝ
√(−1) ∉ ℝ
R the (set of) real numbers;

the reals
numbers
ℂ complex numbers
C;
ℂ means {a + b i : a,b ∈ ℝ}. i = √(−1) ∈ ℂ
C the (set of) complex

numbers
numbers
ℍ quaternions or
Hamiltonian quaternions
ℍ means {a + b i + c j + d k : a,b,c,d ∈ ℝ}.
H H;
the (set of) quaternions
numbers
O Big O notation
big-oh of
The Big O notation describes the limiting behavior of a
function, when the argument tends towards a particular value
If f(x) = 6x4 − 2x3 + 5 and g(x) = x4 , then
or infinity.
Computational complexity
theory
∞ infinity
infinity
∞ is an element of the extended number line that is greater
than all real numbers; it often occurs in limits.
numbers
⌊…⌋ floor
floor;
⌊x⌋ means the floor of x, i.e. the largest integer less than or
equal to x.
⌊4⌋ = 4, ⌊2.1⌋ = 2, ⌊2.9⌋ = 2, ⌊−2.6⌋ = −3
greatest integer; (This may also be written [x], floor(x) or int(x).)

entier
numbers
⌈…⌉ ceiling
ceiling
⌈x⌉ means the ceiling of x, i.e. the smallest integer greater than ⌈4⌉ = 4, ⌈2.1⌉ = 3, ⌈2.9⌉ = 3, ⌈−2.6⌉ = −2
or equal to x.
(This may also be written ceil(x) or ceiling(x).)
numbers
⌊…⌉ nearest integer function

nearest integer to
⌊x⌉ means the nearest integer to x.
(This may also be written [x], ||x||, nint(x) or Round(x).)
⌊2⌉ = 2, ⌊2.6⌉ = 3, ⌊-3.4⌉ = -3, ⌊4.49⌉ = 4
numbers
[ : ] degree of a field extension [K : F] means the degree of the extension K : F.

the degree of
[ℚ(√2) : ℚ] = 2
[ℂ : ℝ] = 2
[ℝ : ℚ] = ∞
field theory
[ ] equivalence class

the equivalence class of
[a] means the equivalence class of a, i.e. {x : x ~ a}, where ~ is Let a ~ b be true iff a ≡ b (mod 5). Then [2] = {…, −8,
an equivalence relation. −3, 2, 7, …}.
[ , ] abstract algebra

[a]R means the same, but with R as the equivalence relation.
[ , , ] floor [x] means the floor of x, i.e. the largest integer less than or [3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.99] = 3, [−3.7] = −4
floor; equal to x.
greatest integer; (This may also be written ⌊x⌋, floor(x) or int(x). Not to be
entier confused with the nearest integer function, as described
below.)
numbers
nearest integer function [x] means the nearest integer to x. [2] = 2, [2.6] = 3, [-3.4] = -3, [4.49] = 4
nearest integer to (This may also be written ⌊x⌉, ||x||, nint(x) or Round(x). Not to
be confused with the floor function, as described above.)
numbers
Iverson bracket [S] maps a true statement S to 1 and a false statement S to 0. [0=5]=0, [7>0]=1, [2 ∈ {2,3,4}]=1, [5 ∈ {2,3,4}]=0
1 if true, 0 otherwise
propositional logic
image f[X] means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the function f under
image of … under … the set X ⊆ dom(f).
(This may also be written as f(X) if there is no risk of
everywhere
confusing the image of f under X with the function application
f of X. Another notation is Im f, the image of f under its
domain.)
closed interval . 0 and 1/2 are in the interval [0,1].

closed interval
order theory
commutator [g, h] = g−1h−1gh (or ghg−1h−1), if g, h ∈ G (a group). xy = x[x, y] (group theory).

the commutator of [a, b] = ab − ba, if a, b ∈ R (a ring or commutative algebra). [AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B (ring theory).
group theory, ring theory
triple scalar product [a, b, c] = a × b · c, the scalar product of a × b with c. [a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b].
the triple scalar product of
vector calculus
( ) function application

of
f(x) means the value of the function f at the element x. If f(x) := x2, then f(3) = 32 = 9.
(,) set theory
image f(X) means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the image of the function f under
image of … under … the set X ⊆ dom(f).
(This may also be written as f[X] if there is a risk of confusing
everywhere
the image of f under X with the function application f of X.
Another notation is Im f, the image of f under its domain.)
combinations
(from) n choose r means the number of combinations of r elements drawn
combinatorics from a set of n elements.

(This may also be written as nCr.)
precedence grouping Perform the operations inside the parentheses first. (8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1, but 8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.
parentheses
everywhere
tuple An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or row (a, b) is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
tuple; n-tuple; vector) of values. (Note that the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it (a, b, c) is an ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
ordered pair/triple/etc; could be an ordered pair or an open interval. Set theorists and
( ) is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
row vector; sequence computer scientists often use angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ instead of
parentheses.)
everywhere
highest common factor (a, b) means the highest common factor of a and b. (3, 7) = 1 (they are coprime); (15, 25) = 5.
highest common factor; (This may also be written hcf(a, b) or gcd(a, b).)
greatest common divisor;
hcf; gcd
number theory
( , ) open interval

open interval
. (Note that the notation
(a,b) is ambiguous: it could be an ordered pair or an open
4 is not in the interval (4, 18). (0, +∞) equals the set of
positive real numbers.
] , [ order theory interval. The notation ]a,b[ can be used instead.)
(( )) multichoose
multichoose
means n multichoose k.
combinatorics
( , ] left-open interval

half-open interval;
. (−1, 7] and (−∞, −1]
] , ] left-open interval

order theory
[ , ) right-open interval

half-open interval;
. [4, 18) and [1, +∞)
[ , [ right-open interval

order theory
⟨⟩ inner product
inner product of
⟨u,v⟩ means the inner product of u and v, where u and v are
members of an inner product space.
The standard inner product between two vectors
x = (2, 3) and y = (−1, 5) is:
⟨,⟩ linear algebra

Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be ambiguous: it could mean ⟨x, y⟩ = 2 × −1 + 3 × 5 = 13
the inner product or the linear span.
There are many variants of the notation, such as ⟨u | v⟩ and
(u | v), which are described below. For spatial vectors, the dot
product notation, x·y is common. For matrices, the colon
notation A : B may be used. As ⟨ and ⟩ can be hard to type, the
more “keyboard friendly” forms < and > are sometimes seen.
These are avoided in mathematical texts.
average let S be a subset of N for example, represents the for a time series :g(t) (t = 1, 2,...) we can define the
average of average of all the element in S. structure functions S ( ):
q
statistics
linear span ⟨S⟩ means the span of S ⊆ V. That is, it is the intersection of
.
(linear) span of; all subspaces of V which contain S.
linear hull of ⟨u1, u2, …⟩is shorthand for ⟨{u1, u2, …}⟩.
Note that the notation ⟨u, v⟩ may be ambiguous: it could mean
linear algebra
the inner product or the linear span.
The span of S may also be written as Sp(S).
subgroup generated by a means the smallest subgroup of G (where S ⊆ G, a In S3, and

set group) containing every element of S. .
the subgroup generated by is shorthand for .
group theory
tuple An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or row is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple). is an
tuple; n-tuple; vector) of values. (The notation (a,b) is often used as well.) ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
ordered pair/triple/etc; is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
row vector; sequence
everywhere
⟨|⟩ inner product

inner product of
⟨u | v⟩ means the inner product of u and v, where u and v are
[9]
members of an inner product space. (u | v) means the same.
(|) linear algebra Another variant of the notation is ⟨u, v⟩ which is described
above. For spatial vectors, the dot product notation, x·y is
common. For matrices, the colon notation A : B may be used.
As ⟨ and ⟩ can be hard to type, the more “keyboard friendly”
forms < and > are sometimes seen. These are avoided in
mathematical texts.
|⟩ ket vector
the ket …;
|φ⟩ means the vector with label φ, which is in a Hilbert space. A qubit's state can be represented as α|0⟩+ β|1⟩, where
α and β are complex numbers s.t. |α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
the vector …
Dirac notation
⟨| bra vector
the bra …;
⟨φ| means the dual of the vector |φ⟩, a linear functional which
maps a ket |ψ⟩ onto the inner product ⟨φ|ψ⟩.
the dual of …
Dirac notation
∑ summation
sum over … from … to …
means a + a + … + a .
1 2 n = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42
of
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30
arithmetic
∏ product
product over … from … to
means a1a2···an. = (1+2)(2+2)(3+2)(4+2)
… of = 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 360

arithmetic
Cartesian product
means the set of all (n+1)-tuples
the Cartesian product of;
the direct product of (y0, …, yn).
set theory
∐ coproduct A general construction which subsumes the disjoint union of

coproduct over … from … sets and of topological spaces, the free product of groups, and
to … of the direct sum of modules and vector spaces. The coproduct of
a family of objects is essentially the "least specific" object to
category theory
which each object in the family admits a morphism.
Δ delta
delta;
Δx means a (non-infinitesimal) change in x.
(If the change becomes infinitesimal, δ and even d are used
is the gradient of a straight line
change in instead. Not to be confused with the symmetric difference,

written ∆, above.)
calculus
Laplacian The Laplace operator is a second order differential operator in If ƒ is a twice-differentiable real-valued function, then
Laplace operator n-dimensional Euclidean space the Laplacian of ƒ is defined by
vector calculus
δ Dirac delta function

Dirac delta of
δ(x)
hyperfunction
Kronecker delta δij

Kronecker delta of
hyperfunction
Functional derivative
Functional derivative of
Differential operators
∂ partial derivative
partial;
∂f/∂xi means the partial derivative of f with respect to xi, where If f(x,y) := x2y, then ∂f/∂x = 2xy
f is a function on (x1, …, xn).
d
calculus
boundary ∂M means the boundary of M ∂{x : ||x|| ≤ 2} = {x : ||x|| = 2}

boundary of
topology
degree of a polynomial ∂f means the degree of the polynomial f. ∂(x2 − 1) = 2

degree of (This may also be written deg f.)
algebra
∇ gradient
del;
∇f (x1, …, xn) is the vector of partial derivatives (∂f / ∂x1, …,
∂f / ∂xn).
If f (x,y,z) := 3xy + z², then ∇f = (3y, 3x, 2z)
nabla;
gradient of
vector calculus
divergence If , then
del dot; .
divergence of
vector calculus
curl If , then
curl of .
vector calculus
′ derivative
… prime;
f ′(x) means the derivative of the function f at the point x, i.e.,
the slope of the tangent to f at x.
If f(x) := x2, then f ′(x) = 2x
derivative of (The single-quote character ' is sometimes used instead,

especially in ASCII text.)
calculus
derivative means the derivative of x with respect to time. That is

If x(t) := t2, then
• … dot; .
.
time derivative of
calculus
∫ indefinite integral or
antiderivative
∫ f(x) dx means a function whose derivative is f. ∫x2 dx = x3/3 + C
indefinite integral of
the antiderivative of
calculus
definite integral ∫ab f(x) dx means the signed area between the x-axis and the ∫ab x2 dx = b3/3 − a3/3;
integral from … to … of graph of the function f between x = a and x = b.
… with respect to
calculus
line integral ∫C f ds means the integral of f along the curve C,

line/ path/ curve/ integral , where r is a parametrization of C.
of… along… (If the curve is closed, the symbol ∮ may be used instead, as
calculus described below.)
∮ Contour integral;
closed line integral
Similar to the integral, but used to denote a single integration
over a closed curve or loop. It is sometimes used in physics
If C is a Jordan curve about 0, then .
contour integral of texts involving equations regarding Gauss's Law, and while
these formulas involve a closed surface integral, the
calculus
representations describe only the first integration of the
volume over the enclosing surface. Instances where the latter
requires simultaneous double integration, the symbol ∯ would
be more appropriate. A third related symbol is the closed
volume integral, denoted by the symbol ∰. The contour
integral can also frequently be found with a subscript capital
letter C, ∮C, denoting that a closed loop integral is, in fact,
around a contour C, or sometimes dually appropriately, a
circle C. In representations of Gauss's Law, a subscript capital
S, ∮S, is used to denote that the integration is over a closed
surface.
π projection
Projection of
restricts to the attribute set.
relational algebra
Pi Used in various formulas involving circles; π is equivalent to A=πR2=314.16→R=10

pi; the amount of area a circle would take up in a square of equal
3.1415926; width with an area of 4 square units, roughly 3.14/4. It is also
≈22÷7 the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle.
mathematical constant
σ selection
Selection of
The selection selects all those tuples in
holds between the and the attribute. The selection
for which
relational algebra selects all those tuples in for which holds

between the attribute and the value .
<: cover
is covered by
x <• y means that x is covered by y. {1, 8} <• {1, 3, 8} among the subsets of {1, 2, …, 10}
ordered by containment.
<· order theory
subtype T1 <: T2 means that T1 is a subtype of T2. If S <: T and T <: U then S <: U (transitivity).
is a subtype of
type theory
conjugate transpose [10]

A† means the transpose of the complex conjugate of A. If A = (aij) then A† = (aji).
† conjugate transpose; This may also be written A*T, AT*, A*, AT or AT.
adjoint;
Hermitian
adjoint/conjugate/transpose
matrix operations
transpose AT means A, but with its rows swapped for columns. If A = (aij) then AT = (aji).
T transpose This may also be written A', At or Atr.
matrix operations
⊤ top element
the top element
⊤ means the largest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∨ ⊤ = ⊤
lattice theory
top type ⊤ means the top or universal type; every type in the type ∀ types T, T <: ⊤
the top type; top system of interest is a subtype of top.
type theory
⊥ perpendicular
is perpendicular to
x ⊥ y means x is perpendicular to y; or more generally x is
orthogonal to y.
If l ⊥ m and m ⊥ n in the plane, then l || n.
geometry
orthogonal complement W⊥ means the orthogonal complement of W (where W is a Within , .

orthogonal/ perpendicular subspace of the inner product space V), the set of all vectors in
complement of; V orthogonal to every vector in W.
perp
linear algebra
coprime x ⊥ y means x has no factor greater than 1 in common with y. 34 ⊥ 55.
is coprime to
number theory
independent A ⊥ B means A is an event whose probability is independent of If A ⊥ B, then P(A|B) = P(A).
is independent of event B.
probability
bottom element ⊥ means the smallest element of a lattice. ∀x : x ∧ ⊥ = ⊥

the bottom element
lattice theory
bottom type ⊥ means the bottom type (a.k.a. the zero type or empty type); ∀ types T, ⊥ <: T
the bottom type; bottom is the subtype of every type in the type system.
bot
type theory
comparability x ⊥ y means that x is comparable to y. {e, π} ⊥ {1, 2, e, 3, π} under set containment.

is comparable to
order theory
⊧ entailment
entails
A ⊧ B means the sentence A entails the sentence B, that is in
every model in which A is true, B is also true.
A ⊧ A ∨ ¬A
model theory
⊢ inference
infers;
x ⊢ y means y is derivable from x. A → B ⊢ ¬B → ¬A.
is derived from
propositional logic,
predicate logic
partition p ⊢ n means that p is a partition of n.

(4,3,1,1) ⊢ 9, .
is a partition of
number theory
vertical ellipsis Denotes that certain constants and terms are missing out (i.e.
vertical ellipsis for clarity) and that only the important terms are being listed.
everywhere
Variations
In mathematics written in Arabic, some symbols may be reversed to make right-to-left writing and reading easier.
[11]
References
[1] Rónyai, Lajos (1998), Algoritmusok(Algorithms), TYPOTEX, ISBN 963-9132-16-0
[2] Berman, Kenneth A; Paul, Jerome L. (2005), Algorithms: Sequential, Parallel, and Distributed, Boston: Course Technology, p. 822,
ISBN 0-534-42057-5
[3] Nielsen, Michael A; Chuang, Isaac L (2000), Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, New York: Cambridge University Press,
pp. 71–72, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
p. 66, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
[5] Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl (1990) [1953], "Chapter 8.3: Conditional Statements and Material Implication", Introduction to Logic (8th ed.),
New York: Macmillan, pp. 268–269, ISBN 0-02-325035-6, LCCN 8937742
[6] Goldrei, Derek (1996), Classic Set Theory, London: Chapman and Hall, p. 3, ISBN 0-412-60610-0
p. 62, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
pp. 69–70, ISBN 0-521-63503-9, OCLC 43641333
[11] M. Benatia, A. Lazrik, and K. Sami, " Arabic mathematical symbols in Unicode (http:/ / www. ucam. ac. ma/ fssm/ rydarab/ doc/ expose/
unicodeme. pdf)", 27th Internationalization and Unicode Conference, 2005.
External links
• The complete set of mathematics Unicode characters (http://krestavilis.com/math.php)
• Jeff Miller: Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html)
• Numericana: Scientific Symbols and Icons (http://www.numericana.com/answer/symbol.htm)
• TCAEP - Institute of Physics (http://www.tcaep.co.uk/science/symbols/maths.htm)
• GIF and PNG Images for Math Symbols (http://us.metamath.org/symbols/symbols.html)
• Mathematical Symbols in Unicode (http://tlt.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/math.
html#browsers)
• Using Greek and special characters from Symbol font in HTML (http://www.alanwood.net/demos/symbol.
html)
• Unicode Math Symbols (http://www.vex.net/~trebla/symbols/select.html) - a quick form for using unicode
math symbols.
• DeTeXify handwritten symbol recognition (http://detexify.kirelabs.org/classify.html) — doodle a symbol in
the box, and the program will tell you what its name is
Some Unicode charts of mathematical operators:
• Index of Unicode symbols (http://www.unicode.org/charts/#symbols)
• Range 2100–214F: Unicode Letterlike Symbols (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf)
• Range 2190–21FF: Unicode Arrows (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2190.pdf)
• Range 2200–22FF: Unicode Mathematical Operators (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2200.pdf)
• Range 27C0–27EF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–A (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/
U27C0.pdf)
• Range 2980–29FF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–B (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/
U2980.pdf)
• Range 2A00–2AFF: Unicode Supplementary Mathematical Operators (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/
U2A00.pdf)
Some Unicode cross-references:

• Short list of commonly used LaTeX symbols (http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Wiki/index.php/
LaTeX:Symbols) and Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List (http://mirrors.med.harvard.edu/ctan/info/
symbols/comprehensive/)
• MathML Characters (http://www.robinlionheart.com/stds/html4/entities-mathml) - sorts out Unicode, HTML
and MathML/TeX names on one page
• Unicode values and MathML names (http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-MathML/chap6/bycodes.html)
• Unicode values and Postscript names (http://svn.ghostscript.com/ghostscript/branches/gs-db/Resource/
Decoding/Unicode) from the source code for Ghostscript
Article Sources and Contributors 23
Article Sources and Contributors

List of mathematical symbols Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=516661834 Contributors: 12jbooher, 90 Auto, ABCD, Abshirdheere, Acroterion, Agent Foxtrot, Alan
Liefting, Alex43223, Alison22, Alksentrs, Allens, Alpharigel, Alvesgaspar, Ancheta Wis, AndrewHowse, Anomalocaris, Anonymous Dissident, Aqwis, ArnoldReinhold, Ashleycocks, AugPi,
Avraham, AxelBoldt, BAxelrod, BOMBINI, Bamyers99, Bart133, Belovedfreak, BenFrantzDale, BenGliterate, BenKovitz, Benwing, Berteun, BiT, Bkell, Bkkbrad, Blokkendoos, Bob K31416,
Bonus Onus, Boud, Bryan Derksen, Btipling, Bwholm, CBM, CRGreathouse, Calréfa Wéná, Camembert, CanisRufus, Capitalist, Charles Matthews, Chewings72, Church of emacs,
ColinHelvensteijn, Computer97, Corti, Courcelles, DA3N, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DRLB, Daniel Brockman, Darkwind, Dave R Barton, David Shay, David spector, DavidHouse, Davidhof, Deagle
AP, Decltype, Der Spion, Dicklyon, Dirac1933, Dominus, DonkeyKong64, Dysprosia, EagleFan, Eclecticology, Edokter, Efnar, Elano, Emmse12345, Epbr123, Erik Postma, Estel, FMax,
Fixblor, Flinx, Fredrik, FrozenMan, Furrykef, G716, Giftlite, Gowdasathish, Gregbard, Gremagor, Greswik, Gurch, H2g2bob, Hbent, Hekerui, Hoot, Hu12, Hult041956, HumbleGod,
IMacWin95, ISTB351, Iceera88, IdLoveOne, Ideyal, Imaginationac, Innotata, InverseHypercube, Israel.cma, Itub, J991, Jadony, Jan1nad, JanGB, Jaranda, Jason Quinn, Jbalint, Jbergquist,
Jezmck, Jim.belk, Jim1138, Jkmaloo, Joc, JohnyDog, Jokes Free4Me, Josh Parris, Joshdick, Jowa fan, Jrw@pobox.com, Jshadias, Julian Mendez, Justin W Smith, KGasso, Karol Langner,
Kauffner, Kevinb, KlaudiuMihaila, Knowandgive, Kraftlos, Kri, Kuru, Lagelspeil, LakeHMM, Lambiam, Leszek Jańczuk, Letdinosaursdie, Lexw, Lfiguero, Linas, LittleDan, Lohray, LokiClock,
Loren.wilton, Lukozade guy, LutzL, MFNickster, MZMcBride, MagicalPhats, Makeemlighter, Makuabob, Markhurd, Markus Kuhn, MathMartin, Mathaxiom, Mattlegend6, Maurice Carbonaro,
Maxcyber10, Mckee, MelbourneStar, Melchoir, Mets501, Mfhall, MiNombreDeGuerra, Michael Hardy, Michael miceli, Michiel Helvensteijn, Mikael Häggström, Mikay, Mikez, Mindmatrix,
Mmortal03, Momojeng, Monedula, MovGP0, Mygerardromance, Myncknm, Mysdaao, N01b33tr, N3rd4i, NJA, Navigatr85, Nerd42, Niceguyedc, Nikola Smolenski, Nilkanthvns, Nima Baghaei,
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List of Mathematical Symbols

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List of Mathematical Symbols

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List of mathematical symbols 1

List of mathematical symbols

SymbolSymbolName Explanation Examples

< strict inequality

> is greater than

proper subgroup H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G. 5Z < Z

≪ (very) strict inequality

≫ is much greater than

asymptotic comparison f ≪ g means the growth of f is asymptotically bounded by g. x ≪ ex

analytic number theory

≤ inequality x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.

subgroup H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G. Z ≤ Z

reduction A ≤ B means the problem A can be reduced to the problem B. If

≦ congruence relation 7k ≡ 28 (mod 2) is only true if k is an even integer. Assume

≧ than... defined as 0 ≦ k ≦ ∞.

negative sign −3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5

multiplied by where ease of typing and use of ASCII text is preferred.)

multiplied by juxtaposition. * is generally used where ease of typing and use

convolution f * g means the convolution of f and g.

complex conjugate z* means the complex conjugate of z. .

placeholder A · means a placeholder for an argument of a function.

complex square root if is represented in polar coordinates with

complex conjugate means the complex conjugate of z. .

finite sequence, tuple means the finite sequence/tuple . .

|…| absolute value;

determinant |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

cardinality |X| means the cardinality of the set X. |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.

incomparability x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.

field extension K : F means the field K extends the field F. ℝ:ℚ

index of a subgroup The index of a subgroup H in a group G is the "relative size"

logical negation The statement !A is true if and only if A is false. !(!A) ⇔ A

row equivalence A~B means that B can be generated by using a series of

asymptotically equivalent x ~ x+1

equivalence relation a ~ b means (and equivalently ). 1 ~ 5 mod 4

≈ approximately equal x ≈ y means x is approximately equal to y.

isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is isomorphic (structurally Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,

ideal I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring R. (2) ◅ Z

⋉ semidirect product N ⋊φ H is the semidirect product of N (a normal subgroup) and

‣ non-Euclidean Laplacian it is the differential operator which is invariant under the

⊃ propositional logic, functions given below.)

wedge product u ∧ v means the wedge product of any multivectors u and v. In

exponentiation a ^ b means a raised to the power of b 2^3 = 23 = 8

∨ logical disjunction or join

:= is equal by definition to (Some writers use ≡ to mean congruence).

isomorphic G ≅ H means that group G is isomorphic (structurally .

{ | } set theory

{ } set theory

⊂ set theory (proper subset) A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B but A ≠ B.

without (− can also be used for set-theoretic complement as described

set theory, type theory

N the (set of) natural

ℤp the (set of) integers

P the projective space;

Q the (set of) rational

R the (set of) real numbers;

C the (set of) complex

greatest integer; (This may also be written [x], floor(x) or int(x).)

⌊…⌉ nearest integer function

[ : ] degree of a field extension [K : F] means the degree of the extension K : F.

[ ] equivalence class

[ , ] abstract algebra

closed interval . 0 and 1/2 are in the interval [0,1].

commutator [g, h] = g−1h−1gh (or ghg−1h−1), if g, h ∈ G (a group). xy = x[x, y] (group theory).