MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

JULIASIH PARTINI
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
2.1 Maxwell's Equations
* Monopol Magnet*
2.2 Constitutive Relations
2.3 Maxwell's Equations for Time-Harmonic Fields
2.4 Lorentz Force Law
2.5 Poynting's Theorem
Dalam formulasi Tensor :
• Untuk menguji kebenarannya dilakukan verifikasi kesesuaiannya dengan hukum
kekekalan muatan  
+• J = 0
t
• Jika konsisten maka muatan magnetik juga harus kekal dan dapat dibawa
kebentuk hukum kekekalan muatan tersebut. Untuk membuktikannya, persamaan
dikenai operasi divergensi :
  
(
 • (  E ) =  • −  0 J m − B / t )
• Ruas kiri = 0 karena sifat vector : divergensi dari rotasi sembarang vektor sama
dengan nol.

• Ruas kanan, Subtitusi persamaan  • B = 0  m

• Diperoleh 0 = − 0 J m − ( 0  m ) / t
• Yang dapat diubah menjadi
 m 
+  • Jm = 0
t
• Dengan menggunakan perhitungan teori (Delta Dirac, momentum sudut),
diperoleh muatan monopol magnetic sebesar

qm = 3,291909  10 −9 A.m
 Constitutive Relations
• The electric and magnetic flux densities D, B are
related to the field intensities E,H via the so-called
constitutive relations, whose precise form depends on
the material in which the fields exist.
• In vacuum

• the constitutive relations is for simple homogeneous,

isotropic dielectric and for magnetic materials:
• The permittivity  and permeability μ are related to the
electric and magnetic susceptibilities of the material

• The susceptibilities χ are measures of the electric and

magnetic polarization properties of the material
• The speed of light in the material and the
characteristic impedance

• The relative permittivity, permeability and refractive

index of a material
• Materials with a frequency-dependent dielectric
constant (ω) are referred to as dispersive

• The induced polarization P and magnetization M may

be made explicit in Maxwell’s equations by using the
constitutive relations:

• Maxwell’s equations
• Dispersion and absorption where ε and μ are
functions of frequency. (Causality does not permit
materials to be nondispersive; see, for example,
Kramers–Kronig relations.) Neither do the fields
need to be in phase, which leads to ε and μ being
complex. This also leads to absorption.

• Nonlinearity where ε and μ are functions of E and

B.  
( ( ) )
  ( 2)    
P(r , t ) =  0  e  E + E   e  E + E   e  E  E + ...
(1) ( 3)

• Anisotropy (such as birefringence or dichroism)

which occurs when ε and μ are second-rank tensors
Maxwell's Equations for Time-Harmonic Fields
• Through the inverse Fourier transform, general solutions of
Maxwell’s equation can be built as linear combinations of
single-frequency solutions
 Simple Models of Dielectrics, Conductors,
and Plasmas
• A simple model for the dielectric properties of a material
is obtained by considering the motion of a bound electron
in the presence of an applied electric field.
• A simple model for the dynamics of the displacement x of
the bound electron
Dielectrics

Its solution

Polarization per unit volume

The electric flux density

Lorentz Dielectric models

Plasma frequency of the material

The real and imaginary parts of (ω) characterize the

refractive and absorptive properties of the material
Conductors
Conductivity σ(ω):

Since in a metal the conduction charges are unbound,

ω0 = 0
(Drude Models)
Plasmas
Such as the ionosphere, the simple model ω0 = γ = 0. Thus, the
conductivity becomes pure imaginary and the corresponding
effective permittivity becomes purely real.

The plasma frequency can be calculated from

The propagation wavenumber of an electromagnetic wave
propagating in a dielectric/conducting medium is given in
terms of the effective permittivity

If ω > ωp, the electromagnetic wave propagates without

attenuation within the plasma. But if ω < ωp, the wavenumber
k becomes imaginary and the wave gets attenuated. At such
frequencies, a wave incident (normally) on the ionosphere
from the ground cannot penetrate and gets reflected back.