Study

skills

Table of Contents

I. The learner profile …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2

II. Getting organized…………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………… 3

III. Cornell note taking method and the benefits of note

taking

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4

IV. Cognitive science…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

V. The Forgetting Curve………………………………………………………………………………..………………………15

VI. Six Strategies for Effective Learning…………………………………..……………………….17

VII. Rules of good studying and bad studying……………………..………………..… 24

VIII. Effective referencing and citing…………………………………………….…………………..……..26

IX. Quiz……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….…………………37

X. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38
 IB mission statement
The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to
create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop
challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment.

These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners
who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.

IB learner profile
The aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who, recognizing their common
humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world.

IB learners strive to be:

Inquirers They develop their natural curiosity. They acquire the skills necessary to conduct inquiry
and research and show independence in learning. They actively enjoy learning and this
love of learning will be sustained throughout their lives.

Knowledgeable They explore concepts, ideas and issues that have local and global significance. In so
doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and develop understanding across a broad and
balanced range of disciplines.

Thinkers They exercise initiative in applying thinking skills critically and creatively to recognize and
approach complex problems, and make reasoned, ethical decisions.

Communicators They understand and express ideas and information confidently and creatively in more
than one language and in a variety of modes of communication. They work effectively
and willingly in collaboration with others.

Principled They act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness, justice and respect
for the dignity of the individual, groups and communities. They take responsibility for
their own actions and the consequences that accompany them.

Open-minded They understand and appreciate their own cultures and personal histories, and are open
to the perspectives, values and traditions of other individuals and communities. They are
accustomed to seeking and evaluating a range of points of view, and are willing to grow
from the experience.

Caring They show empathy, compassion and respect towards the needs and feelings of others.
They have a personal commitment to service, and act to make a positive difference to the
lives of others and to the environment.

Risk-takers They approach unfamiliar situations and uncertainty with courage and forethought, and
have the independence of spirit to explore new roles, ideas and strategies. They are brave
and articulate in defending their beliefs.

Balanced They understand the importance of intellectual, physical and emotional balance to
achieve personal well-being for themselves and others.

Reflective They give thoughtful consideration to their own learning and experience. They are able
to assess and understand their strengths and limitations in order to support their learning
and personal development.
 Guide to getting organised in IB

1. Keep your notes in order. Take 10 minutes every afternoon to sort out your notes and
papers. Also, make sure that your digital notes are organised. For example, if you
are using google drive, make sure that you have specific folders for your subjects. It
is the same thing for files on your desktop or in other programs such as Word.
2. Write to-do lists. This is best done once a week for example on Saturday, with a
daily update each evening. Estimate the time that each task on your list will take.
Also, break tasks down into parts.
3. Make a weekly schedule and then use it to plan and complete everything on your
to-do list. Your schedule should become a routine for you so it becomes natural for
you to sit down and study at the same times every day.
4. Create personal deadlines for homework or assignments that are to be handed in.
As a general rule you should complete work 3 days before it is due. This will give you
time to print, review and organise yourself.

Self-management

If you have motivation and/or concentration issues you need to speak to an adult about it. If
you find that you sit down to work and you can’t focus, use a timer - you could begin with 15
minutes. Put the timer on for 15 minutes and commit to focussing. Then take a break and
start again. If you do this 4 times you already have an hour of focussed study completed.
If you have trouble getting motivated to even sit down and use your timer, tell your parents
or the Coordinator. We can help you by providing you with a space to study and getting you
to commit to studying in a specific timeframe.

How much should I study?

I recommend that you invest 2 hours per week on study in your subjects on top of your
homework. This makes approximately 3-4 hours per day individual work. If you do this, from
Monday to Saturday you can have Sunday off!

Other tips
● Do not only focus on staying on top of your work but also once you have mastered
the content in a specific subject, use your study time to get ahead. If you look over
the chapter of an upcoming topic before class you will be able to ask questions and
participate more effectively during class. Not only should you do this on a weekly
basis but you should also use your holidays to do this.
● Regular study is important in every subject in order for you to retain information and
be able to access it easily.
● Remember the forgetting curve.

3
 Cornell Note Taking System
(For Lecture or Reading)

Taking good notes is one of several keys to academic success. There are several
reasons why developing an effective technique of note taking is important.

Reasons for Developing Effective

Note Taking Techniques

1. Prevents forgetting:
Our memory fades quickly. For most students, forgetting occurs very
rapidly after listening to a lecture, or reading over informational
material even if the material is engaging and interesting. After lectures,
for example, research shows that we forget 50% of what we hear within
an hour and more than 70% within two days.

2. Encourages concentration:
Taking effective notes requires a student to be mentally active during a
lecture or while reading. One has to pay attention, interact with
information, make decisions about what to record, and write. Given
that the mind is occupied with a demanding task, there is less
opportunity for the mind to wander.

3. Records testable material:

Instructors generally expect students to remember and apply facts and
ideas presented in lecture or in texts. Tests are based on key ideas
teachers emphasize in their lectures and/or written material that
supports key concepts or themes. In other words, the testable
material.
 Cornell Note Taking:
The Process

Introduction

There are a variety of note taking styles. No single method suits all students.
However, many successful students and business people have found that the Cornell
note taking system is very effective for lectures or reading that is organized around
clearly defined topics, subtopics, and supporting details.

The Cornell System is both a note taking and a study system. There are six steps
to it.

Step One: Record

1) Prepare your notepaper by creating a two-column table. The left-

hand column should take up about 1/3 of your writing space, leaving
the remaining 2/3 for recording information. Use only one side of
each sheet of notepaper.
2) Summarize and paraphrase (restate in your own words) the facts
and ideas presented. Record definitions as stated or written.
3) Indicate changes in topic with headings or by leaving a space
between topics
4) Number, indent, or bullet key ideas presented with each topic.
5) Aim for telegraphic (brief) sentences, abbreviations, and symbols.
This will increase your note taking speed.
6) Write legibly so your notes make sense to you later.
7) Edit as soon as possible.

Step two: Question

Formulate test questions based on the information recorded in notes and write
them in the recall clues column on the left-hand side of notes. Questions
should focus on specific definitions and “big ideas”.

5
 Cornell Note Taking:
The Process

Step three: Recite

1) Recitation means explaining the information in the notes out loud, in

your own words. The information should be triggered by the test
questions in the recall clues column.
2) Purposes of recitation:
a. Improves learning: Psychologists who study how the memory
works say that reciting aloud is a powerful technique for
anchoring information in the long-term memory.
b. Ensures understanding: Reciting requires you to think about
and understand the information you are committing to memory.
c. Facilitates retrieval: Understanding information improves your
ability to retrieve it from your memory. Studies show that
students who recite tend to do better on tests than students who
just read their notes silently to themselves.
3) Step in recitation:
a. Cover up the notes in the “record” column or fold notes back
along line separating the “clues” from the “record” column.
b. Use recall clues to stimulate your memory and recite the
relevant information.
c. Check your answers. This gives you immediate feedback on how
well you have learned and are able to retrieve the information. If
you have difficulty recalling the information or if your answers are
incorrect, learn and recite over again.

Step Four: Reflect

1) Reflection has to do with thinking about the information you are

learning.
2) One way to reflect is to look for connections with your own experiences
and observations and with other facts and ideas discussed in class.
3) Another way to reflect is to ask questions like: How do the main ideas fit
together into a “bigger picture”? How do these ideas fit in with what I
have already learned? What do I agree with? What do I disagree with?
Which ideas are clear? Which are confusing? What new questions do I
have?
 Cornell Note Taking:
The Process

Step Five: Recapitulate (summarize)

1) Write a summary of the main ideas using your own words. This is the
best test of how well you understand the information.
2) Use a section at the bottom of each sheet of notes to write your summary
or write a summary of all the notes on the last page of your note sheets.

Step Six: Review

1) A good guideline is to review nightly or several times during the week by

reciting, not rereading.
2) Frequent, brief review sessions aid more complete comprehension of the
material than cramming the night before a quiz/test.

7
 Cornell Note Taking:
Format

Recall Clues Record

! Record notes here

! Remember to focus on testable

information
Write recall questions o “big ideas”
here. o definitions
o supporting details

! Bullet each piece of new information

and skip lines to visually organize
notes

Summary:

Write a summary of notes recorded on each page in this

section of your notes…
Or, create this section on the last page of your notes only,
and summarize all information there.
 Examples of the Cornell Notetaking System

9
 A Learning Secret: Don’t Take Notes with a Laptop

Students who used longhand remembered more and had a deeper

understanding of the material

• By Cindi May on June 3, 2014

The old fashioned way works better. Credit: Credit: Szepy via iStock
“More is better.” From the number of gigs in a cellular data plan to the horsepower in
a pickup truck, this mantra is ubiquitous in American culture. When it comes to
college students, the belief that more is better may underlie their widely-held
view that laptops in the classroom enhance their academic performance. Laptops do
in fact allow students to do more, like engage in online activities and demonstrations,
collaborate more easily on papers and projects, access information from the internet,
and take more notes. Indeed, because students can type significantly faster than
they can write, those who use laptops in the classroom tend to take more notes than
those who write out their notes by hand. Moreover, when students take notes using
laptops they tend to take notes verbatim, writing down every last word uttered by
their professor.

Obviously it is advantageous to draft more complete notes that precisely capture the
course content and allow for a verbatim review of the material at a later date. Only it
isn’t. New research by Pam Mueller and Daniel Oppenheimer demonstrates that
students who write out their notes on paper actually learn more. Across three
experiments, Mueller and Oppenheimer had students take notes in a classroom
setting and then tested students on their memory for factual detail, their conceptual
understanding of the material, and their ability to synthesize and generalize the
information. Half of the students were instructed to take notes with a laptop, and the
other half were instructed to write the notes out by hand. As in other studies,
students who used laptops took more notes. In each study, however, those who
wrote out their notes by hand had a stronger conceptual understanding and were
more successful in applying and integrating the material than those who used took
notes with their laptops.

What drives this paradoxical finding? Mueller and Oppenheimer postulate that
taking notes by hand requires different types of cognitive processing than taking
notes on a laptop, and these different processes have consequences for
learning. Writing by hand is slower and more cumbersome than typing, and students
cannot possibly write down every word in a lecture. Instead, they listen, digest, and
summarize so that they can succinctly capture the essence of the information. Thus,
taking notes by hand forces the brain to engage in some heavy “mental lifting,” and
these efforts foster comprehension and retention. By contrast, when typing students
can easily produce a written record of the lecture without processing its meaning, as
faster typing speeds allow students to transcribe a lecture word for word without
devoting much thought to the content.
 To evaluate this theory, Mueller and Oppenheimer assessed the content of notes
taken by hand versus laptop. Their studies included hundreds of students from
Princeton and UCLA, and the lecture topics ranged from bats, bread, and algorithms
to faith, respiration, and economics. Content analysis of the notes consistently
showed that students who used laptops had more verbatim transcription of the
lecture material than those who wrote notes by hand. Moreover, high verbatim note
content was associated with lower retention of the lecture material. It appears that
students who use laptops can take notes in a fairly mindless, rote fashion, with little
analysis or synthesis by the brain. This kind of shallow transcription fails to promote
a meaningful understanding or application of the information.

If the source of the advantage for longhand notes derives from the conceptual
processes they evoke, perhaps instructing laptop users to draft summative rather
than verbatim notes will boost performance. Mueller and Oppenheimer explored this
idea by warning laptop note takers against the tendency to transcribe information
without thinking, and explicitly instructed them to think about the information and type
notes in their own words. Despite these instructions, students using laptops showed
the same level of verbatim content and were no better in synthesizing material than
students who received no such warning. It is possible these direct instructions to
improve the quality of laptop notes failed because it is so easy to rely on less
demanding, mindless processes when typing.

It’s important to note that most of the studies that have compared note taking by
hand versus laptop have used immediate memory tests administered very shortly
(typically less than an hour) after the learning session. In real classroom settings,
however, students are often assessed days if not weeks after learning new
material. Thus, although laptop users may not encode as much during the lecture
and thus may be disadvantaged on immediate assessments, it seems reasonable to
expect that the additional information they record will give them an advantage when
reviewing material after a long delay.

Wrong again. Mueller and Oppenheimer included a study in which participants were
asked to take notes by hand or by laptop, and were told they would be tested on the
material in a week. When participants were given an opportunity to study with their
notes before the final assessment, once again those who took longhand notes
outperformed laptop participants. Because longhand notes contain students’ own
words and handwriting, they may serve as more effective memory cues by recreating
the context (e.g., thought processes, emotions, conclusions) as well as content (e.g.,
individual facts) from the original learning session.

These findings hold important implications for students who use their laptops to
access lecture outlines and notes that have been posted by professors before
class. Because students can use these posted materials to access lecture content
with a mere click, there is no need to organize, synthesize or summarize in their own
words. Indeed, students may take very minimal notes or not take notes at all, and
may consequently forego the opportunity to engage in the mental work that supports
learning.

11
Beyond altering students’ cognitive processes and thereby reducing learning, laptops
pose other threats in the classroom. In the Mueller and Oppenheimer studies, all
laptops were disconnected from the internet, thus eliminating any disruption from
email, instant messaging, surfing, or other online distractions. In most typical college
settings, however, internet access is available, and evidence suggests that when
college students use laptops, they spend 40% of class time using applications
unrelated to coursework, are more likely to fall off task, and are less satisfied with
their education. In one study with law school students, nearly 90% of laptop users
engaged in online activities unrelated to coursework for at least five minutes, and
roughly 60% were distracted for half the class.

Technology offers innovative tools that are shaping educational experiences for
students, often in positive and dynamic ways. The research by Mueller and
Oppenheimer serves as a reminder, however, that even when technology allows us
to do more in less time, it does not always foster learning. Learning involves more
than the receipt and the regurgitation of information. If we want students to
synthesize material, draw inferences, see new connections, evaluate evidence, and
apply concepts in novel situations, we need to encourage the deep, effortful
cognitive processes that underlie these abilities. When it comes to taking notes,
students need fewer gigs, more brain power.

Cindi May is a Professor of Psychology at the College of Charleston. She explores

mechanisms for optimizing cognitive function in college students, older adults, and
individuals with intellectual disabilities. She is also the project director for a TPSID
grant from the Department of Education, which promotes the inclusion of students
with intellectual disabilities in postsecondary education.
 Applying Psychological Science to Higher Education: Key Findings and Open Questions
Samuel T. Moulton

The Harvard Initiative for Learning and Teaching samuel_moulton@harvard.edu Key

findings and their practical implications

Retrieval practice. Educational experiences that require individuals to recall information

are more effective than those that that do not. For example, in tests of comprehension
and inference, undergraduates who read and then tried to recall textbook material
learned more than those who read and then actively restudied that content by creating
concept maps. Students therefore should quiz themselves instead of merely reviewing
course materials, and instructors should offer frequent, low-stakes “assessments for
learning” instead of infrequent, high-stakes “assessments of learning”.

Spaced practice. Educational experiences that are spaced out over time are generally
more effective than those that are spaced closely together in time, though the optimal
spacing depends on the intended retention interval. For example, if you would like to
recall something a week from now, your study sessions should be spaced one day apart;
but if you would like to recall something a year from now, your study sessions should
spaced be about a month apart. Instructors therefore should adopt pedagogical strategies
that encourage their students to space out learning experiences, such as systemically
reviewing key concepts and offering cumulative exams.

Deep processing. The “deeper” the level of mental processing, the greater the learning.
For example, in a classic laboratory experiment, participants who judged the meaning of
words remembered more of those words than those who judged the sounds of those
words, who in turn remembered more than those who merely judged the font of those
words. Instructors therefore should engage students in tasks that require them to deeply
abstract, analyze, comprehend, or create instead of those that require students to
superficially perceive, recognize, calculate, or reiterate.

Transfer-appropriate processing. The effectiveness of a learning experience depends on

the psychological overlap between the learning context and the future context in which
learning is measured or manifested.

Deliberate practice. Individuals become experts when they engage repeatedly in practice
that is explicitly focused on achieving specific, challenging goals, receive objective
feedback and personalized coaching, and reflect meta-cognitively on learning processes
and progress.

Mental architecture
Limited capacity and cognitive load theory. Our minds have severe, inherent limits on the
amount of information they can consciously process at any given, and this limit varies
dramatically based on our experience with and strategies for processing that information.
Educational conditions that reduce the amount of extraneous information a learner must
process—or, more generally, avoid overloading the learner’s conscious mental
resources—promote learning. For example, in using multimedia presentations to teach
students about how lighting or hydraulic brakes work, adding background music or sound
effects reduces learning. The fact that expert teachers “chunk” information differently

13
from novice learners means that teachers often underestimate the cognitive burden they
place on students during instruction.

Dual coding and the multimedia principle. Our conscious minds have separate processors
for verbal and visual information and students learn better from words and pictures than
words alone. For example, on tests of memory and creative problem-solving, students
who viewed narrated animations about the mechanics of a bicycle pump learned twice as
much as students who only listened to the narrations.

Mind wandering. Humans are limited in our ability to sustain attention over time to any
given task and we frequently “mind wander” when trying to do so; moreover, such lapses
of attention are particularly prevalent during passive classroom instruction, and likely
increase in frequency over the course of lectures. For example, undergraduates probed at
various points during psychology lectures reported mind-wandering one third of the time.
Some evidence suggests that instructors can encourage student attention by
interspersing period of lecturing with brief quizzes, activities, or discussion.

Limited self-control. Willpower can be an exhaustible resource, such that efforts to

control behavior or impulses in one domain temporarily deplete individuals’ ability to do
so in another domain (an effect known as “ego depletion”). For example, students given
a difficult essay-writing task were more likely to cheat on a subsequent, unrelated task,
compared to students given an easier essay-writing task. Although an essential and
desirable part of teaching is to challenge students, this research implies that instructors
should avoid putting students in situations that require prolonged period of self-control
without explicitly helping student develop effective coping strategies.

Planning fallacy. People tend to underestimate how long they will take to complete a
task. For example, undergraduates asked to estimate how long it would take them to
complete their senior theses estimated that it would take approximately half as long as it
actually took.50 To the extent possible, students and instructors should therefore
undertake countermeasures against the planning fallacy, e.g., mentally simulating all the
component steps necessary to complete a given task.5

Overconfidence. Humans are chronically overconfident: on the average, we think that we

far better than the average on a multitude of personal, academic, and professional
qualities. For example, college students asked to estimate their exam scores immediately
after taking an exam overestimated their performance to the extent that the worst
performers thought they were above-average. Since domains in which objective feedback
is frequent (e.g., athletics) show relatively little overconfidence, one implication of this
research is that instructors should provide students with frequent opportunities for such
feedback, perhaps in conjunction with self-assessments.

• Conduct regular study sessions where students are taught how to judge whether or
not they have learned key concepts in order to promote effective study habits.

 Dr. John Wittman
CSU Stanislaus
The Forgetting Curve

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) was a German psychologist who founded the experimental
psychology of memory. Ebbinghaus’ research was groundbreaking at the time, and his work (though he
was not a proliferate writer) was generally well received. In recognition of his work in psychology, the
“forgetting curve”—the loss of learned information—is sometimes referred to as the “Ebbinghaus
Forgetting Curve.”

The graph on the left shows the

process by which forgetting occurs.
According to this research, people
tend to forget rather quickly after
learning material then forgetting
slowly levels out. The implications of
this for college students is obvious—a
day or two after attending class or
reading a chapter or article, students
will have forgotten approximately 75%
of what was learned. Moreover, most
of that forgetting happens within the
first hour.

However, although the forgetting

curve is a natural process, the process itself can be disrupted. That is, although it is natural for people to
forget much of what they have learned immediately following an experience, simple processes can be
used to slow down forgetting and to
help us retain much of the information
we will need to recall at a later date
(such as test time).

Take, for example, the chart on the

right. The green line shows the
hypothetical place where the forgetting
curve would start if we had the ability
to “remember everything after a
lecture.” The blue line shows where the
forgetting curve actually starts—
around 75%. Now take a look at the red
line. This line shows a dramatic
increase in memory if students review
material. Unfortunately, it also shows that without additional intervention one day after material is
learned content is lost, and one week after, recall is almost as if the review never happened at all.

15
So is there a way to maintain the initial recall after review? Yes, you simply have to keep at it. While an
initial review of material will help you
remember in the short term, reviewing
material multiple times and at
different intervals will help you retain
it for much longer.

The chart on the left shows how

review affects memory. You can see
that every time you review material
you both retain much more
information, and your forgetting curve
steadies out at a much higher level.
Each time you review material you
take much more away. Research
indicates that the minimum amount of
review is three.

Advice on Review
Much of college life is about being accountable for the ideas you learn as a student. In order to be
accountable, you have to be able to retain and recall information when you need it. Sometimes that
recall will be for tests, sometimes for conducting research, and other times for writing. Whether you
need to recall information from a lecture, from a textbook you read for class, or from research you have
done on your own, most students find it much easier to recall information when they have reviewed
material systematically. Below is advice about how to review.

The first thing you have to do is to take well-crafted notes on material—this includes anything
you want to remember well such as a lecture, a chapter from a textbook, an article from the
library, etc. Without something to review from, reviewing would be impossible (taking notes will
be covered in another assignment).
Right after class has ended or you have finished reading something, make a plan to review the
material. Remember, don’t wait too long before your first review. Try to review within at least
an hour. It’s good to take the opportunity on your first review to organize notes. You can
synthesize or expand ideas as you see fit or type your notes in something like Google Docs so
you have easy access to them—whatever you think will make it easier for you to keep at it.
One week later, review again and test yourself on your recall. This will tell you how effective
your review is.
A few weeks to a month later, review and test yourself again.

Reviewing information three times should give you a good start at overcoming the Forgetting Curve. As
you mature as a college student, you may find that other methods work a little better for you, so you
are encouraged to experiment. And, finally, always keep in mind that recall isn’t just about doing well on
tests. Much of the information you learn in college will be useful to you for years to come.

2
 Six Strategies for Effective Learning
LEARNINGSCIENTISTS.ORG All of these strategies have supporting evidence from cognitive psychology. For each strategy,
we explain how to do it, some points to consider, and where to find more information.

Explain and describe Practice bringing

ideas with many details information to mind

OR
ITE E TC H
WR SK

RE
TR
ION IEV
AL
RAT PR
O
AB AC
Use specific examples EL TIC
E
Space out your
to understand abstract studying over time
ideas
CONCRETE EXAMPLES

SPACED PRACTICE
SPAC ING
2
1 3
TE STI NG SKETCHI NG
MY
FOLDER

INT G
ER
LE ODIN
AV C
ING AL
DU

Switch between ideas Combine words

while you study and visuals

Content by Yana Weinstein (University of Massachusetts Lowell) & Megan Smith (Rhode Island College) | Illustrations by Oliver Caviglioli (teachinghow2s.com/cogsci)
Funding provided by the APS Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science

17
 LEARN TO STUDY USING…

Spaced Practice
S PA C E O U T Y O U R S T U D Y I N G O V E R T I M E

LEARNINGSCIENTISTS.ORG

HOW TO DO IT
LESSON LESSON LESSON LESSON LESSON LESSON

M T W Th F Sa Su M T W Th F Sa Su
Start planning early for exams, and STUDY STUDY STUDY STUDY STUDY STUDY STUDY STUDY

set aside a little it of time every

day. Five hours spread out over two
wee s is etter than the same five
hours all at once.

L ESSO N BREAK R EV IEW

eview information from each

class, ut not immediately after
class.

After you review information from

the most recent class, make sure
to go back and study important 1 MONTH 1 WEEK 1 DAY
AGO AGO AGO
older information to eep it fresh.

HOLD ON!
2 S PAC I N G
T E S T IN G 1 3 S KE TC H I NG hen you sit down to study, ma e sure you are using effective study
strategies rather than just re-reading your class notes.

his may seem di cult and you may forget some information from
day to day, ut this is actually a good thing his forces you to retrieve
information from memory see etrieval ractice poster .

reate small spaces a few days and do a little it over time, so that it
adds up!

RESEARCH
Read more about Benjamin, A. S., & Tullis, J. (2010). What makes distributed practice effective? Cognitive
spaced pratice Psychology, 61 , 228-247.
as a study strategy

Content by Yana Weinstein (University of Massachusetts Lowell) & Megan Smith (Rhode Island College) | Illustrations by Oliver Caviglioli (teachinghow2s.com/cogsci)
Funding provided by the APS Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science
 LEARN TO STUDY USING…

Retrieval Practice
P R A C T I C E B R I N G I N G I N F O R M AT I O N T O M I N D

LEARNINGSCIENTISTS.ORG

HOW TO DO IT

Put away your class materials, and

OR
write or sketch everything you I TE E TC H CH
ECK
WR SK
know. Be as thorough as possible.
Then, check your class materials for
accuracy and important points you
missed.

Take as many practice tests as you

can get your hands on. If you don’t
have ready-made tests, try making
DE TESTS
your own and trading with a friend TRA

who has done the same.

ou can also ma e ashcards. ust

make sure you practice recalling the
information on them, and go beyond
definitions y thin ing of lin s
between ideas.

HOLD ON!

Retrieval practice works best when you go back to check your class
materials for accuracy afterward.

1
2
3 Retrieval is hard! If you’re struggling, identify the things you’ve missed
from your class materials, and work your way up to recalling it on your
own with the class materials closed.

on t only recall words and definitions. a e sure to recall main ideas,

how things are related or different from one another, and new examples.

RESEARCH
Read more about Roediger, H. L., Putnam, A. L., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Ten benefits of testing and their
retrieval practice applications to educational practice. In J. Mestre & B. Ross (Eds.), Psychology of learning and
as a study strategy motivation: Cognition in education, (pp. 1-36). Oxford: Elsevier.

Content by Yana Weinstein (University of Massachusetts Lowell) & Megan Smith (Rhode Island College) | Illustrations by Oliver Caviglioli (teachinghow2s.com/cogsci)
Funding provided by the APS Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science

19
 LEARN TO STUDY USING…

Elaboration
E X P L A I N A N D D E S C R I B E I D E A S W I T H M A N Y D E TA I L S

LEARNINGSCIENTISTS.ORG

HOW TO DO IT

Ask yourself questions while you

are studying about how things work
and why, and then find the answers
in your class materials and discuss
them with your classmates.

SIMILAR
FFERENT

DIF
As you elaborate, make connections A B

FEREN
etween different ideas to explain
DI

T
how they work together. Take two
ideas and think of ways they are
similar and different.

Describe how the ideas you are

studying apply to your own
experiences or memories. As
you go through your day, make
connections to the ideas you are
learning in class.

HOLD ON!

Make sure the way you are explaining and describing an idea is accurate.
CH
E CK

Don’t overextend the elaborations, and always check your class

materials or ask your teacher.

Work your way up so that you can describe and explain without looking
at your class materials.

RESEARCH
Read more about McDaniel, M. A., & Donnelly, C. M. (1996). Learning with analogy and elaborative interrogation.
elaboration Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 508-519.
as a study strategy Wong, B. Y. L. (1985). Self-questioning instructional research: A review. Review of Educational
Research, 55, 227-268.

Content by Yana Weinstein (University of Massachusetts Lowell) & Megan Smith (Rhode Island College) | Illustrations by Oliver Caviglioli (teachinghow2s.com/cogsci)
Funding provided by the APS Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science
 LEARN TO STUDY USING…

Interleaving
SWITCH BETWEEN IDEAS WHILE YOU STUDY

LEARNINGSCIENTISTS.ORG

HOW TO DO IT TOPIC TOPIC TOPIC

A B C

Switch between ideas during a

study session. Don’t study one
idea for too long.

TOPICS TOPICS TOPICS

A B C C B A A C B

Go back over the ideas again in

different orders to strengthen
your understanding.

STUDY STUDY STUDY

SESSION SESSION SESSION
1 2 3

a e lin s etween different ideas

as you switch between them.

HOLD ON!

While it’s good to switch between ideas, don’t switch too often, or spend
TOPIC TOPIC
B
too little time on any one idea; you need to make sure you understand
A
them.

Interleaving will feel harder than studying the same thing for a long time.
But don’t worry - this is actually helpful to your learning!

RESEARCH
Read more about Rohrer, D. (2012). Interleaving helps students distinguish among similar concepts. Educational
interleaving Psychology Review, 24, 355-367.
as a study strategy

Content by Yana Weinstein (University of Massachusetts Lowell) & Megan Smith (Rhode Island College) | Illustrations by Oliver Caviglioli (teachinghow2s.com/cogsci)
Funding provided by the APS Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science

21
 LEARN TO STUDY USING…

Concrete Examples
U S E S P E C I F I C E X A M P L E S T O U N D E R S TA N D A B S T R A C T I D E A S

LEARNINGSCIENTISTS.ORG

HOW TO DO IT

ollect examples your teacher has

used, and loo in your class
materials for as many examples MY
as you can find. FOLDER

a e the lin etween the idea

you are studying and each example,
so that you understand how the
example applies to the idea.

Share examples with friends, and

explain them to each other for
added enefits.

HOLD ON!

ou may find examples on the internet that are not used appropriately.
a e sure your examples are correct chec with your teacher.

ltimately, creating your own relevant examples will e the most helpful
for learning.

RESEARCH
Read more about Rawson, K. A., Thomas, R. C., & Jacoby, L. L. (2014). The power of examples: Illustrative
concrete examples examples enhance conceptual learning of declarative concepts. Educational Psychology Review,
as a study strategy 27, 483-504.

Content by Yana Weinstein (University of Massachusetts Lowell) & Megan Smith (Rhode Island College) | Illustrations by Oliver Caviglioli (teachinghow2s.com/cogsci)
Funding provided by the APS Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science
 LEARN TO STUDY USING…

Dual Coding
COMBINE WORDS AND VISUALS

LEARNINGSCIENTISTS.ORG

HOW TO DO IT
COMPARE

Loo at your class materials and find visuals. Loo over the visuals
and compare to the words.

Look at visuals, and explain in your own words what they mean.

Take information that you are trying to learn, and draw visuals
to go along with it.

HOLD ON! INFOGRAPHIC CARTOON STRIP

5
PROS CONS
ry to come up with different
ways to represent the information
visually, for example an infographic, DIAGRAM
a timeline, a cartoon strip, or a
diagram of parts that work together.

TIMELINE
GRAPHIC
EVENT 1 EVENT 2 EVENT 3 EVENT 4 EVENT 5
ORGANIZER
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Work your way up to drawing

what you know from memory.

RESEARCH
Read more about Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1992). The instructive animation: Helping students build
dual coding as a connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational
study strategy Psychology, 4, 444-452.

Content by Yana Weinstein (University of Massachusetts Lowell) & Megan Smith (Rhode Island College) | Illustrations by Oliver Caviglioli (teachinghow2s.com/cogsci)
Funding provided by the APS Fund for Teaching and Public Understanding of Psychological Science

23
These rules are excerpted from the book A Mind for Numbers: How to Excel in Math and Science (Even if You
Flunked Algebra), by Barbara Oakley, Penguin, July, 2014.
10 Rules of Good Studying

1 Use recall. After you read a page, look away and recall the main ideas. Highlight very little, and never
highlight anything you haven’t put in your mind first by recalling. Try recalling main ideas when you are
walking to class or in a different room from where you originally learned it. An ability to recall—to
generate the ideas from inside yourself—is one of the key indicators of good learning.
2 Test yourself. On everything. All the time. Flash cards are your friend.
3 Chunk your problems. Chunking is understanding and practicing with a problem solution so that it can all
come to mind in a flash. After you solve a problem, rehearse it. Make sure you can solve it cold—every
step. Pretend it’s a song and learn to play it over and over again in your mind, so the information
combines into one smooth chunk you can pull up whenever you want.
4 Space your repetition. Spread out your learning in any subject a little every day, just like an athlete. Your
brain is like a muscle—it can handle only a limited amount of exercise on one subject at a time.
5 Alternate different problem-solving techniques during your practice. Never practice too long at any one
session using only one problem-solving technique—after a while, you are just mimicking what you did
on the previous problem. Mix it up and work on different types of problems. This teaches you both how
and when to use a technique. (Books generally are not set up this way, so you’ll need to do this on your
own.) After every assignment and test, go over your errors, make sure you understand why you made
them, and then rework your solutions. To study most effectively, handwrite (don’t type) a problem on
one side of a flash card and the solution on the other. (Handwriting builds stronger neural structures in
memory than typing.) You might also photograph the card if you want to load it into a study app on your
smartphone. Quiz yourself randomly on different types of problems. Another way to do this is to
randomly flip through your book, pick out a problem, and see whether you can solve it cold.
6 Take breaks. It is common to be unable to solve problems or figure out concepts in math or science the first
time you encounter them. This is why a little study every day is much better than a lot of studying all at
once. When you get frustrated with a math or science problem, take a break so that another part of
your mind can take over and work in the background.
7 Use explanatory questioning and simple analogies. Whenever you are struggling with a concept, think to
yourself, How can I explain this so that a ten-year-old could understand it? Using an analogy really
helps, like saying that the flow of electricity is like the flow of water. Don’t just think your explanation—
say it out loud or put it in writing. The additional effort of speaking and writing allows you to more deeply
encode (that is, convert into neural memory structures) what you are learning.
8 Focus. Turn off all interrupting beeps and alarms on your phone and computer, and then turn on a timer for
twenty-five minutes. Focus intently for those twenty-five minutes and try to work as diligently as you
can. After the timer goes off, give yourself a small, fun reward. A few of these sessions in a day can
really move your studies forward. Try to set up times and places where studying—not glancing at your
computer or phone—is just something you naturally do.
9 Eat your frogs first. Do the hardest thing earliest in the day, when you are fresh.
10 Make a mental contrast. Imagine where you’ve come from and contrast that with the dream of where
your studies will take you. Post a picture or words in your workspace to remind you of your dream. Look
at that when you find your motivation lagging. This work will pay off both for you and those you love!
10 Rules of Bad Studying
Excerpted from A Mind for Numbers: How to Excel in Math and Science (Even if You Flunked Algebra), by
Barbara Oakley, Penguin, July, 2014

Avoid these techniques—they can waste your time even while they fool you into thinking you’re learning!
1 Passive rereading—sitting passively and running your eyes back over a page. Unless you can prove that the
material is moving into your brain by recalling the main ideas without looking at the page, rereading is a
waste of time.
2 Letting highlights overwhelm you. Highlighting your text can fool your mind into thinking you are putting
something in your brain, when all you’re really doing is moving your hand. A little highlighting here and
there is okay—sometimes it can be helpful in flagging important points. But if you are using highlighting
as a memory tool, make sure that what you mark is also going into your brain.
3 Merely glancing at a problem’s solution and thinking you know how to do it. This is one of the worst errors
students make while studying. You need to be able to solve a problem step-by-step, without looking at
the solution.
4 Waiting until the last minute to study. Would you cram at the last minute if you were practicing for a track
meet? Your brain is like a muscle—it can handle only a limited amount of exercise on one subject at a
time.
5 Repeatedly solving problems of the same type that you already know how to solve. If you just sit around
solving similar problems during your practice, you’re not actually preparing for a test—it’s like preparing
for a big basketball game by just practicing your dribbling.
6 Letting study sessions with friends turn into chat sessions. Checking your problem solving with friends, and
quizzing one another on what you know, can make learning more enjoyable, expose flaws in your
thinking, and deepen your learning. But if your joint study sessions turn to fun before the work is done,
you’re wasting your time and should find another study group.
7 Neglecting to read the textbook before you start working problems. Would you dive into a pool before you
knew how to swim? The textbook is your swimming instructor—it guides you toward the answers. You
will flounder and waste your time if you don’t bother to read it. Before you begin to read, however, take
a quick glance over the chapter or section to get a sense of what it’s about.
8 Not checking with your instructors or classmates to clear up points of confusion. Professors are used to lost
students coming in for guidance—it’s our job to help you. The students we worry about are the ones
who don’t come in. Don’t be one of those students.
9 Thinking you can learn deeply when you are being constantly distracted. Every tiny pull toward an instant
message or conversation means you have less brain power to devote to learning. Every tug of
interrupted attention pulls out tiny neural roots before they can grow.
10 Not getting enough sleep. Your brain pieces together problem-solving techniques when you sleep, and
it also practices and repeats whatever you put in mind before you go to sleep. Prolonged fatigue allows
toxins to build up in the brain that disrupt the neural connections you need to think quickly and well. If
you don’t get a good sleep before a test, NOTHING ELSE YOU HAVE DONE WILL MATTER.

25
Introduction

In the International Baccalaureate (IB) community we produce different types of documents and other
forms of work, some of which rely on resources by other people. Following good academic practice, it is
expected that we appropriately acknowledge any ideas, words, or work of other people.

This means that, when creating an authentic piece of work, we are expected to:

undertake research on what is already known

analyse the research in the context of the work to be produced
compare and/or contrast existing knowledge against our own findings/thoughts/opinions
synthesize and present the document in an appropriate way for the expected audience
acknowledge all contributing sources appropriately.
The ways in which we can acknowledge contributing sources appropriately may vary according to the type
of work we produce. Sources are acknowledged differently in a press release or magazine article, in a piece of
fiction, in artwork or a musical performance, a slide presentation, film clip or radio broadcast. The important,
honest thing for us to do in these and other types of work is to acknowledge our sources and influences
in some way. In academic writing, and in any work presented for assessment, not only is it necessary to
acknowledge our sources appropriately, but it is regarded as important that the acknowledgments be made
using a consistent style. The use of a style guide helps us to ensure this consistency.

When we use other people’s words, work and ideas to support our own ideas, or to demonstrate divergent
opinion, it is essential that we indicate whose words and work we are using. Any reader would benefit from
seeing just how the other person’s work contributes to ours.

If we fail to show that we are using someone else’s words, work or ideas by not indicating that they originated
with someone else, then we mislead the reader. If we give the impression that these words or ideas are our
own when they are not, this is not good scholarship and, deliberate or unintentional, may be deemed as
academic misconduct.

Purpose of this document

The purpose of this publication is to guide members of the International Baccalaureate (IB) community in
understanding the IB’s expectations with regards to referencing the ideas, words, or work of other people
when producing an original document or piece of work.

This document provides guidance on referencing and demonstrates some of the differences between the
most widely used styles. Due to the wide range of subjects, multiple response languages and the diversity
of referencing styles, the IB does not prescribe or insist on a particular style. All examples provided in this
document are for illustration purposes only. The IB’s requirements are for honesty in indicating when and
which ideas and words are not the writer’s own, and consistency in referencing the source of those ideas
and words.

Effective citing and referencing 1

 Why cite

Proper citation is a key element in academic scholarship and intellectual exchange. When we cite we:

show respect for the work of others

help a reader to distinguish our work from the work of others who have contributed to our work
give the reader the opportunity to check the validity of our use of other people’s work
give the reader the opportunity to follow up our references, out of interest
show and receive proper credit for our research process
demonstrate that we are able to use reliable sources and critically assess them to support our work
establish the credibility and authority of our knowledge and ideas
demonstrate that we are able to draw our own conclusions
share the blame (if we get it wrong).

2 Effective citing and referencing

27
What to cite

As creators/authors, we are expected to acknowledge any materials or ideas that are not ours and that have
been used in any way, such as quotation, paraphrase or summary. The term “materials” means written, oral
or electronic products, and may include the following.

Text Artistic Letters

Visual Lectures Broadcasts
Audio Interviews Maps
Graphic Conversations

Basic and common knowledge within a field or subject does not need to be acknowledged. However, if we
are in doubt whether the source material is common knowledge or not, we should cite!

Effective citing and referencing 3

 When to cite

When we acknowledge the use of materials or ideas that are not ours, the reader must be able to clearly
distinguish between our own words, illustrations, findings and ideas and the words and work of other
creators.

Style guides give us advice for documenting our sources in written work, but they are less helpful with
other formats and mediums. Nevertheless, we can be honest and we can be helpful to our audience(s)—for
assessment purposes, this is an expectation.

In written work, we should cite in the text where we have used an external source. The inclusion of a
reference in a bibliography (works cited/list of references) at the end of the paper is not enough.

In other forms of work (music, video, artistic pieces), we are expected to acknowledge use of external
sources appropriately.

In presentations we can provide our audience with a handout of our references, or list our sources on the
final slide(s).

During an oral presentation, we can acknowledge the sources we are using by the use of phrases, for
example, “As Gandhi put it …” or “According to …”. We can show a direct quotation by saying “Quote …
Unquote” or by signalling with “rabbit’s ears” or “air quotes”. In a presentation supported by posters or
slides, we can include short or full references on the slides; if short references are made on the slides, then
we should again provide a full list of references on a handout or on the final slide(s).

We can include references or acknowledgments of other people’s work in the final credits of a film. A piece
of music can be accompanied by programme notes indicating influences and direct sources. Art on display
can be labelled or captioned.

4 Effective citing and referencing

29
How to cite

When we cite, we should make clear what it is that we are citing. It must be clear to the reader just what
it is that we owe to someone else, and whether we have quoted exactly or have used our own words and
understanding of the original material.

The reader must be able to distinguish clearly between our words/work and the words/work of others.
– Quotations—the exact words as used by others—are indicated either by quotation marks or by
displaying (indenting) the quotation.
– Paraphrase and summary of others’ work should similarly be distinguishable from our own
words and ideas.
Use of a style guide ensures that our citations and references are recorded consistently.
Choice of introductory or parenthetical citation is often a matter of readability, emphasis and authority.
As noted in the definitions below, the citation in the text links to a full reference that will enable the reader
to trace the exact material used.

The three main types of in-text citation are as follows.

1. Author
In-text citation is done by an introductory and/or parenthetical citation providing:
– the last name of the author, and
– page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken, if applicable.
2. Author–date
In-text citation is done by an introductory and/or parenthetical citation providing:
– the last name of the author, and
– the year of publication from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken, and the page number,
if applicable.
3. Numbered footnote
In-text citation is done by:
– superscript note numbers that come after the referenced passage, and after the final punctuation
mark, if used, and
– corresponding footnotes placed at the bottom of their page of reference containing all reference
details from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken; when using a source for a second or
subsequent time, a shorter footnote reference is sufficient.
The following section provides examples on how to cite:

printed sources
non-printed electronic sources
online video clips
social media.

Effective citing and referencing 5

31
6
Citing printed sources Source material

Carroll points out that “deliberate breaches form a relatively small

proportion of dishonesty cases whereas up to 80% in most years
How to cite

Author
involve misuse of others’ work through plagiarism or collusion” (2).

Carroll reminds us that “deliberate breaches form a relatively small

Author– proportion of dishonesty cases whereas up to 80% in most years
date involve misuse of others’ work through plagiarism or collusion”
Quotation (2012: 2).
As Carroll has noted, “deliberate breaches form a relatively small
proportion of dishonesty cases whereas up to 80% in most years
Numbered
involve misuse of others’ work through plagiarism or collusion”.1
footnote 1
Carroll, J. 2012. Academic honesty in the IB. IB Position Paper.
http://blogs.ibo.org/positionpapers/files/2013/02/Academic-honesty-in-the-IB.pdf. P 2.
While some students still try to bring unauthorized materials into
examination rooms with a clear intention to cheat, the vast majority
Author
of breaches (80%) relate to plagiarism and collusion; establishing
responsibility and intent in such cases is not always easy (Carroll 2).
Some attempts to gain unfair advantages involve deliberate breaches of
the rules. Learners who take devices into examinations, gain unauthorized
access to assessment questions, or who hire an impersonator are clearly
being dishonest. Because of developments in communication technology,
smaller devices can be smuggled in to examination rooms, impersonators
are easier to recruit, and hacked questions are more easily available.
However, deliberate breaches form a relatively small proportion of
dishonesty cases whereas up to 80% in most years involve misuse of others’
work through plagiarism or collusion. In these cases, determining whether
a learner has acted dishonestly is much more problematic and the role of
technology and networked communications in encouraging misuse is also
more complex.

Carroll (2012: 2) notes that while some students still try to bring
unauthorized materials into examination rooms with a clear intention Reference:
Author–
to cheat, the vast majority of breaches (80%) relate to plagiarism and Carroll, J. July 2012. Academic honesty in the IB. IB Position Paper.
date collusion; establishing responsibility and intent in such cases is not http://blogs.ibo.org/positionpapers/files/2013/02/Academic-honesty-
Paraphrase
always easy. in-the-IB.pdf.

While some students still try to bring unauthorized materials into

examination rooms with a clear intention to cheat, the vast majority
Numbered of breaches (80%) relate to plagiarism and collusion; establishing
footnote responsibility and intent in such cases is not always easy.1
1
Carroll, J. 2012. Academic honesty in the IB. IB Position Paper.
http://blogs.ibo.org/positionpapers/files/2013/02/Academic-honesty-in-the-IB.pdf. P 2.

Effective citing and referencing

 Citing non-printed electronic sources Source material

In declaring that ability to read is “a vital survival skill”, Royce points out
that, “when you think about the vast amount of information, written
Author
information, that computer technology makes possible, the ability to
read becomes ever more important”.

Royce, suggesting that ability to read is “a vital survival skill”, added,

Author– “when you think about the vast amount of information, written
date information, that computer technology makes possible, the ability to
Quotation

Effective citing and referencing

read becomes ever more important” (1995).

In declaring that ability to read is “a vital survival skill”, Royce points out Reading is important. It is a vital survival skill. Reading, and of course
that, “when you think about the vast amount of information, written writing, is the basis of learning. Until recently, it was the main method
Numbered information, that computer technology makes possible, the ability to by which people far apart could talk to each other, across the miles or
read becomes ever more important”. 2 across the years. Even today, reading has advantages not shared by
footnote
2 telecommunications or computer technology. And when you think about
Royce, J. 1995. Reading matters: Words, words, words... http://read2live.info/read2.htm.
the vast amount of information, written information, that computer
Accessed 30 November 2013.
technology makes possible, the ability to read becomes ever more
As Royce has suggested, technology has not made obsolete the need important.
for good reading skills; far from it—so much digital text is produced
Author
today that ability to read is as important, perhaps even more important, Reference:
than ever.
Royce, J. 1995. Reading Matters: Words, words, words... http://read2live.
info/read2.htm. Accessed 30 November 2013.
As Royce (1995) has suggested, technology has not made obsolete
Author– the need for good reading skills; far from it—so much digital text is
Paraphrase date produced today that ability to read is as important, perhaps even more
important, than ever. Almost 20 years later, this remains as true as ever.

As Royce2 noted, technology has not made obsolete the need for good
reading skills; far from it—so much digital text is produced today that
Numbered
ability to read is as important, perhaps even more important, than ever.
footnote 2
Royce, J. 1995. Reading matters: Words, words, words... http://read2live.info/read2.htm.
Accessed 30 November 2013.

7
How to cite
33
8
Citing an online video clip Source material

As one student put it, the Middle Years Programme “wants to make you
kind of an analytical mind, it wants to make you criticize what you learn,
How to cite

Author
it wants to make you open-minded” (Education for a Better World).

As one student put it, the Middle Years Programme “wants to make you
Author–
kind of an analytical mind, it wants to make you criticize what you learn,
date it wants to make you open-minded” (IB 2010).
Quotation

As one student put it, the Middle Years Programme “wants to make
you kind of an analytical mind, it wants to make you criticize what you
Numbered
learn, it wants to make you open-minded”. 3
footnote 3
IB (International Baccalaureate). May 2010. Education for a Better World: the IB Middle Years
Programme (video). http://blogs.ibo.org/ibtv/?p=327. Accessed 30 November 2013.

Students realize that the Middle Years Programme attempts to make

Author them think more deeply and carefully, to become and to be critical
thinkers (Education for a Better World).

Students realize that the Middle Years Programme attempts to make

Author–
them think more deeply and carefully, to become and to be critical
date thinkers (IB 2010).
Paraphrase Reference:
IB (International Baccalaureate). May 2010. Education for a Better World:
Students realize that the Middle Years Programme attempts to make
the IB Middle Years Programme (video). http://blogs.ibo.org/ibtv/?p=327.
them think more deeply and carefully, to become and to be critical
Numbered Accessed 30 November 2013.
thinkers.3
footnote 3
IB (International Baccalaureate). May 2010. Education for a Better World: the IB Middle Years
Programme (video). http://blogs.ibo.org/ibtv/?p=327. Accessed 30 November 2013.

Effective citing and referencing

 Citing social media Source material

Commenting on an update on IB’s Facebook page, which proclaimed

“Study shows IB graduates are more confident in research activities
Author
at the university level”, Israel Swanner declared “I can vouch for that.
Freshman year at Pacific was EASY compared to senior year in IB”.

Commenting on an update on IB’s Facebook page, which proclaimed

Author– “Study shows IB graduates are more confident in research activities
date at the university level”, Israel Swanner (2013) declared “I can vouch for

Effective citing and referencing

Quotation that. Freshman year at Pacific was EASY compared to senior year in IB”.

Commenting on an update on IB’s Facebook page, which proclaimed

“Study shows IB graduates are more confident in research activities
at the university level”, Israel Swanner declared “I can vouch for that.
Numbered
Freshman year at Pacific was EASY compared to senior year in IB”.4
footnote 4
Swanner, I. 21 November 2013. “I can vouch for that ... ” comment on ”Study shows IB
graduates are more confident ...” The International Baccalaureate Facebook status update.
https://www.facebook.com/IBO.org. Accessed 30 November 2013.

A well-liked comment on Facebook supports research evidence that

Author the Diploma Programme is an excellent preparation for university
(Swanner).

A well-liked comment on Facebook supports research evidence that

Author–
the Diploma Programme is an excellent preparation for university
date (Swanner 2013).
Paraphrase

A well-liked comment on Facebook supports research evidence that the Reference:

Diploma Programme is an excellent preparation for university.4 Swanner, I. 21 November 2013. “I can vouch for that …” comment on
Numbered
4
Swanner, I. 21 November 2013. “I can vouch for that ... ” comment on ”Study shows IB “Study shows IB graduates are more confident ...”. The International
footnote
graduates are more confident ...” The International Baccalaureate Facebook status update. Baccalaureate Facebook status update. https://www.facebook.com/IBO.
https://www.facebook.com/IBO.org. Accessed 30 November 2013. org. Accessed 30 November 2013.

9
How to cite
 How to cite

Citing an image Source material

On the other hand, as we can see in Figure 4,

very few students score an E for theory of
knowledge.

Author

Figure 4. Percentage of grades awarded:

theory of knowledge May 2012

On the other hand, as we can see in Figure 4,

very few students score an E for theory of
knowledge (IBO, 2012, 40).

Author–
date

Figure 4. Percentage of grades awarded:

theory of knowledge May 2012

On the other hand, as we can see in Figure 4,

very few students score an E for theory of
knowledge (IBO, 2012, 40).

Reference:
IB (International Baccalaureate). November
2012. The IB Diploma Programme Statistical
Numbered Bulletin, May 2012 Examination Session.
footnote https://www.ibo.org/facts/statbulletin/
dpstats/documents/may_2012_statistical_
bulletin.pdf.
Figure 4. Percentage of grades awarded:
theory of knowledge May 2012.5
5
IB (International Baccalaureate). November 2012.
The IB Diploma Programme Statistical Bulletin, May
2012 Examination Session. https://www.ibo.org/facts/
statbulletin/dpstats/documents/may_2012_statistical_
bulletin.pdf. P 40.

10 Effective citing and referencing

35
Definitions

Citation
A citation is an indication (signal) in the text that this (material) is not ours; we have “borrowed” it (as a direct
quote, paraphrase or summary) from someone or somewhere else. The citation in the text can be:

in the form of an introductory phrase, or

at the end of the statement, or
indicated by a superscript or bracketed number that leads to a similarly numbered footnote or
endnote.
Every citation should be given a full reference that enables the reader to locate the exact source used.

Reference
A reference gives full details of the source cited in the work; the parts or elements of the reference should be
noted in a consistent order. Use of a recognized style guide will help ensure consistency, and will also ensure
that all required elements are included.

Every reference should be given a citation in the text. If we have looked at a source but not mentioned or
cited it in the text, then we do not include it as a reference.

Bibliography/references/works cited
Most style guides require a list of references at the end of the work. This is usually a list, in alphabetical order,
of the authors (last name first), whose words and works have been cited in the work. The title of this section
varies from one style guide to another.

Each entry in the list of references includes the full information (or as much of it as can be found), expressed
in a consistent fashion, which will allow an interested reader to track down exactly where you found the
material you have used and cited.

Paraphrase
In writing an essay, we often use our own words to put over someone else’s thoughts and ideas. While there
are some words that we cannot change (especially the names of people, places, chemicals, and so on), we
should use our own words for as much as we can of the rest of the passage. We should also aim to change
the structure of the passage, perhaps by reordering the thoughts and ideas.

When we paraphrase, we need to make it very clear where the original author’s ideas start and where they
finish. If we include our own examples, we should make it clear that these are our thoughts and not those of
the original author.

12 Effective citing and referencing

 Quiz
1. How many qualities does the learner profile describe?
2. List them.
3. What are the four pieces of advice given in the document: Guide
to getting organized?
4. What is self-management?
5. What are some strategies to improve self-management?
6. Approximately how much study should you do in a week?
7. Write a one-line summary of the Cornell Note Taking System.
What are the different stages of the system?
8. In which of your subjects could you use this system?
9. Why do you think the Cornell Note Taking System is effective as
a study method?
10.Why is learning more effective when notes are taken by hand
rather than by typing?
11.The author of the article demonstrates that two intuitive ideas
about taking notes by laptop are false. What are those ideas and
how do they prove to be incorrect?
12. What is deep processing?
13. Can you apply this concept to the article from New Scientist?
14. What is mind wandering? What are the specific subjects where
you find yourself doing this?
15. What is the planning fallacy?
16. Have you seen evidence of this in the world around you?
17.What is the forgetting curve?
18.How much of what we learn do we forget if we don’t review?
What is the suggested minimum number of times to review
information in order to minimize the effects of the forgetting
curve?
19. What is the best way to review?
20. What are the 6 strategies for effective learning?
21.Why do we need to use citation?
22.What types of texts need to be cited?
23. Which style of citing are we generally using at LCS?

37
Bibliography
May, Cindi. A Learning Secret, Scientific American, June 3rd, 2014
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-learning-secret-don-t-take-
notes-with-a-laptop/ Accessed 17/07/2018

Moulton, Samuel. Applying Psychological Science to Higher Education: Key

Findings and Open Questions

Oakley, Barbara. 10 Rules of Good Studying, A Mind for Numbers: How to

Excel in Math and Science (Even if You Flunked Algebra), Penguin, July,
2014.

Weinstein, Yana. Six Strategies for Effective Learning,

www.learningscientists.org Accessed 17/07/2018

Wittman, John. The Forgetting Curve, CSU Stanislaus.

https://www.csustan.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Writing%20Program/f
orgetting_curve.pdf Accessed 17/07/2018

Cornell note taking system, Universtiy of Texas Medical Branch.

https://shp.utmb.edu/asa/Forms/cornell%20note%20taking%20system.p
df Accessed 17/07/2018

Effective Referencing and Citing, International Baccalaureate

Organisation, August 2014, www.ibo.org. Accessed 17/07/2018