ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

(PHY122)
2022/2023 OMEGA SEMESTER

By
Dr. O.C.By
Olawole
Mr. O.C.
A Lecturer in Olawole
the Department of
A Lecturer
Physics in the
Covenant Department of
University,Ota
Physics Covenant University,Ota

1
 What is an electron?
 An electron is an elementary
subatomic particle that carries an
electrical charge of 1.6 × 10 C
−19

 The properties of the electron have

been determined by its interaction
with other particles.

2
 Note
• Electric charge is the physical
property of matter that causes it to
experience a force when placed in an
electromagnetic field.

3
 Contd.
 The attractive Coulomb force
between an electron and proton
causes electron to be bound into
atom.

4
 Contd.
 When an electron is in motion, it is
deflected by external magnetic fields.
 When multiple electrons flow along a
wire whilst in the presence of a
magnetic field, the wire is deflected,
giving rise to the concept of the
electrical motor.

5
 Particle Nature of Electricity
• In electrolysis, we assume that the
carriers of current through an acid or
salt solutions are ions, which may be
positively or negatively charged.

• From Faradays laws of electrolysis, the

charge carried by each ion is
proportional to its valency.
6
 Note
• Current can be thought of as the flow of
electrons within a conductor. It is
measured in Coulomb/second or
Ampere.

7
 Contd.
• The charge on a monovalent ion
can be found through the following
argument:
• Avogadro's constant, about 6.02 ×
10 , is the number of molecules in
23

one mole.

8
 Contd.
• In electrolysis, 96500 coulombs
(one faraday) is the quantity of
electricity required to deposit one
mole of a monovalent element.

9
 Contd.
• When the element is monatomic,
the number of ions of one kind
which carry this charge is equal to
the number of molecules.

10
 Contd.
• Therefore, the charge on each of the ions
is denoted by
Τ 23 −19
96500 6.02 × 10 = 1.6 × 10 𝐶
• If 1.6 × 10−19 C is denoted by the symbol
e, the charge on any ion is the e, 2e,or 3e,
etc., depending on its valency.

11
 Contd.
• Therefore, an electron is a basic
unit of charge.

• All charges, whether produced in

electrostatics, current electricity or
any other method, are multiples of
the basic unit of an electron.
12
 The Charge/Mass ratio

• The charge/mass ratio is a physical

quantity that is widely used to
describe charged particles.

13
Importance of Charge to Mass Ratio
• Some of the reasons why the study of
charge on the electron is important
are:
• Understanding the behaviour of atoms
and molecules
• Understanding electricity and
magnetism

14
 Contd.
• The charge on the electron plays a
key role in the behaviour of
particles in the universe. It is
essential in the study of stars,
galaxies, and the behavior of
subatomic particles

15
Thomson’s Experiment to find the e/m ratio

• In 1897 Thomson had for the first time

measured two fundamental properties
of the electron using a combination of
electric and magnetic fields. Of course
the best he could do was to measure
the charge and mass as a ratio of one
another but it was better than nothing!

16
Thomson’s e/m ratio experiment
17
 Contd.
• Thomson's apparatus is shown
simplified in the Figure 1. C and A
are the cathode and anode
respectively, and narrow slits are cut
in the opposite plates at A so that the
cathode rays passing through are
limited to a narrow beam.

18
Animation Video of Thomson’s e/m Ratio

19
 Contd.
• The rays then strike the glass at O,
producing a glow there. The rays can be
deflected electrostatically by means of
connecting a large battery to the
horizontal plates P, Q, or magnetically
by means of a current passing through
Helmholtz coils R, S, on either side of the
tube near P and Q, as shown in the
Figure 1:

20
Figure 1: Thomson's determination of e/m for electron
21
 Contd.
• The magnetic field is
perpendicular to the paper, and if
it is uniform a constant force acts
on the cathode rays (electrons)
normal to its motion.

22
 Contd.
• The particles thus begin to move
along the arc HK of a circle of
radius r. When they leave the field,
the particles move in a straight line
and strike the glass at G.

23
 Contd.
𝑚𝑒𝑣 2
• Force 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣 =
𝑟
𝑒 𝑣
= (a)
𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝐵
𝑂𝐺 𝐻𝐾
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐿 𝑟
𝐻𝐾 × 𝑂𝐿
𝑟=
𝑂𝐺
24
 Contd.
• The velocity 𝑣 was found by
applying an electric field between
P, Q of such an intensity E as to
bring the beam back to O. Then
𝐸𝑒 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣
𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵

25
 Contd.
• On substituting for v (a), the ratio
charge/mass (𝑒Τ𝑚𝑒 ) for an electron
was obtained.
𝑒 𝐸
= 2
𝑚𝑒 𝐵 𝑟
𝑒
= 1.76 × 1011 𝐶𝑘𝑔−1 (b)
𝑚𝑒

26
 Contd.
• Two of the most important features of
any particle are mass and charge.

• Although this was a great

measurement, it is clearly not very
useful without knowing each value
individually!

27
 Question 1
• What is the electric field in the
diagram below ?
• What is the force on an electron in
the diagram below ?

28
 Contd.

• Electric field=?
• Potential difference = 400 V
• Distance between the two plates
=20 mm
𝐸 = 𝑉ൗ
𝑑

𝐸 = 400ൗ0.02 = 20 kV/m
29
 Contd.
−19
• 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 = 1.6 × 10 × 20000

−15
𝐹 = 3.2 × 10 N

30
 Motivation
After the discovery of the electron and
calculation of the e/m ratio by J.J.
Thomson in 1897, Millikan sought a way
to measure the charge of an electron. If
the charge could be found, the electron
mass could also be calculated using
e/m. He assumed (correctly) at the time
that all electrons carried the same
charge.

31
 Millikan and Fletcher oil droplet experiment

Millikan Fletcher
• Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment was an
experiment performed by the American physicist
Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in 1909 to
measure the electric charge of a single electron.

• The Millikan’s oil-drop experiment took place in

the Ryerson Physical Laboratory at the University
of Chicago.

32
Millikan’s oil drop experiment apparatus.

33
Animation Video of Millikan’s Experiment

34
Q2: The Millikan oil-drop experiment proved that:

(a) Charges are continuous

(b) Electrons are massless
(c) Electric field only interacts with electrons
(d) Charges come in integer multiples of the
elementary charge e

35
Apparatus of Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

• Millikan’s and Fletcher’s apparatus

contain a parallel pair of horizontal
metal plates. By applying a potential
difference across the plates, a uniform
electric field was created in the space
between the plates.

36
 Contd.
• A ring of insulator: This was used to
hold the plates apart. Four holes are
drilled into the ring, three for
illumination by a bright light, and
another one to allow viewing through a
microscope.

37
 Contd.
• A fine mist of oil droplets was sprayed
into a chamber above the plates. This
type of oil was usually used in a vacuum
apparatus and was chosen because it had
an extremely low vapour pressure.
Ordinary oil would evaporate under the
heat, causing the mass of the oil drop to
change over the course of the
experiment.
38
 Millikan’s oil experiment procedure
• Oil is converted into tiny droplets using
atomizer (spray). Those droplets pass
through the holes present in the upper plate
of the apparatus.
• The downward motions of droplets are
observed through a microscope and then
their terminal velocity is measured.

39
 Contd.
• The air inside the chamber is ionized by
passing a beam of X-rays through it. The oil
droplets acquire electric charge when they
collide with gaseous ions produced by
ionization of air.
• The electric field is set up between the two
plates and so the motion of charged oil
droplets can be controlled by the electric
field.

40
 Contd.
• Gravity attracts the oil in a downward
direction and the electric field pushes the
charge upward. The strength of the electric
field is regulated so that the oil droplet
reaches an equilibrium position with
gravity.
• The charge over the droplet is calculated at
equilibrium, which is dependent on the
strength of the electric field and mass of the
droplet.
41
Outcome of Millikan’s Experiment
Mass Voltage Charge of oil drops
× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝒈 when [zeptocoulombs(zC)=
Balanced 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏 C]
(Volts)
5.9 3551 160
4.4 1841 320
3.7 4729 480
9.8 2501 640
6.2 2783 800
3.3 4568 960 42
 Contd.
• Millikan conducted an experiment that
allowed him to determine the charge of
an oil drop. He concluded by saying that
all charges on oil drops must be a
multiple of the electron charge.

43
 Quiz
Q3:What is the purpose of device G in the
figure below?

44
 Options to Q3

(a) To locate positively charge particles

(b) To create an electrical potential
difference (voltage between the
plates
(c) To magnify the droplets oil

45
 Quiz
Q4: What is the purpose of device A in the figure
below?
(a) To create an electrical potential
difference (voltage between the plates
(b) To introduce a fine mist of liquid oil into
the chamber

46
 Question!
Q5: Why do some droplets move up and
others down?

47
 Answer
Oil drops that are moving up either contain
many electrons or have a low mass (or both), as
the force they experience due to the electric
field is greater than their weight.

Drops that are moving down either contain a

small amount of electrons or have a large mass
(or both), as their weight is larger than the
electric force.
48
Millikan’s oil droplet experiment

In order to understand what he did we

need to remember a little physics first….

49
 Theory of Millikan’s Experiment
• Force on a charged particle in an E
field : If the particle has a charge of q,
then the force on it is qE in newtons
when q is given in coulombs and E is
given in 𝑉/𝑚.
Felectric  qE
(1)

50
 Contd.
• The downward force acting on the oil
drop is due to the gravitational pull on
the drop.
𝐹𝐺 = mg (2)

51
 Contd.
• Electric field : If we have two parallel
plates a distance d apart and the voltage
difference between them is V, we can say
that the electric field is E where V is in
volts, d in metres and E in 𝑉/𝑚.
𝑉
𝐸= (3)
𝑑

52
 Contd.
• Therefore, when the electrostatic
force and the force of gravity is
balanced, such that the oil drop is
brought to rest.
• Therefore, the charge on the oil
drop can be expressed as:
𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐺 (4)
53
 Contd.
Also, the mass of the oil drop can be
expressed in terms of the density of the oil
as:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑖𝑙
Density of oil (𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 ) = (5)
𝑉𝑜𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

If the oil drop is approximately spherical, its

volume is given as:
4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = (6)
3

54
 Contd.
• where r is the radius of the oil drop.
Hence, the gravitational pull on the oil
drop can be expressed as:
4
𝐹𝐺 = 𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 (7)
3

55
 Contd.
• Consequently, there is another force acting
on the oil drops. The buoyancy due to the
surrounding air between the plates
introduces an upward thrust (𝐹𝑏 ):
4
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 (8)
3
As the drop fall down through the viscous air,
it experiences an upward drag force (viscous
force) given by Stoke’s law as:
𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 (9)

56
 Contd.
• In summary, Millikan first measured the
terminal velocity of an oil-drop falling
through air. He then charged the oil-drop
and applied an electric field to oppose
gravity. The drop now moved with a
different terminal velocity, which was again
measured.

57
 Contd.
• Suppose the radius of the oil-drop is r, the
densities of oil and air are 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 and 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
respectively, and the viscosity of air is 𝜂.
When the drop, without a charge, falls
steadily under gravity with a terminal
velocity 𝑣1 :
Upthrust + viscous force= weight of drop
4 4
𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 +6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 = 𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 (10)
3 3

58
 Contd.
4 4
6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 = 𝑔𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
3
(11)
3 3
4
6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 = 𝑔𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
3
(12)
3
1
9𝜂𝑣1 2
𝑟= (13)
2 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 −𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔

59
 Contd.
• Suppose the drop now acquires a
negative charge e' and an electric field
of intensity E is applied to oppose
gravity, so that the drop now has a
terminal velocity 𝑣2 .

60
 Contd.
• Therefore, since the force due to E on
the drop is 𝐸𝑞, we shall have:
4 4
𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 +6π𝑟𝜂𝑣2 = 𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 − Eq (14)
3 3

4
𝐸𝑞 = 𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 6π𝑟𝜂𝑣2 (15)
3

61
 Contd.
• From Equation 12, we shall replace,
4
𝑔𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 with 6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 in Equation
3
15 to get:
𝐸𝑞 = 6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 − 6π𝑟𝜂𝑣2
𝑞=
6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 − 6π𝑟𝜂𝑣2
𝑞=
𝐸
6π𝑟𝜂 𝑣1−𝑣2
𝑞= (16)
𝐸

62
 Contd.
• Substituting Equation 13 in Equation 15, we
shall have
1
6π𝜂 9𝜂𝑣1 2
𝑞= 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 (16)
𝐸 2 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 −𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔

Millikan concluded that the charge ′𝑞′ was

1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 .

63
 Q6
• Calculate the radius of a drop of oil,
density 900 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , which falls with a
terminal velocity of 2.9 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1
through the air of viscosity 1.8 ×
10−5 𝑁𝑠𝑚−2 . Ignore the density of the
air. If the charge on the drop is −3𝑒,
what p.d. must be applied between
two plates 5 cm apart for the drop to
be held stationary between them?
64
 Solution
𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔

4
6π𝑟𝜂𝑣1 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
3

9𝜂𝑣1
𝑟=
2𝑔𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙

9 × 1.8 × 10−5 × 2.9 × 10−4

𝑟=
2 × 900 × 9.8

65
 Contd.
−6
𝑟 = 1.6 × 10 𝑚
4 3
𝐸 × 3𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
3
3
4𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑉
=
9𝑒 𝑑
3
4𝜋𝑟 𝑑 × 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑉=
9𝑒
66
 Contd.
4𝜋 1.6 × 10−6 3 × 900 × 5 × 10−2
𝑉=
9 × 1.6 × 10−19

𝑉 = 1600 V

67
 Electron-Volts

• We can use electron-volts in two main ways;

 As a convenient unit of energy,
 To calculate the velocity of a charged
particle passing through an electric field.

68
 Contd.
• 1 electron-volt =1eV =1.610−19 1 = 1.6
10−19 J.
• In particle physics we often deal with very
small energies and it is often therefore more
convenient to refer to 3.210−19 J as 2 eV.

69
 Contd.

 Imagine a particle of mass m and charge q is

accelerated from rest through a
voltage V. The energy given to the electron is
therefore
𝐸 = 𝑞𝑉 (14)

70
 Contd.
• If all this energy is converted into motion
then this will be equal to the final kinetic
energy of the particle. So
1Τ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑞𝑉 (15)
2
The final velocity of electron is:
2𝑞𝑉
𝑣= (16)
𝑚
v is in metres per second, V is in volts, q is in
coulombs, m in kilograms.

71
 Q7
 Electrons are emitted from the cathode in an
evacuated tube. The electrons start from rest
and are accelerated through a potential
difference of 1150V.
 What is the speed of the electrons when
then arrive at the anode?
(Take charge on an electron is 1.610−19 𝐶
and mass of electron is 9.110−31 𝑘𝑔 ).

72
 Solution

2𝑞𝑉
•𝑣=
𝑚

2qV 2 1.6 1019 1150 1

v   2  107
ms
m 9.11031

73
 Assignment
• An oil drop of radius 1.000 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚 falls
freely in air, midway between two vertical
parallel metal plates of large extent, which
are 0.5000 𝑐𝑚 apart, and its terminal velocity
is 1.066 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 . When a potential difference of
3000 volts is applied between the plates, the
path of the drop becomes a straight line
inclined at an angle of 31° 36′ to the vertical.
Find the charge on the drop. (Assume the
viscosity of air to be 1.816 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 𝑠 −1 )

74
Thank you for your rapt attention

75