EL3013 Sistem Instrumentasi - 03 Measurement Noise and

Pengukuran Derau dan
Pengolahan Sinyal
Agung W. Setiawan
Teacher Helping a Student
What’s the Signal? 
What’s the Noise?
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Commodities Traders in Chicago 
Signal? 
Is sound the only noise?
Urban Astronomer Viewing the Stars 
Signal? 
Noise?
Operational Definitions
• What is signal?
• What is noise?
How are these examples of noise
similar to the previous examples? 
How are they different?
Webcam Analog TV
Can Noise Exist
in the Absence
of Signal?
How can we refine our

operational definition of
noise?
Signal? 
Noise?
Zoom in on a
motionless Cart . . .
How does this noise
compare to the last
example?
How do calculations
to obtain velocity
affect the noise?  
Thermal Noise in Electronics
Random variations in current or voltage caused by the
random movement of the electrons carrying the
current as they are jolted around by thermal
energy.
Intended Signal
“Noisy” Electronic Device
What is a signal?
• Signal = Stream of data carrying information
about a physical process
• Signal as an electrical quantity (current,
voltage, impedance, etc.).
• These quantities ! generated by some sensing
element.
• In principle it could be varying with time,
space, or in any other multi-dimensional way.
• Signals that vary with time ! time-varying
voltage.
Noise and interferences
• In a measurement system, we usually have a
wanted signal (the measurement signal) and
some unwanted signal
• The magnitude of the unwanted signal can
sometimes be higher than that of the desired
measurement signal!
• An unwanted deterministic signal is often
referred to as an interference signal.
• An unwanted random signal is often referred to
as a noise signal
Signal-to-noise ratio
The signal-to-noise (or signal-to-interference)
ratio, S/N (or SNR) is defined as:
WS ! is the signal Eth ! Thevenin voltages.

WN ! noise power VSM ! noise/interference
voltage
Common mode interference
• A common mode interference is caused by a
potential offset on both sides of the circuit,
relative to the common ground.
• If the impedance of the load is much higher
than of the equivalent circuit, the voltage
across the load is not significantly affected.
Common Mode Rejection of Ground Induced
Cable Noise with Active Line receiver
• The CMRR is defined as the ratio of the powers
of the differential gain over the common-
mode gain,
• Measured in positive decibels An ideal
amplifier has zero common-mode gain and
infinite CMRR.
• In practice, a CMRR in excess of 80dB to 100dB
will be needed for high accuracy measuring
system (e.g. a microcomputer data acquisition
system).
Fully understanding cmrr taiwan-2012
to obtain maximum
voltage transfer to the
load
I!0
noise or interference voltage VSM

Sources of measurement noise
• further errors are often created in measurement
systems when electrical signals from
measurement sensors and transducers are
corrupted by induced noise.
• This induced noise arises both within the
measurement circuit itself and also during the
transmission of measurement signals to remote
points.
• The aim when designing measurement systems
is always to reduce such induced noise voltage
levels as far as possible.
Internal noise sources
The Johnson noise
• Voltage due to random temperature induced motion
of electrons in resistors and semiconductors.
• Normally modeled as white Gaussian noise, with a
power spectral density according to:
– θ is the absolute temperature (in Kelvins),

– R is the resistance (Ω),
– k is the Boltzmann constant = 1.4 × 10−23 J/K.
Shot noise:
• Occurs in transistors, and is also often modeled as
white noise.
External noise sources
A.C. sources
• The most common type of interference is the one originating from
external power sources, operating at 240 V, 50 Hz.
• These can produce interfering sinusoidal signals in the
measurement circuits.
D.C. sources
• The D.C. by itself generally doesn’t produce anyinterference, but
switching in these power supplies can give rise to a periodic
“impulse noise", that generate transient disturbances in the
measurement system.
RFI
• Radio-frequency interference from oscillators in radio frequency
transmitters/receivers nearby can get picked up by the system
Coupling mechanisms
Inductive coupling
• The figure shows
inductive
(electromagnetic)
coupling between the
measurement circuit
and a nearby power
circuit.
Inductive coupling
• If the circuits are close enough, and there is a
significant coupling M between them, the AC in
the power circuit will cause a series mode voltage
interference in the measurement circuit,
according to
Example
• If M = 1 µH and di/dt = 103 A/s, then VSM = 1 mV.
Coupling mechanisms
Capacitive coupling
Capacitive coupling
• The capacitive (electrostatic) coupling results in
a common mode interference voltage AND a
series mode interference.
• The series mode interference is only zero if the

capacitances are perfectly balanced, i.e. C1 = C2
and C1E = C2E.
Noise and interference reduction
Physical separation
• We have seen from the previous slides that:
• Mutual inductances (electromagnetic coupling),
and coupling capacitances (electrostatic
coupling) are present in most systems.
• These are inversely proportional to the distance
between the circuits.
• Thus, effective reduction of these effects will
be achieved if the distance is made large,
whenever possible.
Electromagnetic shielding
Twisted pair wiring

• The size of the induced voltage depends on the
orientation of the leads.
• Thus, in the ideal case, this configuration will
result in a zero interferingvoltage.
Electrostatic screening and shielding
• The best way of avoiding electrostatic coupling

is to enclose the entire measurement circuit in
a grounded metal shield or screen.
• The screen is connected directly to ground at a
SINGLE POINT.
• There is no direct connection between the
circuit and the screen, but there will be a small
leakage.
• The screen will provide an easy path for the
interference, directly to ground.
Use of differential amplifiers
• Differential amplifiers is a highly effective way
of rejecting common mode interferences.
• In the ideal case, no common mode signal will
remain. In practical cases, this is not true.
• Only the sensor voltage ETh is amplified.
• The output of a practical amplifier contains a
contribution proportional to VCM:
• The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the
amplifier is the ratio of differential voltage gain
to common mode voltage gain and should be as
large as possible to minimise this effect.
• Thus if we have ETh = 1 mV, R1 = 1 kΩ, RF = 1 MΩ,
VCM = 1 V and CMRR = 105 (100 dB) then:
VOUT ≈ −1.0 + 0.01 V
• i.e. the resultant series mode interference is
only 1%.
Filtering
Filtering
• Consider the following noisy signal (with
an additive cosine as interference).
Filtering
• The signal from the previous slide, has the
following spectrum.
Filtering
• After applying a suitable lowpass filter, the
signal has the following spectrum.
Filtering
• And the result...
Filtering
• Depending on the nature of the interference,
lowpass, highpass, bandstop or notch filters
could be applied.
• If the interference/noise and signal have non-
overlapping spectra, almost complete noise
rejection is accomplished.
Modulation
• If we know where a bandlimited disturbance
enters the system, we can shift our desired
signal’s spectrum BEFORE. and then apply a
bandpass filter.
• The shifting can be done by modulation, i.e. by
multiplying the signal with a carrier frequency.
Averaging
• If a signal is corrupted with additive noise (for
example white Gaussian noise), and we can make
multiple measurements of the same quantity, the
noise can be significantly reduced by averaging.
• Why?
• Consider the following
y(t) = x(t) + e(t),
– where x(t) is the desired signal and
– e(t) is additive white Gaussian noise,
– with zero mean and variance σ2.
Averaging
• Averaging N repetitions, we obtain
• Now, since each realization of e(n) is different, but the

mean is zero, the mean of the average noise will also be
zero.
• However, the variance of the average will be
• i.e. a significant reduction in noise variance (and thus

noise power).
• This increases the signal-to-noise ratio.

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Pengukuran Derau dan

How can we refine our

“Noisy” Electronic Device

WS ! is the signal Eth ! Thevenin voltages.

noise or interference voltage VSM

– θ is the absolute temperature (in Kelvins),

• The series mode interference is only zero if the

Twisted pair wiring

• The best way of avoiding electrostatic coupling

• Now, since each realization of e(n) is different, but the

• i.e. a significant reduction in noise variance (and thus

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