Contents

• Review of Maxwell’s equations and Lorentz Force Law

• Motion of a charged particle under constant Electromagnetic fields

Electromagnetism • Potentials
• Relativistic transformations of fields
• Electromagnetic energy conservation
• Electromagnetic waves

Christopher R Prior • Waves in vacuo

Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics
Trinity College, Oxford
• Waves in conducting medium
• Waves in a uniform conducting guide
• Simple example TE01 mode
• Propagation constant, cut-off frequency
• Group velocity, phase velocity
ASTeC Intense Beams Group
• Illustrations
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Basic Equations from Vector

Reading Calculus
For a scalar function ! ( x,y,z,t ),
• J.D. Jackson: Classical Electrodynamics $ #! #! #! ' Gradient is normal to surfaces
gradient : "! = & , , ) φ=constant
% #x #y #z (
• H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman: University !
Physics (with Modern Physics) For a vector F = ( F1,F2 ,F3 )
! #F #F #F
• P.C. Clemmow: Electromagnetic Theory divergence : ! " F = 1 + 2 + 3
#x #y #z
• Feynmann Lectures on Physics ! & #F #F #F #F #F #F )
curl : ! $ F = ( 3 % 2 , 1 % 3 , 2 % 1 +
' #y #z #z #x #x #y *
• W.K.H. Panofsky and M.N. Phillips: Classical
Electricity and Magnetism

• G.L. Pollack and D.R. Stump: Electromagnetism

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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

 Basic Vector Calculus What is Electromagnetism?
∇ · F� ∧ G
� =G
� · ∇ ∧ F� − F� · ∇ ∧ G
�
• The study of Maxwell’s equations, devised in 1863 to
represent the relationships between electric and magnetic
∇ ∧ ∇φ = 0, ∇ · ∇ ∧ F� = 0 fields in the presence of electric charges and currents,
whether steady or rapidly fluctuating, in a vacuum or in
matter.
∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ F� ) = ∇(∇ · F� ) − ∇2 F�
• The equations represent one of the most elegant and
Stokes’ Theorem Divergence or Gauss’ concise way to describe the fundamentals of electricity and
magnetism. They pull together in a consistent way earlier
! ! ! ! Theorem results known from the work of Gauss, Faraday, Ampère,
$$ ! " F # dS = $ F # d r ! ! ! Biot, Savart and others.
S
! !
C
!
n
### ! " F dV = ## F " dS • Remarkably, Maxwell’s equations are perfectly consistent
V S
dS = n dS with the transformations of special relativity.
Closed surface S, volume V,
Oriented outward pointing normal
boundary C
6
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Maxwell’s Equations � = ρ
∇·E Maxwell’s 1st Equation
�0
Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated by
Equivalent to Gauss’ Flux Theorem:
charge and current distributions. ��� �� ���
� = ρ ⇐⇒
∇·E � dV =
∇·E �= 1
� · dS
E ρ dV =
Q
�
E = electric field �0 �0 �0
�
D = electric displacement � =ρ
∇·D V S V
The flux of electric field out of a closed region is proportional to the total
�
H = magnetic field
� =0 electric charge Q enclosed within the surface.
�
B = magnetic flux density
∇·B
A point charge q generates an electric field:
�
� = − ∂B
ρ = electric charge density
∇∧E � = q �r
�j = current density E
∂t 4π�0 r3
µ0 = permeability of free space, 4π 10−7 �
�0 = permittivity of free space, 8.854 10−12 � = �j + ∂ D
∇∧H
��
q
��
dS
∂t =⇒ � · dS
E �= =q
c = speed of light, 2.99792458 108 4π�0 r2
sphere sphere

Area integral gives a measure of the net charge enclosed; divergence of

In vacuum: � = �0 E,
D � � = µ0 H,
B � �0 µ 0 c 2 = 1 the electric field gives the density of the sources.
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

 �
� =0
∇·B Maxwell’s 2nd Equation � = − ∂B
∇∧E Maxwell’s 3rd Equation
∂t

Gauss’ law for magnetism: Equivalent to Faraday’s Law of Induction:

�� �� �� �
∂B
� = 0 ⇐⇒
∇·B � · dS
B �=0 � · dS
∇∧E �=− �
· dS
∂t
S S
The net magnetic flux out of any � ��
closed surface is zero. Surround a ⇐⇒ � · d�l = − d
E B � = − dΦ
� · dS N S
magnetic dipole with a closed surface. dt dt
The magnetic flux directed inward C S
towards the south pole will equal the (for a fixed circuit C)
flux outward from the north pole.
The electromotive force round a circuit ! !!!!!!!
If there were a magnetic monopole ! !
source, this would give a non-zero # = ! E " dl is proportional to the rate of change of flux of
integral. ! !
Gauss’ law for magnetism is then a statement that
!! B " dS through the circuit.
magnetic field # =!!!!!!!!!!!!

There are no magnetic monopoles Faraday’s Law is the basis for electric generators. It also
forms the basis for inductors and transformers.
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

�
� = µ0�j + 1 ∂ E
∇∧B Maxwell’s 4th Equation Displacement Current
c2 ∂t

� = µ0�j
Originates from Ampère’s (Circuital) Law : ∇ ∧ B ! Apply Ampère to surface 1 (flat disk): line
! ! ! ! ! ! integral of B =μ0I
$ B ! d l = $$ " # B ! dS = µ 0 $$ j ! dS = µ 0 I
Surface 1 Surface 2
! Applied to surface 2, line integral is zero
C S S
since no current penetrates the deformed
Satisfied by the field for a steady line current (Biot-Savart Current I surface.
Ampère
Law, 1820): ! ! Q dQ dE
! µI In capacitor, E= , so = !0 A
I=
dl # r
!

!0 A dt dt
B= 0
4! $ r3 Closed loop ! !E
!
! Displacement current density is jd = " 0
µI !t
For a straight line current B" = 0
2! r
Biot
�
� = µ0 (�j + �jd ) = µ0�j + �0 µ0 ∂ E
∇∧B
∂t
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

 Consistent with Charge Conservation Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum

In vacuum:
Charge conservation: From Maxwell’s equations: Equivalent integral form (useful for
Total current flowing out of a region Take divergence of Ampère’s equation � = �0 E,
D � � = µ0 H,
B � 2
�0 µ 0 c = 1 simple geometries):
equals the rate of decrease of charge (incl. displacement current) �� ���
within the volume.
Source-free equations: E� · dS�= 1 ρ dV
�0
�� ��� � � =0
∇·B ��
�=−d
�j · dS ρ dV ∇∧B � = µ0�j + 1 ∂ E B� · dS�=0
c2 ∂t �
dt
� � � + ∂B = 0
∇∧E � ��
� = µ0 ∇ · �j + 1 ∂ ∇ · E �
��� ���
∂ρ
=⇒ ∇ · ∇ ∧ B
c2 ∂t� �
∂t � · d�l = − d
E B � = − dΦ
� · dS
⇐⇒ ∇ · �j dV = − dV ∂ ρ Source equations: �
dt
��
dt
��
∂t =⇒ 0 = ∇ · �j + �0 µ0 1 d
∂t �0 ρ � · d�l = µ0
B �j dS�+ � · dS
E �
∂ρ � =
∇·E c2 dt
∂ρ =⇒ 0 = ∇ · �j + �0
⇐⇒ ∇ · �j + =0 ∂t
∂t �
1 ∂B
�−
∇∧B = µ0�j
2
c ∂t
Charge conservation is implicit in Maxwell’s Equations
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Example: Calculate E from B The Betatron

Magnetic
Particles accelerated by the rotational
flux, !
� �� electric field generated by a time-varying
� · d�l = − d
E � · dS
B � magnetic field � d
��
z
dt � · d�l = −
E � · dS
B �
dt r
Generated
d dΦ E-field
r < r0 2" rE# = $ " r 2 B0 sin ! t = $" r 2 B0! cos ! t =⇒ 2πrEθ = −
dt
dt
r 1 For circular motion at a constant radius:
% E# = $ B0! r cos ! t
# B sin $ t r < r0 2 mv 2 p
Bz = " 0 − = evB =⇒ B=−
! 0 r > r0 d r er
r > r0 2" rE# = $ " r02 B0 sin ! t = $" r02 B0! cos ! t
! dt
=⇒
∂
B(r, t) = −
1 dp
=
E
=
1 dΦ
! $B er dt
−
2πr2 dt
Also from !" E = # ! r2B ∂t r
% E# = $ 0 0 cos ! t
$t 2r 1 1
��
! =⇒ B(r, t) = B dS
! ! 1 !E then gives current density necessary 2 πr 2

# " B = µ0 j + 2
c dt to sustain the fields B-field on orbit needs to be one half the average B over the circle. This imposes a limit on the
energy that can be achieved. Nevertheless the constant radius principle is attractive for high
15 16
energy circular accelerators.
Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012
 Boundary Conditions I Boundary Conditions II
Maxwell’s equations involving divergence can be n Maxwell’s equations involving curl can be integrated over a closed
integrated over a small “pillbox” across the contour close to, and straddling, the boundary surface
boundary surface � �� � ��
��� �� + � = − ∂ B =⇒ � · dS
�= E � · d�l = − d � · dS
�
∇∧E ∇∧E B
� = 0 =⇒
∇·B � dV =
∇·B � · dS
B �=0 6S ∂t dt
- � �
n
+
� � =⇒ E �+ − E
� − ∆l → 0 C
� + − �n · B
� − ∆S = 0 � �
=⇒ �n · B
� �+ -
� �+ �
=⇒ �n ∧ E =0
�
=⇒ �n · B =0 − 6l
−
��� �� ��� � �� � �� ��
� = �j + ∂D � · dS
�= � · d�l = �+ d
�j · dS � · dS
�
� = ρ =⇒
∇·D � dV =
∇·D � · dS
D �= ρ dV ∇∧H =⇒ ∇∧H H D
∂t dt
� � � �
=⇒ � + − �n · D
�n · D � − ∆S = σ∆S =⇒ �+−H
H � − ∆l → K∆l
�
� �

� �+ � �+
� �
=⇒ �n ∧ H �
=K � is the surface current density
where K
=⇒ �n · D =σ where σ is the surface charge density −
− 17 18

Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Lorentz Force Law Motion of Charged Particles in Constant

Magnetic Fields
• Thought of as a supplement to Maxwell’s equations but actually d� � � �
implicit in relativistic formulation, gives force on a charged particle m0 γ�v = f� = q E � + �v ∧ B �
� = q�v ∧ B
moving in an electromagnetic field:
dt
! ! ! !
( ) d� �
f =q E+v!B m0 γc2 = �v · f� = q�v · �v ∧ B
� =0
• For continuous distributions, use force density dt
! ! ! !
fd = !E + j " B 1. From energy equation, ! is constant
• Relativistic equation of motion � � � � No acceleration with a magnetic field
dP �v · f� � 1 dE d�
p
– 4-vector form: F = =⇒ γ ,f = γ ,
dτ c c dt dt 2. From momentum equation,
– 3-vector component: Energy component:

d� � � � dE dγ |�v | constant and |�v� | constant

m0 γ�v = f� = q E� + �v ∧ B
� �v · f� = = m0 c2
dt dt dt =⇒ |�v⊥ | also constant
19
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012
 Motion in Constant Magnetic Field Motion in Constant Electric Field
d� � � � d� �
m0 γ�v = f� = q E� + �v ∧ B
� =⇒ �
m0 γ�v = q E
dt dt
�
qE
Solution is γ�v = t
m0
� � �2
� �2 �
γ�v � �
q Et
Then γ2 = 1 + =⇒ γ = �1 +
c m0 c

� 
� �2
� = (E, 0, 0), dx (γv) m0 c2  qEt
If E = =⇒ x = x0 + 1+ − 1
dt γ qE m0 c
� �
1 qE 2
≈ x0 + t for qE � m0 c
2 m0
Constant magnetic field gives
uniform spiral about B with Energy gain is m0 c2 (γ − 1) = qE(x − x0 )
constant energy.
Magnetic Rigidity Constant E-field gives uniform acceleration in straight line
22
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Relativistic Transformations of E and B Relativistic Transformations of E and B

• According to observer O in frame F, particle � v, fields are E and

� has velocity • According to observer O in frame F, particle � v, fields are E and
� has velocity
B and Lorentz force is � �
f = q E + �v × B� B and Lorentz force is � �
f = q E + �v × B�

ea
• In Frame F’, particle is at rest and force is f�� = q � E
�� • � is at rest and force�is
In Frame F’, particle f�� = q � E
��
� � measurements
� + �vsame � , and force,E�so� ��
• Assume measurements give same charge and force, so • E ⊥ = γ E⊥ give
Assume ×Bcharge = E

id
�
q� = q �� = E
and E � + �v × B
� q � = q and E�� = E
� + �v × B
�
� �

gh
• Point charge q at rest in F: � = q �r � =0 • Point q at rest�in F: �
v �
E=× �
E q �r � =0
E , B � � charge , B� ��
⊥ = γ B⊥ − = B
4π�0 r3 B 4π�0 ,r3 B�

u
c2

Ro
• See a current in F’, giving a field � � = − µ0 q �v × �r = − 1 �v × E
B � • See a current in F’, giving a field � � = − µ0 q �v × �r = − 1 �v × E
B �
4π r3 c2 4π r3 c2

• Suggests B � − 1 �v × E
�� = B � • Suggests B � − 1 �v × E
�� = B �
c2 c2

23 23
Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012
 Potentials Electromagnetic 4-Vectors
• Lorentz gauge
• Magnetic vector potential

• Electric scalar potential

• Current 4-vector

• Lorentz gauge • Continuity equation

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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Relativistic Transformation of Potentials Electromagnetic Energy

• 4-potential vector: • Rate of doing work on unit volume of a system is

!
• Lorentz transformation • Substitute for j from Maxwell’s equations and re-arrange:

• For linear, non-dispersive media where

Poynting vector

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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

 Energy Conservation Review of Waves
∂2u 1 ∂2u
• 1D wave equation is 2
= 2 ∂t2
with general
solution ∂x v
• Integrated over a volume, this represents an energy
conservation law: u(x, t) = f (vt − x) + g(vt + x)
– the rate of doing work on a system equals the rate of • Simple plane wave:
increase of stored electromagnetic energy+ rate of energy ! !
flow across boundary.
1D : sin(! t " k x ) (
3D : sin ! t " k # x )
2π
Wavelength is λ =
|�k|
electric + magnetic Poynting vector gives
energy densities of flux of e/m energy ω
the fields across boundaries Frequency is ν=
2π
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Phase and group velocities Wave Packet Structure

"
i [$ ( k ) t # kx ]
! A(k )e
#"
dk

Superposition of plane waves. While

Plane wave sin(ωt − kx) has constant shape is relatively undistorted, pulse
phase ωt − kx = 12 π at peaks travels with the Group Velocity • Phase velocities of individual plane waves making
ω∆t − k∆x = 0
vg =
dω up the wave packet are different,
dk
∆x ω • The wave packet will then disperse with time
⇐⇒ vp = =
∆t k
30 31

Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

 Electromagnetic waves Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
• Maxwell’s equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves, later • A general plane wave with angular frequency ! travelling in the
discovered by Hertz. direction of the wave vector �
k has the form
•Hertz
No charges, no currents:
E � 0 ei(ωt−�k·�x) ,
� =E � 0 ei(ωt−�k·�x)
� =B
B
• Phase ωt − �
k · �x = 2π× number of waves and so is a Lorentz
invariant.
3D wave equation: • Apply Maxwell’s equations:

�
∂2E �
∂2E �
∂2E �
∂2E ∇ ↔ −i�k
� =
∇2 E + + = µ�
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t2 ∂
↔ iω
∂t
�
Similarly for H.

Electromagnetic waves travelling with • � B

Waves are transverse to the direction of propagation; E, � and �
k are
speed √
1 mutually perpendicular
�µ
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Plane Electromagnetic Wave Plane Electromagnetic Waves

�
� = 1 ∂ E ⇐⇒ �k ∧ B
∇∧B � =−ωE �
c2 ∂t c2
�
|E| ω kc2
Combined with �k ∧ E
� = ωB
� =⇒ = =
�
|B| k ω
ω
=⇒ speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is =c
k

Reminder: The fact that ωt − �

k · �x is an
2! invariant tells us that�
Wavelength $ = ! ω ��
k Λ= ,k
c
" is a Lorentz 4-vector, the 4-Frequency vector.
Frequency # = Deduce frequency transforms as �
2!
c−v
ω � = γ(ω − �v · �k) = ω
c+v
35
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012
 Waves in a Conducting Medium Attenuation in a Good Conductor
� 0 ei(ωt−�k·�x) ,
� =E � 0 ei(ωt−�k·�x)
� =B −i�k ∧ H
� = σE � ⇐⇒ �k ∧ H
� + iω�E � = iσ E
� − ω�E
� = (iσ − ω�)E
�
E B
�
• (Ohm’s Law) For a medium of conductivity !, �
�j = σ E Combine with � = − ∂ B =⇒ �k ∧ E
∇∧E � = ωµH
�
∂t
� �
• Modified Maxwell: � = �j + � ∂ E = σ E
∇∧H � + � ∂E =⇒ �k ∧ (�k ∧ E)
� = ωµ�k ∧ H
� = ωµ(iσ − ω�)E
�
∂t ∂t
=⇒ (�k · E)
� �k − k 2 E
� = ωµ(iσ − ω�)E
�
−i�k ∧ H
� = σE
� + iω�E
�
σ =⇒ k 2 = ωµ(−iσ + ω�) since �k · E
� =0
• Put D =
ω� conduction displacement
current current
Dissipation For a good conductor, D � 1, σ � ω�, k 2 ≈ −iωµσ
factor � �
ωµσ 1 2
=⇒ k ≈ (1 − i) = (1 − i) where δ = is the skin-depth
Copper : % = 5.8 "107 , $ = $ 0 # D = 1012 2 δ ωµσ
Teflon : % = 3 "10-8 , $ = 2.1$ 0 # D = 2.57 "10 ! 4
Wave-form is: ei(ωt−kx) = ei(ωt−(1−i)x/δ) = e−x/δ ei(ωt−x/δ)
36 37

Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Charge Density in a Conducting Material Maxwell’s Equations in a Uniform

• Inside a conductor (Ohm’s law) �
�j = σ E Perfectly Conducting Guide
Hollow metallic cylinder with perfectly conducting boundary
• Continuity equation is surfaces
x
∂ρ ∂ρ z Maxwell’s equations with time dependence ei!t are:
+ ∇ · �j = 0 ⇐⇒ � =0
+ σ∇ · E 
∂t ∂t �
∂B  �
∇2 E � −∇∧∇∧E
= ∇(∇ · E) �
� =−
∇∧E �
= −iωµH 

y ∂t 
=⇒ �
= iωµ∇ ∧ H
∂ρ σ �


⇐⇒ + ρ = 0. �
∇∧H =
∂D �
= iω�E


 �
∂t � = −ω 2 �µE
� ∂t �� �
� �
� 2 � E �
• Solution is ρ = ρ0 e −σt/� ∇ + ω 2 �µ �
H
=0
! !
Assume E ( x, y , z, t ) = E ( x, y )e( i" t #! z )
• Charge density decays exponentially with time. For a very ! ! � �
H ( x, y , z, t ) = H ( x, y )e( i" t #! z ) � � �� �
E
good conductor, charge flows instantly to the surface to Then ∇2t + ω 2 �µ + γ 2 �
H
=0
form a surface current density and (for time varying fields) ! is the propagation constant
a surface current. Inside a perfect conductor: Can solve for the fields completely in
(σ → ∞) E � =H � =0 terms of Ez and Hz
39 40

Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

 A simple model: “Parallel Plate Waveguide” Cut-off Frequency, "c
� � �2
Transport between two infinite conducting plates (TE01 mode):
nπ ω nπx iωt−γz nπ
γ= 1− , E = sin e , ωc = √
� = (0, 1, 0)E(x)eiωt−γz
E where E satisfies a ωc a a �µ

d2 E
∇2t E = = −K 2 E, K 2 = ω 2 �µ + γ 2 . ! "<"c gives real solution for #, so attenuation
dx2
y only. No wave propagates: cut-off modes.
with solution E = A cos Kx or A sin Kx
! ">"c gives purely imaginary solution for #,
x and a wave propagates without attenuation.
To satisfy boundary conditions: E = 0 on x = 0 and x = a. � �1
√ � �1 √ ω2 2
z nπ γ = ik, k= �µ ω 2 − ωc2 2 = ω �µ 1 − c2
=⇒ E = A sin Kx, with K = Kn ≡ , n integer ω
a ! For a given frequency " only a finite number of
Propagation constant is modes can propagate.
x=
0

x=

� nπ aω √
a

� �2 ω > ωc = √ =⇒ n < �µ
� nπ ω Kn a �µ π For given frequency, convenient to
γ= Kn2 − ω 2 �µ = 1− , ωc = √ choose a s.t. only n=1 mode occurs.
a ωc �µ

41 42

Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Phase and Group Velocities in the Simple Calculation of Wave Properties

Wave-Guide
• If a = 3 cm, cut-off frequency of lowest order mode is
√ � �1 √ � �
• Wave number k= �µ ω − 2
ωc2 2 < ω �µ ωc 1 3 × 108 nπ
fc = = √ ≈ ≈ 5 GHz ωc = √
2π 2a �µ 2 × 0.03 a �µ
2π 2π • At 7 GHz, only the n=1 mode propagates and
• Wavelength λ= > √ , ‣ free-space wavelength
k ω �µ
ω 1 √ � �1 1
‣ larger than free-space k= �µ ω 2 − ωc2 2 ≈ 2π(72 − 52 ) 2 × 109 /3 × 108 = 103 m−1
• Phase velocity vp =
k
> √
�µ velocity
2π
� � dω k 1 λ= ≈ 6 cm
• Group velocity k 2 = �µ ω 2 − ωc 2
=⇒ vg = = < √ k
dk ω�µ �µ
ω
‣ smaller than free-space vp = = 4.3 × 108 ms−1 > c
k
velocity
k
vg = = 2.1 × 108 ms−1 < c
ω�µ
44 45

Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

 Flow of EM Energy along the Simple Flow of E/M Energy
Wave-Guide
� �
• Fields (">"c) are: • Poynting vector: �=E
S � ∧H
� = Ey Hz , 0, −Ey Hx
nπx
Ex = Ez = 0, Ey = A sin cos(ωt = kz)
a � = 1 kA2 nπx
k nπ nπx • Time averaged: �S�
2
(0, 0, 1)
ωµ
sin2
a
Hx = − Ey , Hy = 0, Hz = − cos sin(ωt − kz)
ωµ aωµ a
1 kA2
• Integrate over x: �Sz � = a Total e/m energy
• Time averaged energies: 4 ωµ density
1 2
� a • So energy is transported at a rate: W = �A a
1 � 2 dx = 1 �A2 a 4
Electric energy: We = � |E|
4 0 8
� �� �2 � �2 �
a
1 � 2 dx = 1 µA2 a nπ k
Magnetic energy: Wm = µ |H| +
4 0 8 aωµ ωµ
n2 π 2
= We since k 2 + = ω 2 �µ
a2
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012

Flow of E/M Energy

� �
• Poynting vector: �=E
S � ∧H
� = Ey Hz , 0, −Ey Hx

� = 1 kA2 nπx
• Time averaged: �S�
2
(0, 0, 1)
ωµ
sin2
a

1 kA2
• Integrate over x: �Sz � = a Total e/m energy
4 ωµ density
1 2
• So energy is transported at a rate: W = �A a
4

Electromagnetic energy is transported down the waveguide

with the group velocity
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Monday, 28 May 2012 Monday, 28 May 2012