THE RESUME ABOUT 1-7 GROUPS BY EACH QUESTION

Language Acquisition

By :

NESI RAMADANI (2318031)

PBI-4A

Lecturer :

IRWANDI, S.S, M.Pd

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING
STATE ISLAMIC INSTITUTE (IAIN) OF BUKITTINGGI
2019/2020
 GROUP 1

A. Question
1. How is the process of early speech stages
B. Answer

The process early speech stages

The process of early stages
naming morpehmic
holophrastic telegraphic

The process of early speech stages

a. Naming : one word utterance

the definition of Naming in this context is when children put words to the object.
It usually accompany by actions no matter the actions from the child or people around
him/her.

First word has been reported from as young as 4 months to as old as 18 months, or even
older. On the average, it would seems that children utter their first word around the age of
10 months.

b. Holophrastic functions: one word utterances

holophrastic means the child use the single word to express the thought while the
adult will use the whole sentence.

E.g: ‘peach,Daddy,spoon’

to describe a situation where Daddy had cut a piece of peach that was in a spoon
rather than say it in a full sentence like the adult does.

c. Telegraphic speech: two and three utterances

a. Variety of purposes and semantics
-purpose: the child uses language to request, warn, name, refuse, brag,
question, answer (in response to questions), and inform.
-semantic relations (expressed or implied):
As agent, action, experiencer, receiver, state, object, possession, location,
attribution, equation, negation, and quantification.
b. Low incidence of function words
These function words include articles, prepositions, and ‘be’ (am, are, is,
were, was, been).
 Children is very familiar with nouns, verbs, and adjectives only, as the
daily utterence that they use after hearing from the surrounding environment.
The meanings of function words such as to John, with Mary, the car,
candy and cake could never be determined if the meanings of nouns, verbs, and
adjectives were not known. But after hearing the sentence that fits the context like
‘The toy is on the table’, the children could probably guess what the function of a
preposition ‘on’ in that sentence.

c. Close approximation of the language’s word order

Children are already able to make up two-words such as ‘My cup’ rather
than ‘Cup my’, ‘Daddy come’ instead of ‘Come Daddy’ when they meet the
context they are facing. .
d. Syntactic vs. Semantic analysis
Before 1960s, the child’s language acquisition research was only focus on
syntax based on Chomky’s syntactic-based theory. E.g. “Mommy chair” = Noun
+ Noun.
characterizing utterances wholly in terms of syntactic form fails to
uncover important information: the variety of semantic relations and purposes for
which utterances are used. For example in the words “Mommy chair” may
involve the concept of possession (Mommy’s chair). Such concept would be
missed in a simple word-class analysis.
d. Morpheme acquisition

After children gaining two or three utterances, they have something to elaborate. They
will begin to use function words and inflections to their uttenrances.

Function words like the preposition (on, in, at), articles (the a, an), modals (can, will,
may), auxiliaries (do, be, have) will appear together with inflections such as the plural /s/ on
‘cats’, and tense markings such as the /t/ past tense form on ‘worked’

a. The Brown morpheme acquisition research

A psycholinguist Roger Brown focused on the acquisition of different function
words and inflections in English. He found that children acquired the morphemes
in a relatively similar order.
b. The explanation of order of acquisition
Almost three decades since brown’s theory of morpheme was presented.
According to steinberg there is no theory has adequately explained that order. The
three variables which we explain the general order of acquisition, according to
Steinberg, are : 1. Ease of observability of Referent. 2. Meaningfulness of
Referent. 3. Distinctiiveness of the Sound Signal which Indicates the Referent.
 These variables affect second-language learning as well. The three variables that
generally what the child first understands will be that which the child first
produces
Variabel 1: about ease af observability of referent. For example, if somcone were
to say ‘The dog is barking’ as opposed to "The dog harked' or The dog will bark',
Variable 2: meaningfulness of referent Referent. For example, the child can say
like 'Car table', 'Car going', 'Doll sitting', 'Doll walking‘ clearly.
Variable 3: distinctiveness of sound in signalling the referent. The greater the
sound distinction involved, the casier it will be for a morpheme signal (consisting
of one or more phonemes) to be learned.
c. Rating to these variable
In tne brown study on each of these variables state that H (high), M(medium), or
L(low). Until the children learns to understand and wants to express ideas of the past
which involve a continuing action. So in the summary column, this morpheme receives
an L-L-L pattern.

So morpheme referents which are more observable and carry more meaning will
be more quickly learned than those which are not and this is why we find
mophemes whose referents are less observable and less meaningful.

d. Explaining the order of some morpbemes by the three variables theory

1. Why are Progressive and Prepositions 'in' and 'on' learned earliest?

2. Why is Plural and Possessive learned before Third Person?

3. Why is Past Irregular learned before Past Regular?-

1. Why are progressive and prepossition 'in' and 'on' learned earliest?

the Progressive morpheme involves the action of those objects, while preposítions involve the
physical location of those objects.

The prepositions 'in' and 'on' are learned prior to other prepositions for two reasons. (1) They
are linearly sandwiched between two concrete nouns (e.g. 'doll in box'), the referents of which
are meaningful and easily observable in the physical environment. (2) The refer- ents remain
stationary in physical space with respect to one another, thus allowing for ease of observability.

2. Why are Plural and Possessive learned before Third Person?

Plural and possessive are more meaningful to children than Singular Third Person. These two
morphemes involve physical events, situations, and objects that are easily observed in the
environment, whereas, for possessive, children can easily distinguish their toys from other
children's toys. So this is a morpheme whose references are easily visible and involve references
that are very meaningful to children.

3. Why is Past Irregular learned before Past Regular?

Voice signal are very much considered here because irregulares have 1, 2 and 3 different verbs
so that it is easier to understand and find differences in verbs and more often used in daily life
whereas the sound suffix of the past tense is / t / (jump), / d / (jogging), and fid / (want /), withthe
first two (/ t / and / d /) being very difficult to hear. And the difference is only in word emphasis.
 Group 2

a. Question
How is the process of speech stages

b. Answer
Later speech stages

Negation formation Passive formation

Question
formaation
1. How is the process of later speech stages ?
a. Negation formation.

One of the earliest sentence structure rules axquired by children. Involving 3 periods :

- Neg + v = no money
- Aux + neg = I don’t want it
- Perfect negative = paul can’t have one, I not hurt him, don’t touch me.
b. Question formations : demonstrating a complex abstract task.
3 phase :
- rising intonation. E.g : sit chair ?
- simple WH question. E.g : where my mitten ?
- the gradual emergence of a tag question. E.g : he will come ? / will he ?

c. passive formation.

The children can make the passive sentence when 13 years old.

3 phase of passive formation :

- Relying : catch the sentence or structure ( around 4 years old)

- Interpreting : understand the sentence, which is subject and object ( 9 y.o )
- Applying : use the sentence or structure ( 13 y.o ).
 Group 3

a. Question
1. What is the phenomena of featuses and speech input?
2. What is the phenomena of newborn and speech input?
3. What issue does relate to the case of mute- hearing children?
4. What issue does relate to speech somprehension in normal children?
5. What is relative paucity of comprenession sudy?
1. Answer

The development of speech

Featuse and speech input case of mute hearing

neonates and speech input

normal children speech comprehension relative paucity of compehension

1. How is the phenomena of fetuses and speech input ?

- The ear of the fetus is developed enough to send sounds to the brain is
unknown.
- the effects of the mother’s voices on the fetus’s intrauterine listening may
explain post-birth listening preferences of the neonate for the mother’s voice
and for the language the mother spoke while pregnant.
- 3-day-or younger infants be able to differenciate between Mother’s voice and
another woman’s voice.
- the first 12 hours after birth when the mother was talkng to the newborn.
2. How is the phenomena of newborns and speech input ?
- The Fetus may have been affected by the vibrations from the mother’s voice
that reached its developing ears through the body tissues.
 - This ability to distinguish the language spoken by the mother could be
ascribed to intonational differences between the languages which the fetus
receives.
3. What issue does relate to The Case of Mute-Hearing Children ?
- People such as these may be born with cerebral palsy or some other
abnormality that prohibits them from articulating speech.
- Person who are mute but hearing can develop the ability to comprehend
speech without their being able to produce speech, so long as their basic
intelligence is intact.
4. What issue does relate to speech comprehension in normal children ?
- The children are unable to utter words or sentences for the purpose of
communication without gaining an understanding of the speech first could be
otherwise.
- The Comprehension of language precedes production does not mean a child
must understand all of the language before being able to produce something.
Rather, progress goes bit by bit.
- It should also be noted that the two systems of comprehension and production
do not develop separately for the normal child.
5. Relative Paucity of Comprehension Studies

Most of the language acquisition studies have been concerned with the
development of speech production. The reason for this is simple: production studies
are easier to do. The product of the speech production process, the child’s utterance,
is something that can be directly observed while the product of the comprehension
process, meaning, cannot. Compre- hension can only be inferred on the basis of
relevant behaviour. Needless to say, this is very difficult.
 Group 4

a. Question
1. Analyze the relationship of speech production and speech comprehension!
2. Analyze the relationship of speech comprehension and thought
b. answer
a. speech comprehension necessarily precedes speech production
the reasons:
1. the bassis of all language is meaning
because the children know that meaning so they speak it
2. children must first hear speech sounds before they know what sounds to make
3. before assign a meaning to speech sound in coordination with the experiences of
objects, situation or events in the environment
b. thought as the bassis of speech comprehension
the reasons:
1. the meaning s that underlie speech comprehension
2. thought is independent of language
the function of language for the expression and communication of thought
3. the development of thought precedes the development of language
thought-speech understanding-speech production

speech production
speech understanding
though
 Group 5
a. question
1. explain the characteristic of parentese and baby talk
2. explain the effect of parentese and baby talk in language learning
3. explain the issue which relate to the phenomena of immitatiom,rule
learning,and correction.
b. Answer
Parentese is the sort of speech that children receive when they are young.
Baby talks is one of parentese. Baby talk is .a form parentese whioch has
specific characteristic in this case, baby talk uses vocabulary and syntax that is
overly simplified and reduce.
1. Characteristics
a. Parentese
1. Immediacy(happening and nearest) and concreteness
2. Input for grammaticality
3. Short sentences and simply sentence
4. Vocabulary is simple. E.g :see instead of notice/search) and short
5. Hight intonation,pitch,stress
6. It is adopteted by older children
b. Baby talks
1. Modification in vocabulary
2. Representing the sound wich various thing make(conormatopoeic)
3. Creating words which are not used outride of the family,
2. The effect parentese and baby talk

effects of Parentese have been found to depend as much on the child as on the
parent (Hampson and Nelson, 1993), and on the interaction between the child
and parent (Yoder and Kaiser, 1989; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1990). As long as the
child receives appropriate language input which is appropriate for the child’s
cognitive level, there is no good reason to believe that a child would not learn
 language at a level near that of his or her peers who do receive Parentese and
Baby Talk.

3. explain the issue which relate to the phenomena of immitatiom,rule

learning,and correction
1. What is learned by Imitation.
Imitation means that the child copies and repeats aloud the words which he or she
hears. Through imitation, children learn how to pronounce sounds and words and they
seem to enjoy imitating the sounds which they hear. However, it must be keep in
mind that there is an obvious limitation, which is that imitation can apply only to
speech production and not to speech comprehension. Besides, imitation is important
for developing the articulation of speech sounds.
2. Productivity by Rule.
The child’s production of certain novel words and sentences cannot be explained by
imitation.
E.g:
‘sheeps’, ‘mouses’ and 'gooses'– regarding the Plural

‘Goed, 'comed', 'falled', and 'breaked'– regarding the Past

a.) Children have formulated rules in their minds according to which they construct
novel utterances.
b.) They learn the PLURAL and PAST tense morpheme and then apply those to
new cases.
c.) Before the PAST rule was learned, child has already learned many of the PAST
irregular forms.
d.) The power of the PAST rule is so strong that the formerly learned irregular past
forms ‘went’ is regarded or confused.
3. The Frequent Futility of Correction.
a.) It use to be thought by many that the correction of children’s speech is essential to
improvement.
b.) When parents do attempt to correct their children’s speech, the results are often
fruitless and frustrating.
c.) But there are cases where parents’ corrections, particularly with older children,
may directly result in improvement.
d.) In order to improve the child must
 Note the difference between the child’s own utterance and that of the parent.
 Determine what the nature of the error is and
 Figure out a way to permanently change his or her grammar or strategies so
that it yields the parent’s utterance in the future.
 Most parents are not interested in the ungrammatically of the utterances of
their children. Rather, they are more interested in the truth value, social
appropriateness, or cleverness of what their children say.
 Group 6

a. Question
1. How do children learn abstract word
2. Explain the types of memory in language learning
3. Explain the types og logic in language learning.
b. Answer
1. How do children learn abstract words ?

Children acquire the meaning of words begin with the concrete and go on
to the abstract. Children learn abstract words by experiencing those words.
Metaphor also help children to comprehend the abstract concept.

2. Explain the types of memory in language learning !

- Child must remember a multitude of particular words, phrase and sentences
along with the context, both physical and mental in which they occurred.
- Such data provide the basis for structural analyses and the acquisition of
vocabulary
- If not they would have little basis for discovering abstract meaning and rules
- Without a good memory, language learning would not be possible
- Children a s young as 8 months begin to remember words
- There 2 types of memory operate in language
First, assosiative learning is where a connection is formed between an object
and the sound form name that object. Second, episodic learning where whole
events or situation are remembered along with phrases and sentences that
others have spoken.
3. Explain the types of logic in language learning!
- Children uses inductive logic
This is use even in early grammatical phase of learning basic morphemes. E.g
plural, children must scan the sentences uttered by mature speakers and then
note that a suffix is added when 2 or more objects are being talked about. It
 showed that 1) there is a search for characteristic in speech and 2) those
characteristic are related to object and etc. it represents the essence ot the use
of the inductive logic.
- Young children use deductive logic
This reflects a great deal of conceptualization and thinking on the part of the
child.
Chapter 7

The Deaf People In Producing And Comprehending Language

A. How Do People Use Sign Language And Gesture

1. The Use of Sign Language and Gesture

a. The Criteria for Sign language as a Sign Language

1. A Formal Criterion for a True Language

A Sign Language is a true language because the language system allows a

signer to comprehend and produce an unrestricted number of grammatical sign
sentences.
2. An Informal Criterion for a True language
Abstract sentences can be conveyed through signing. Such a sentences is
a good test since it expresses a variety of complex semantic functions and
relations and involves a number of events and situations.
3. Complete and Incomplete Sign Language
The Findings showed that signers of such sign languages as American Sign
Language, French Sign Language, British Sign Language and others can indeed
communicate in sign whatever is expressed in speech.Other sign languages may
be incomplete syntacticallyor limited in terms of vocabulary.

b.The Classification of Gestures

1) Gestures without Speech

a. Gestures using arms, head, torso.

We use gestures to communicate a variety of types of messages. Gestures

are often similar but seldom universal. Coming upon another community’s
gestures may lead to confusion for an outsider..

b. Facial Gesture
Facial movements are used everywhere to convey a wide range of
qemotions and feelings.
c. Iconic Gestures
In examining gestures, it becomes obvious that some gestures are more
related, or suggest, the ideas that they are intended to represent than the others.
The kinds of gestures having a close relationship between gesture and meaning
are called iconic gestures. There are meaningful but more abstractly iconic
gestures as well.
d. Specialized communities and their gestures

There are also restricted gestures which are known and used by small
groups :Stock Trading, Betting at a race, Music, Sports, Television

2) Gestures with Speech

a. Beat

Beat is a common gesture, where one’s hand or finger is kept in motion

and is synchronized with what a person is saying. The purpose of beat is basically
to emphasize the discourse function of concurrent speech.

b. Iconic Gesture
The Gesture is made while the important portion of the sentence is being
uttered. Making note of what people do when they talk such as their
production of iconic and beat gestures, can be a very interesting pastime.
c.Speech-Based Sign Language

There are two types of sign language: one that relates to ordinary speech-based
language and one that is independent of ordinary language.

a. Speech-based sign languages represent spoken words and the order of these
words or morphemes as they appear in ordinary spoken languages.

b. Sign language based on the speech of ordinary language can be of two different
kinds: one which represents the morphemes of speech and one which represents
spelling.

1. Finger Spelling: Letter by Letter

There are both one-hand and two-handed systems of finger spelling. Users
of both systems can sign relatively quickly but both processes are rather
laborious. The two-handed system, however, is faster and provides more easily
identifiable letters.

2. Morpheme by Morpheme (MnM) Sign Language: SigningEssential English and

Seeing Exact English
Signing Essential English and Seeing Exact English are typical of this type
of sign system, most of which were created the USA around the 1960s, before the
interest in and widespread acceptance of ASL.
 Advantages of MnM systems

a. Learner simultaneously acquires the morphology and syntax of both the sign
and related speech-based language.

b. Easier for an adults hearing person to learn an MnM than ISL

 Serious Disadvantages
a. Children do not learn MnM easily.

b. MnM is not preferred by the deaf community.

B. Explain the issues that relate to the Use of Oral Language

A. The Oral approach and Total Communication

The Oral approach has a worthy aim, to teach the hearing-impaired to produce
and comprehend speech so that they can communicate with the hearing community.

1). Oral approach successful with the less Hearing-Impaired

The Oral approach focuses on the teaching of speech production. Its secondary
focus is on speech comprehension. Be that as it may, in this approach children from the
age of 2 or 3 years onwards are specially trained in the skill of articulating speech sounds.

2). Oral approach fails with the severely Hearing-Impaired

As was just noted, a great problem with the Oral approach is that it tends only to
work for a portion of the hearing-impaired population.

3). Speechreading is not easy

The comprehension of speech is usually fostered through both exploiting any

residual hearing that learners may have and teaching of speechreading, commonly known
as “lipreading”.

4). A Sensible Approach : Total Communication

Because of the large number of failing cases as a result of the application of the
Oral approach, many Hearing-impaired persons were unable to communicate with the
hearing community but were unable to communicate adequately with their Hearing-
impaired friends are colleagues.

B. The Sign Language vs Oral Approach Controversy

1). Rationale of Oral Advocates in Excluding Sign Language

While Oral Approach advocates, such as Daniel Ling and the Ewings, may be
even admit that sign language is a language, they argue not only that the learning and use
of sign language negatively affects argue not only that the learning and use of sign
language negatively affects the acquisition of speech but that without speech production
there will the defective thinking.

2). One formidable advocate of the Oral Approach : Alexander Graham Bell

• Alexander Graham Bell comes to America

Bell was intimately involved with deaf people and their education all of
his life. His mother was deaf his hearing father was a well-known educator of the
deaf who had invented a written phonetic alphabet.
• Bell impress both sign langugae and oral approach advocates
Bell was invited to give a short course in oral teaching at the pro-sign
Gallaudet American Asylum in Hartford. The Silent world, a magazine for the
deaf, reported that not only was Bell successful in getting the pupils to articulate
sounds but that by the end of two months Bell himself was communicating with
his pupils by means of his newly acquired sign language.
• Why Bell favoured the oral approach
Bell conceded the sign language to be aesthetically beautiful and easiest of
all for deaf children to acquire and use among themselves. Bell cited two danger s
(1) the children would use sign language and then, as a result of laziness, would
not seriously apply themselves to learning (2) Bell believed that sign language
was inferior compared to a speech-based language.

3). Bell versus Edward Gallaudet

The background of Bell and Edward Gallaudet were stratrlingly similar: both had
deaf mothers and hearing fathers. Interestingly, Edward Gallaudet later became
symphatetic to the oral method to the degree that he advocated a ‘ Combined Method’,
the forerunner to the Total communication approach where both sign and speech are
taught. He no longer scoffed at speechreading as he had when he first met Bell. Since the
oral method can be effective in certain categories of hearing loss, this was, and still is, in
our opinion, a very sensible app.
C. Explain the issues that relate to the Use of Written Language !

The problem which remains is how deaf people are to communicate with
members of the dominant hearing community. This is a different problem. In this regard
two main approaches are available. One is speech (through the Oral Approach), which, as
we know, benefits only those who have a moderate hearing loss. The other, little known,
is the Written Bilingual Language Approach. The essential idea of this approach is that
the meaningful written forms of an ordinary speechbased language, such as English or
Spanish, with its words, phrașes, and sentences, are to be learned initially through direct
association' with objects, events, and situations in the environment. Even if written
language is learned with the aid of sign, the final knowledge product is a separate
language. Thus, just as hearing children learn language, initially by associating the
speech sounds that they hear with environmental experiences hearing impaired children
can learn language in a similar way, but through association of written forms with those
environmental experiences.

By such teaching, hearing-impaired children will acquire essentially same

vocabulary and syntax of the English language as hearing child: In the writing of any
language, be it English, Danish, Chinese and etc. Learning of written language have
advantage for the hearing impaired and their education i.e. :

1. The learning medium is appropriate.

2. No new knowledge need be acquired by instructors

3. Instruction can begin in infancy.

4. All bearing-impaired children can benefit.

5. Written language acquisition cam facilitate speech.

6. Writen language teaching is compatible with other approaches.

Four phases of the teaching programme

1. Word familiarization

2. Word identification

3. Phrase and sentence identification

4. Paragpraph and stories

 Reading principles and teaching
1. The approach of teaching reading
Every children needs mental process in reading because it involved mind and
cognitive of the child.
a. The whole word approach
- pendekatan dalam mengajar membaca dimana kita langsung memperkenalkan
kata.
- Lebih banyak digunakan
- Pendekatan dengan menyampaikan seluruh kata
- E.g gambar gelas ada tulisan gelas
The reasons whole word approach is better:
1. Reading should involve only meaningful words,phrases and sentences.
Anak bisa mengerti hubungan kata dengan objeknya.
2. Children learn to segment their native language morphemically,
syntacticly, phonologically by induction.
-Induction adalah cara berfikir dimana anak menghimpun seluruh bunyi2
yang dia dengarr lalu menyimpulkan sendiri perbedaan antar bunyi
tersebut dengan sendirinya
- anak akan menyimpulkan sendiri seiring dengan seringnya dimunculkan
bunyi2 berdadarkan kata kepda anak
Process berfikir induksi, anak mmerhatikan gejala2 khusus darri setiap
kata kata yang dimunculkan selama 5 tahun.

b. The phonic whole approach

- Menekankan kepada,bunyi dari setiap huruf.
- Bagaimana mengeja huruf perhuruf.
- Diberikan sedikit saja.
 Menuut para ahli cara yang lebih tepat adalah the whole word approach
karena langsng memperkenalkan kata.
Dengan menggunakan pendekatan whole word tidak akan bermasalah pada
phonic

Concept about reading readiness:

- True readiness:
- A child is ready to read when the child can understand spoken words(what
others speak) .this is all that necessary.
- The child is ready to read as long as the child can say the words or there is no
problem by the child in speech .
- A child can be thought to read the words,phrases and sentences as long as the
child understand in speech
- Usually the child can tought to read start from 2 years

Program to teach the child in reading

There are 4 phase:

1. word familiarization
fase mendekatkan anak dengan kata,bias dengan permainan,
e,g gambar jeruk dengan tulisan jeruk
2. word Identification.
e.g buku + bola
anak akan menyimpilkan mana huruf o dan u
3. phrase identification
ini budi
4. paragraph and book reading.
Anak sudah bisa membaca buku cerita.
Conclusion ; a whole word approach lebih baik karena