Electrical Boundary Conditions

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Electric Field Boundary Conditions:

an2 is a unit vector normal to the interface from region 2 to region1

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Magnetic Field Boundary Conditions: K=Js

K=Js

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 Dielectric- dielectric boundary conditions
Conductor-dielectric boundary conditions
Dielectric materials are dominated by “bound” rather than “free’’
charges (E-fields causes +ve and –ve charges of molecules to separate
and form dipoles throughout the material interior
Therefore, the free charge density sand the surface current density Js
are zero
1En1= 2En2
Bt 1

Bt 2
n  Dn1   s
1 2
•The normal component of B is
continuous across the interface while the
tangential component of E is continuous
across the interface
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Conductor-free space boundary conditions

D1t   0 E1t  0
D1n  0 E1n   s

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 Electrodynamics
• Electrostatic charges electrostatic fields
• Steady currents (motion of electric charges with uniform velocity
magnetostatic fields
(Not Yet) • Time varying currents electromagnetic fields

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Changing Magnetic Field  Current and

In summary: Faraday’s Law- Integral Form
Voltage

B, H

N S

Current

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Faraday’s Law-Differential Form

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 Time Harmonic fields and their phasor • In general, a phasor could be a scalar or vector.

representation • If a vector E (x, y, z, t) is a time-harmonic field, the phasor form of

E is Es (x, y, z); the two quantities are related as E = Re (Es e jt)

If E = Eocos(t -x)ay, we can write E as: E = Re (Eoe -j x ay e jt )

Es = Eo e -j x ay phasor form

Notice that
E 
 Re( Es e jt )  Re( jEs e jt )
t t
E
 j E
t
E
 Et  j
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• Maxwell’s equations in terms of vector field phasors (E, H) and source

phasors (, J) in a simple linear, isotropic and homogeneous medium are:

  Es   jH s  E  dl   j  H
L
s
s
s  dS

  H s  J s  jEs H
L
s  dl   J s  dS  j  Es  dS
s s

 
  Es  vs
 S EsdS  v vs dv
  Hs  0 H
S
s  dS  0

From the table, note that the time factor e jt disappears because it is
associated with every term and therefore factors out, resulting in time
independent equations
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Electromagnetic wave equation in free

space (coupling between E and H)

Plane Wave Equations

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 Waves in General
• A wave is a function in both space and time.
• The variation of E with both time and space variable z, we may
plot E as a function of t by keeping z constant and vice versa.

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The possible solution in free space is of the form:

E x ( z, t )  Re( E x e jt )
 Re[ Em e j (t   o z )  Em e j (t   o z ) ]
 Em cos(t   o z )  Em cos(t   o z )

A negative sign in (t oz) is associated with a wave

propagating in the +z direction (forward traveling or
positive going wave) whereas a positive sign indicates that
a wave is traveling in the –z direction (backward traveling
or negative going wave)
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A plane wave traveling in the positive z

direction What do Faraday and Ampere mean?

 B 
 E.dl     .ds “a changing magnetic field causes an electric field”
 t 
 D 
 H.dl    JC  .ds “a changing electric field/flux causes an magnetic field”
 t 

E x ( z , t )  Re[ E x ( z )e jt ] Question : If we put these together, can we get electric and
magnetic fields that, once created, sustain one another?

or  Re[ E x0 e j (t   o z ) ]
or  E x0 cos(t   o z )
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 Cross-breed Ampere and Faraday! Cross-breed Ampere and Faraday!
D E
  H  JC    E  ... all in terms of E and H
t t D E
  H  JC    E  ... all in terms of E and H
B H t t
 E      ... all in terms of E and H
t t B H
E  E      ... all in terms of E and H
   H    E   ... differentiate both sides
d d t t
dt dt  t 
 E     E

    E     
H       H      E        E   ... curl of both sides
 ... curl of both sides  t  t
 t 
H
dH dE d 2E  E   
   2 t
dt dt dt
H 2H
    E     
dH      H      2
dt t t

dE d 2E
    E        2
dt dt 31 32

Now some simplifications … Travelling Waves

Take a time-varying electric field,
EY = EY0sin(ωt)
E, at a point …
y EY = EY0sin(ωt-βx)

Add a second one with a small EY = EY0sin(ωt)

x
phase difference, nearby … EY = EY0sin(ωt-)
z

E = (0,EY,0) only Now let’s have a lot of them, EY = EY0sin(ωt-βx)

with a sinusoidal variation
Align y-axis with electric field and the x-axis with the direction of
of phase with direction x.
(wave) propagation (a travelling wave propagating in the x-
direction, with only a y-component of E-field)
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Plane Wave Cross-breed Ampere and Faraday!

i j k
We will also look for a plane wave solution – where the field EY
d d d  dE y dE y 
is the same (at an instant in time) across the entire zy plane.  E  
dz  dz dx 
,0 ,
dx dy
Here is an animation to see 0 Ey 0
what this means - looking at the
yz plane, down the direction of
travel i j k
d d d  d 2E y d 2E y d 2E y d 2E y 
    E   ,  , 
dx dy dz  dxdy dz 2 dx 2 dzdy 

dE y dE y
y EY = EY0sin(ωt-βx)  0
dz dx

Look And, as we have simplified down to E=(0,Ey,0), with |EY| constant

x
down in the zy plane, this reduces to …
here
z d 2E y
     E   y  
dx 2
E = (0,EY,0) only 35 36
 Cross-breed Ampere and Faraday! What have we here?
Variation of Ey with time
So dE d 2E (in 3D) Variation of Ey in space
    E        2 (x=direction of propagation)
dt dt
Becomes the 1D equation
d 2Ey dEy d 2Ey d 2Ey dEy d 2Ey

dx 2

dt
 
dt 2   
• Plane wave equation for E dx 2 dt dt 2
– describes the variation in time and space of an electric plane wave
• With a y-component only (we have aligned the y-axis with E) Magnetic permeability
• propagating in the x-direction. (4px107 in vacuum, larger in a magnet)
• There is an exactly equivalent equation for H
– Eliminate E, not H, from the combination of Ampere and Faraday. Conductivity
(0 in an insulator, much larger in a conductor)
• rather a waste of our time.
• We can, however, infer that whatever behaviour we get for E y will apply to
H, although we do not yet know the direction of H. Dielectric constant
(8.85x10-12 in a vacuum, larger in a dielectric)
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Start with an insulator to make life easy (=0) Still don’t know what it means …
• Travelling wave of Ey  Ey 0e j (t   x )  Ey 0 cos t   x 
d 2Ey dEy d 2Ey d 2Ey d 2E y
   becomes   the form
dx 2 dt dt 2 dx 2 dt 2     2p   1
It travels with a velocity v  f         
j (t   x )
 2p      
Look for a solution of the form Ey  Ey 0e
Where  and  depend upon  and  … the characteristics of the insulator In a vacuum, =0=4px10-7, =0=8.85x10-12
d 2E y d 2E y 2 1 1
    2Ey   2Ey , 
dx 2 dt 2  2  v  3  108 m / s ... a familiar speed?
0 0
2 1
 , what does this mean??
 2  In (eg) glass, =0=4px10-7, =r0=5x8.85x10-12

2p 2p
Remember,   2p  frequency = 2p f ,  = = and v  f  1
wavelength  v  1.43  108 m / s ... light slows down in glass
39 0 r  0 40

This is why lenses work … What is H up to?

E  (0, Ey e j (t   x ) ,0)
H  dEy 
Faraday says   E  
t
,   E   0,0 ,
 dx 

 0,0 ,  j  Ey 0e j (t   x ) 

So H  (0,0, Hz ) and if Hz  Hz 0e j t   x  ,  

H
t

 0,0,  j Hz 0e j t   x  
Hz 0e j t   x    Ey 0e j (t   x )
So H and E are at 90 to one another ... (0,0, Hz ) and (0, Ey ,0)
H and E are in time-phase in a non-conductor
1  1 
V=3x108m/s V=1.43x108m/s V=3x108m/s Also, Hz 0   E   E y 0  E
    y0   y0

, the intrinsic impedance (Zi )of the medium, is real for an insulator

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 Summary so far : Insulator Now a conductor …

• H and E both obey ej(t-x) • Fields lead to currents

• H and E are in time-phase • Currents cause “Joule heating” (I2R)
• |E|=Zi|H| is the characteristic impedance • Leads to loss of energy
– Zi is real in an insulator • Fields still oscillate, but they decay
– Zi = 377Ω in free space (air!) • Multiply the solution we have already by a term e-ax?
– Zi ≈ 150Ω in glass
• Wave travels at a velocity v =1/√ e-ax
HEAT
e-ax sin(ωt-βx) HEAT!
!
– 3x108 m/s in free space

HEAT!
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Now a conductor … Now a conductor … >0

• In general: the electric field in a conductor may be d 2Ey dEy d 2Ey
   
expressed in the form: dx 2 dt dt 2

E y ( x, t )  Re( E y ( x)e jt ) Look for a solution of the form Ey  Ey 0e j (t   x )  ea x

 Em e ax cos(t  x    )  Em eax cos(t  x    ) E y  E y 0e j  t e   a  j   x

For tidiness, write   a  j  .  is called the propagation constant
Where Em and Em were replaced in terms of their mag. and phases a  j  2 Ey 0   2Ey 0  j  Ey 0   2Ey 0

 2  j   j   ,   j   j 

Ey  Ey 0e x e j t

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Example : Good Conductor Example : Good Conductor

0.8
Ey  Ey 0e  x e j t ,   j   j   0.7
0.6
e-ax
 f    a  v
0.5
6x107 (S/m) 100MHz 6.28x108 8.85x10-12 1.26x10-6 1.54x105 1.54x105 4x103m/s
0.4 0.36=1/e
0.3

  790 j  6 x103  0.006 j    790  6x10 j   1.54x10 (1  j )

3 5 0.2
0.1
0
Comments : 0μm 10μm 20μm 30μm
 a= , so E and H are 45° out of (time) phase Amplitude falls by 0.36=1/e in 6m i.e. the wave doesn’t get far in
 v<< speed of light copper!
 a = 1.54x105 >>1 … rapid attenuation via e-ax Skin Depth : the depth of penetration into a good conductor (the wave will
be attenuated by a factor e 1  0.368
Let’s have a look at e-ax …
1 1
47    48
a pf
 Example : Good Conductor, Example : Good Conductor,
E=ZiH …. Intrinsic Impedance E=Zi H…. Intrinsic Impedance

 
H dE 
Faraday says   E   ,   E   0,0 , y   0,0 ,   Ey 0e jt  x  p
t  dx  j j  j 4
E y 0  Zi H z 0  H Hz 0  e  Hz 0
  j  z 0  
So H  (0,0, Hz ) and if Hz  Hz 0e j t  x  ,  
H
t

 0,0,  j Hz 0e jt  x   Ey 0
So Hz 0  p
relates the magnitudes of H and E
 j    j 4
Ey 0   H z 0  Zi H z 0 e
   
j  j  j p
Zi    and E y 0 leads Hz 0 by
 j   j     j  4

49 50

Similarities and differences between the propagation of

uniform plane waves in free space and conductive
Differences:
medium Free Space
Similarities: • E, H vectors are in phase, the
intrinsic wave impedance ois a real
• In both cases, the electric and magnetic fields are number.
uniform in the plane perpendicular to the direction • The phase velocity = c (speed of
of propagation. light.
• For a plane wave of a given freq., o
• The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to is longer than  in the material medium.
each other, and to the direction of propagation i.e.no • Does not attenuate in magnitude as it
component of either the electric or the magnetic propagates.
field is in the direction of propagation.
Conductive Medium
E, H vectors are not in phase, the
intrinsic wave impedance is a com-
plex number.
The phase velocity is less than the
speed of light.
The  =2p/ is shorter than o
It exponentially attenuates, with
the skin depth by  = 1/a

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Polarization of plane waves

2. If A and B have different phase angles. In this case, E will no
• For a wave propagating along the z axis, the electric field may be expressed as longer remain in one plane:
having two components in the x and y direction:
E x  A cos(t  a  z )
E = (A ax + B ay) e -jz
where the amplitudes A and B may be complex. E y  B cos(t  b  z )
A  A e ja , B  B e jb The locus of the end point of the electric field vector will trace out
an ellipse once each cycle Elliptical polarization
1. If A and B have the same phase angle (a = b). In this case, the x and y
components of the electric field will be in phase
E  ( A a x  B a y )e  j (  z  a ) 3. If A and B are equal in magnitude and differ in phase angle by
p/2, the ellipse becomes a circle Circular Polarization
E  ( A a x  B a y ) cos(t  z  a)

The tip of the E vector follows a line Linear polarization

53 54
 - If one takes a snapshot of a circularly polarized wave at any
instant then he will see the picture below.

- The E-field vector does not change in magnitude but its

direction “twists” in space.

- An observer sitting in the path of the wave will see the E-

field vector rotate in a circular trajectory at his location as the
wave passes by.

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57 58

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