BY GROUP 6

BRITSHY R HUKA 201736160

INGGRID TIMISELA 201736045

SANTI KAWAI 201736107

SITTY S PIKALOUHATTA 201736

AYU SETIANINGSIH 201726037

SUMMARY OF
T

U
Design in
MATERIALS
C

T Teal
I

1
 1. A Constituents
3. The Practice Course
of 2. Developing
inLanguage
English Language
and Categories
materials
4. Teaching
Teaching
Testing
for
of(Jeremy
(Penny
Methods......................................................................72-75
grammar
language
Ur)teaching...........................................................3-23
.......................................................................67-71
...........................................................24-36
Harmer) 3rd Edition ................................................37-66
CONTENT OF THE SUMMARY
- -Teaching
Chapter 6:receptive-skills
DevelopingTeaching
principles
vocabulary
frameworks for materials development

- -Chapter
Reading7: Writing -aTeaching
coursebook
pronunciation

- -Chapter
Listening
8: Publishing a courseboo: Completing the materials development circle

- -Chapter
Teaching
9: productive
Humanizing skills
the coursebook
- Writing
- Chapter 10: The visual element in EFL coursebook
-Speaking
- Chapter 11: Creative approaches to writing materials

- Chapter 12: Developing electronic materials for language teaching

DESIGN
IN TEAL

2
 DEVELOPING MATERIALS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING
(CHAPTER 6-12)

Chapter 6.
Developing Principled Frameworks for Materials Development
There have been a number of accounts in the literature by materials developers of the
process they follow when developing materials. Many writerswrote their materials focused on
the creative process of writing, example; writing is fun, because it’s creative: writing can be
frustrating, when ideas don’t come; writing is absorbing-the best material are written in trances.
Most of writers quoted here appear to rely heavily on their own intuitions, viewing textbook
writing in the same way as writing fiction, while at the same time emphazing the constraints of
the syllabus.

Most of the writers focus on what starts and keep them writing, and they say such things
as, writing brings joy, when inspiration comes, when your hand cannot keep up with the speed of
your thoughts. However, they say very little about any principles of learning and teaching which
guide their writing or about any frameworks which they use to facilitate coherence and
consistency. Maley says that writing instructional materials is best seen as a form of
operationalised tacit knowledge which involves trusting our intuitions and beliefs. If a unit of
material does not feel right, no amount of rational persuasion will usually change my mind
about it. Richard (1995:105), however, whilst referring to his need to listen to the local classical
music station when writing, concludes that the process of materials writing is 10 percent
inspiration and 90 percent perspiration.
Frameworks for Materials Development
A number of writers in the books mentioned above focus on the need to establish and be
driven by unit outlines or frameworks. Rozul (1995:213) reports a lesson format which includes
the following key components:

a. Starter
b. Input
c. General information
d. Language focus
a. Tasks

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 Richards (1995:102-3) describes the process of designing a design or frame for a unit in a
textbook which can serve as a formulate which the author can use in writing the book and Flores
(1995:60-2) outlines a lesson format with the following basic stages:
a. Listening with understanding
b. Using grammar in oral interaction
c. Reading for understanding
d. Writing
e. Literature

Jolly and Bolitho (1998:97-8) have an interestingly different approach to frameworks and
focus not on unit framework but on framework for developing materials which involves the
following procedures:

a. Identification of need for materials

b. Exploration of need
c. Contextual realization of materials
d. Pedagogical realization of materials
e. Production of materials
f. Student use materials
g. Evaluation of materials against agreed objectives.
Principles in Materials Development
Most writers on the process of materials development focus on needs analysis as their
starting point. Some writers report starting by articulating their principles. Penalflorida
(1995:172-9) reports her use of the six principles of material design identified by Nunan (1988):

a. Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum they serve

b. Materials should be authentic in terms of text and task
c. Materials should be Stimulate interaction
d. Materilas should allow learners to focus on formal aspects of the language
e. Materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills, and skills in learning
f. Materials should encourage learners to apply their developing skills to the world
beyond the clasroom.

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 Before planning or writing materials for language teaching, there is one crucial question
we need to ask ourselves. The question should be the first item on the agenda at the first planning
meeting. The question is this: How do we think people learn language?

Hall then goes on to discuss the following theoretical principles which he thinks should
underpin everything else which we do in planning and writing our materials: the need to
communicate; the need for long-term goals; the need for authenticity; the need for students-
centredness. The answer of the question about how we think people learn language, one is text–
driven and ideal for developing coursebooks and supplementary classroom materials. The other
is task-driven and ideal for localizing and personalizing classroom materials, and for autonomous
learning.
A Text-driven Approach to Materials Development
Stage Procedure Principles Objectives
Text Collection Find or create Affective engagement is To build a library
potentially a prerequisite for of texts with the
engaging texts durable learning potential for
(written or engaging learners
spoken)
Text Selection Select a text Text need to be To find a text with
suitable in level matched with learners the potential for
and theme for useful engagement
your target for the target
learners learners
Text Experience Read or listen to Apprehension should To start from an
the text come before experience which
experientially comprehension you can try to help
the learners to
approximate
Readiness Devise activities Experiencing a text is a To help the
Activities which could help multidimentional learners to
the learners process involving experience a target
achieve mental sensory imaging, inner language text in the
readiness for speech and the multidimentional
experiencing the establishment of way they would
text affective and cognitive automatically use
connections when experiencing
an L1 text
Experiential Devise whilts- L2 learners tend to To help the
Activities reading or process a text in a learners to move
listening activities studial way in an away from their
which will help insequre attempt to tendency to study

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 the learners to achieve total texts so that they
process the text in comprehension can engage with
an experiential the text instead
way experientially
Intake Response Devise activities Learning is facilitated To encourage
Activities which help by starting positively learners to process
learners to from what the learners their representation
articulate and do know and understand of a text rather than
develop their the text itself and to
mental encourage them to
representations of be relaxed and
the text confident in their
response to texts
Development Devise activities Mental connections To help learners
Activities which help the facilitate learning express themselves
learners to use in the targets
their language
representation of intelligently and
the text as a basis creatively
for language
production
activities
Input Response Devise activities A good time to analyse To get the learners
Activities which help the a text is just after an to develop their
learners to go enjoyable analytical skills and
back to the text multidimensional their ability to
and to discover experience of it. make discoveries
patterns and Helping learners to about the use of the
regularities of make discoveries for target language for
language use in themselves can be an themselves
the text effective way of
promoting longterm
learning
Trialling Try out the Matching materials to To find out how
materials with a learner needs and wants usable and
typical target is an ongoing, dynamic motivating the
class process materials
Evaluation Use questionares, Giving learners a To show learners
interviews and chance to evaluate their they are respected
analysis of the learning process can not and to find out
learners’ work to only provide useful what effect the
find out what information but can also materials had on
effect the motivate and stimulate them
materials had on learners
the learners
Revision Produce an Materials developers To match the needs

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 improved version and teachers need and wants of the
of the materials constantly to improve learners
their materials to
achieve a closer match
with learner needs and
wants

The examples of the use of principled frameworks outlined above are intended as illustrations of
the value of developing frameworks prior to developing materials. The most important that the
activities in s course should match with learner needs and wants and with principles of language
learning, and that they should be developed in ways which provide flexibility of use to learners
and teachers as well as coherence of connection. The best way to achieve this is to consider both
the target context of use for materials and the principles and experience of the writer, and then to
develop a flexible framework to guide the development of the units. Later on, compromises
might have to be made in relation to the realities of aministrative and publisher needs but at least
the writing process will start with the learner as the focus and with principles in mind.

Chapter 7. Writing a Coursebook

Many coursebook claim to provide learners with exposure to language in use. With this
points in mind, coursebooks have often provided the syllabus for language programmes and
multilevel series have taken learners from beginners to advance level. Therefore, coursebooks
have had a significant impact on many students and teacher, as well as shaping the english
language curricula in many institution.
a. The nature of coursebooks
Most coursebooks are based on a linear model of language learning, leading from the
simple to the more complex as reflected in the graded grammar syllabuses uses that underpin
many of the coursebooks on the market today. In term of the communicative practice tends
to come from contextualized fungtional drills which are often highly controlled. Many
coursebooks are production rather than comprehension-based, reflecting the desire to have
students use language as soon as possible, this satisfies the popular belief concerning called
communicative classroom (Krashen,1981). In fact, in many cases students are forced to

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 produce language before they are ready, which only creates an illusion of production or
communication as learners are only mimicking the text or teacher.
b. The Process of writing
A main reason for writing a coursebook is the desire to produce more effective materials
that truly engage are paedagogically sound and have a general appealbeyond the tastes of
one individual in his/her teaching environment.To write could be due to a dislike od current
materials or to a simple mismatch between student needs and the materials available. The
desire to write a coursebooks and get it published requires seriouscommitment, sacrifice and
most significantly, compromise.
c. Writing commercial material for a conservative market
Writing a coursebooks is not only a part of the process of bringing material in into the
classroom. Most writing occurs under contract with publishing house which means that
other forces than sound current pedagogy are at work. A new approach may not be enough
to convince editors or sales manager of the viability of an expensive project which has no
guarantee of success.
d. Approaching a publisher
The most sensibility for a prospective writer is to write a proposal for a coursebooks
consisiting of a rationale, a provisional scope and sequence for the book and three pilot
units. The rational needs to include a description of the principles underlying the book as
well as a description of how the book meets the need of the market. The provisional scope
and squesnce need to show clearly how the book is organized as a whole and to have enough
detail to illustratethe basic organization of each unit. The three pilot units should be
carefully choosen to illustrate the original features of the book.
e. Defining a new paradigm
A new paradigm that is less focused on learning and more focused on acquisition. This
move would involve: moving away from the linera grammar-based syllabus toward non-
linguistically grade material that is intuitively pitched at the target level of the learner and
shifting the focus from production to comprehension, with more listening at the lower levels;
Treating speaking in a delicate manner, an option rather than a requirement, particularly at
the lower levels; using authentic and modified texts of a wide variety; activities involving a
great deal of visualization and personalization with students being trained to reflect and

8
 respond affectively; Looking at language in a more lexical way, in tersms of word grouping,
powerful verbs and collocations; Tasks in which the outcome is communication-based rather
than acuracy based; systematic recycling of language in diffetent contexts to facilitate
acqusition.
f. From new paradigmn to new product-the quest for innovation
Moving away from a linear grammar sequence means moving away from a view of
language that believes that learners need to learn simple structures first and then move
sistematically on to more complex structure. This move can be exciting for writers yet
disturbing for publishers and and prospective users, whether teacher or learners. The goal of
a coursebook should be provide the learners with comprehensible input and to expose the
learner to as much language as possible in an engaging way, over time, rather than prescribe
what should be learned.
g. One writer’s list of truths and one write’s experience
h. Strategizing
In writing coursebook, there are a number of questions that deserve serious thought:
1) Why do I want to writing a coursebook??? Your motivation should steam a desire to
produce materials that you feel would be better for you, your students and the other
teachers working in a similar environment.
2) Who will my countribute to the market??? Your coursebook needs to offer something
new and different to the market. This could be from the point of view of syllabus,
language presentation. Your book is a product that will be competing with other products.
3) Who will/will not be able to use my coursebook??? Your coursebook needs to be pitched
at a market niche where its projected sales will fall into line with marketing expectation
for a product.
4) What will teachers and learners get from my coursebook that they cannot get
elsewhere??? If your coursebook provides material that is more authentic, activities that
work better, practice that is perceived as more useful or some extra feature not available
in other coursebooks.
5) How will my coursebook be structured??? Coursebook should be user-friendly in that
terachers should be able to use it within the system they work. If we teach 14-week

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 sessions then 14 units, or seven taught over two sessions, too much or too little material
will be seen as a problem.
6) Will my course book ba a part of a series??? Cooursebooks do better if they are part of a
series. The number of books required in a series depends on the market you are writing
for.
7) Do I envisage my coursebook require teacher guides, workbooks, resources packs, a
website??? A teacher’s guide is a standard requirement. These guides can come in many
forms but they need to provide tapescripts, if not in the corsebook, answers, a description
of the unit.
8) What parts of the writing would I be prepared to delegate to other??? If the coursebook
itself is merely one part of a more complex equation then it would worth considering
giving some of the writing of other material to others.
9) What look do I envisage my coursebook having??? A cousebook has an image or feel
depending on whether it is full colour, foru colour, glossy paper or matt.
10) What unique feature will my coursebook have??? Unique fitures could involve the way
in which language has been presented, tha activity type, supplementary resources and the
unit template.
11) What type of promotional activity am I prepared to become engaged in??? Being willing
to appear at conferences, workshops and seminars is a plus. Authors need visibility
offering training sessions and demonstrations is also a good thing.
When writing, do not write just for yourself. Remember you are writing for a market. We
need to know the market, which means getting as much information as you can about the market
and writing for the market. Do not simply rewrite what has already been written. Teachers
choose new books because they want something new, not simply a repackaged version of
something with which they are already familiar.

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Chapter 8. Publishing a Coursebook: Completing the Materials Development
Circle

In order for an approach to language teaching to be translated into principled

methodology, it is necessary to develop a design for an instructional system that taken into
account syllabus, learner roles in the system, teacher roles in the system, and instructional
materials types and functions.

1) Nature of Pathways and Loops in material development. The stakeholders in the material for
language teaching must have a channel to provide feedback at significant millestones in the
development process so that their feedback can be considered and incorporated into the
materials meaningfully and in time. Most materials developers recognize the importance of
writing materials that are designed to serve the needs of particular teachers and learners. The
material developers must be prepared to put the material constantly to the test in the
classroom situation.
2) Existence of feedback loops in materials development. The emerging criterion for good
language materials is that they are interesting to the students and usable in class; the
ultimate test is then usability for teaching with the end-users.

Syllabus designers and curriculum planners are located in the future- their work is to
construct a framework to create a future. They work with ideals and abstract in mind. They will
also measure and evaluate materials based on these criteria. Teacher must teach today’s learner,
in today’s classroom, within today’s curriculum, system and school environment. For teacher,
the syllabus is the theory and the textbook is the manual that will enable the practice. Teachers
work with a textbook developed a few years ago in hand and the practical realities of the
situationstaring them in the face.

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Chapter 9. Humanizing the Coursebook

Humanistic approaches to langugae learning can fasilitate both language acquisition and
personal development. Unfortunately, most language learners learn from coursebook and most
coursebook are not humanistic. However, it’s not that difficult to make a coursebooks more
humanistic and it is possible to develop coursebooks which are both humanistic and profitable.
In 35 years of Brian Tomlinson’s teaching english, he have suffered countless oyher
coursebooks which have needed humanizing because they didn’t engage the learners he was
using them with and because they didn’t manage to connect with the learners’ live. Sometimes it
wasn’t the coursebook’s fault; the books were potentially humanistic, but they didn’t match the
psychological and sociological realities of learners.
a. Humanizing without the coursebook
One way of humanizing a coursebook is for the teacher to replace sections of it with more
humanistic materials which involve the learners in gaining and reflecting on experience.
b. Humanizing with the Coursebook
Often teachers are obliged to use a coursebook in all their lesson. In such cases they can
humanize it by reducing the non-humanistic elements of the book and by expanding and adding
to those sections which invite the learners to think, feel and do in order to learn. The example of
coursebook based humanistic activities:
1) Getting students individually and then in groups to draw a version of a reading or
listening text before doing the coursebook comprehension activities.
2) Getting students in a groups to work out what happens in our mime of a text prior to
reading the text in the coursebook
3) Getting students to dramatize texts they are going to read in the coursebook from spoken
narrative of the text
4) Getting one group of students to mime their version of atext from the coursebook which
another group are going to read and then inviting that group to tell the story of the text
before they read it.
5) Giving the students part of coursebook text and then asking them to complete it
themselves before reading the text in the coursebook and doing the associated activities.
c. Developing Humanistic Coursebooks

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 There are a number of ways of developing cousebooks which are more humanistic.:
1) Writing in large and varied teams. One way of stimulating and maintaining creative energy
is to write coursebooks quickly in large and varied teams. The team might consist of new
and experienced teachers, new and experienced materials writers.
2) Using a text-driven approach. The writers developed activities focusing on the content of
the text and helping the learners to connect it to their own lives. The text-driven approach
described above can be a very effective way ensuring that a coursebook is humanistic.
3) Using a multidimensional approach. It aims to help learners to develop the ability to produce
and process an L2 by using their mental resources in ways similarto those they use when
communicating in their L1. A multidimensional approach is based on the principle that using
affect, mental imagery and inner speech is what we do during effective language use and
what we do during effective and durable learning.
4) Using literature.
5) Varying the unit focus.
6) Talking to the lerners
7) Connecting to the learners’ views and opinions
8) Providing text-free generalizable activities
9) Including awareness activities
10) Providing alternatives
11) Localizing course book

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Chapter 10 : The Visual Element in EFL Coursebooks

Since Pit Corder’s (1966) ground-breaking The Visual Element in Language Teaching, a
number of methodologists wrote books showing the importance of various kinds of pictures in
English language teaching (ELT) over a 15-year period from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s.
After a gap of 18 years, two new works written by Goldstein (2009) and Keddie (2009)
emphasize the accessibility of new images via the internet. A scan of copies of two popular
practical ELT magazines (English Teaching Professional and Modern English Teacher) for the
period 2011–12 revealed very occasional articles dealing with the use of visuals, Da Silva (2011)
and Massi et al. (2012), and two more which had one completely visual-centred idea among
several, Thekes (2012) and Artusi/Manin (2012). And, of course, British and world ELT
coursebooks have moved on from the picture-free days of E. Frank Candlin in the 1960s, through
the early black-and-white line drawings of Broughton and O’Neill in the 1970s, to the current
range of materials which are full of stylish colour drawings and state-of-the-art photographs.

Initially the researcher was interested in finding a balance between black and white
illustrations and colors, and between images and photos in the main text page of the textbook
unit. But the use of black and white photos is generally limited to photo stories that only exist in
that form; the use of black and white illustrations are generally limited to use of a single funny
cartoons. It also appears that the earliest book - Inside Out, 1990s - has a higher number of
illustration illustrations than the next two books, this might indicate greater and simpler access to
various types of photographic images that are parallel with the increasing use of electronic
technology in publishing . The researcher is then interested in analyzing what the pictures
actually illustrate. So he decided to examine only color photos (CP) and color images (CDs) for
each of the three textbooks being considered. The results show that more images show direct
portraits, and people do things (actions) or interact with each other. It is interesting to note that
most of the portraits are photographs (111, only against 5 images) while relatively high
interaction images are images (38 of 106); this reflects the fact that it is much easier for image
editors to get agency portraits.

It is almost certainly true that students today prefer colorful decorated pages from 1960s
textbooks and black and white textbooks in the early 1970s, but this is at least partly due to their
expectations. The researcher suspect it would require a lengthy and subtle longitudinal study to

14
prove that illustration-as-mere-decoration has a direct effect on student attitudes to English or to
language learning, or indeed helps the learner to learn English better.

The following types of activities found in the three books analyzed will be very helpful to
find out exactly what their uses are: Activities dealing with precise elements of the unit language
focus (syntax/vocabulary), Activities working on listening comprehension, Finding or giving
information and Deduction and creativity. The illustrations which aim to facilitate explicit
teaching (e.g. defining the meaning of words by having a picture of their referents) and those
which facilitate tasks (e.g. by illustrating an interactive situation which students are using the
language for). It can be seen that most of the illustrations are used or low-level language
practices, with some activities aimed at stimulating students to use their own language creatively
starting from pictures. When students are given a picture, they must examine the photos, they are
asked to imagine that they are in the picture.

What is actually happening in the picture is not clear, but it would seem to be young
Japanese people at a rock concert. It therefore relates clearly to some of the sentences in
Vocabulary exercise A and could relate to Vocabulary exercise D and Pronunciation exercises A
and B, too, without being directly referred to. All the exercises aim to help students describe
attendance at events using more interesting and colourful language. So the picture provides a
context of a kind, however it is not used for any linguistic purpose. The activities would work
just as well without the picture. Students will almost certainly describe events they have attended
better because of the written information given and the examples they hear on the recording, not
because of the picture.

This chapter seeks to show the typical illustrative nature used in English ELT textbooks
aimed at young adults and adults. it has suggested how these materials can be improved, and has
proceeded with exemplifying the types of material deemed necessary for a more meaningful and
engaging type of language learning experience.

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Chapter 11 : Creative Approaches to Writing Materials

Creativity is at the heart of learning. But it is not usually at the heart of education.
Institutionalized education depends on control, measurement and conformity. Creativity is
anathema to systems based on control.

However much they claim to be promoting creativity, institutions are dependent on a

control paradigm, and thus resistant to anything which threatens that control. Creativity will
always have a hard time of it. Like education in general, the foreign language teaching field, on
the whole, rates rather low on creativity therefore. This is not to deny that ELT in particular saw
some significant instances of creativity and innovation in the last quarter of the twentieth
century, including the paradigm shift from structural-situational to communicative approaches.

Yet all creative ideas owe a debt to what has gone before. It is their ability to use the past
to frame the present in a new light which characterizes creativity. Most kinds of creativity seem
to involve some kind of ‘playing around’ with things, with asking the question ‘What if . Often
heuristics are used to save time, heuristics being general procedures or rules of thumb such as
‘consider the negative’, ‘do the opposite’, ‘make it bigger/smaller’. ‘Heuristics are used to prune
the search tree.

The idea that creativity is a mysterious, unknowable gift from God is widespread and
ancient. linguistic creativity is not simply a property of exceptional people but an exceptional
quality of all people’ . There is general agreement that an important component of creativity is
the ability to make new connections, often between apparently unrelated data. Koestler called
this bisociation, and the surrealists used it as a principle for generating new artistic creations.

It has also been used by some writers on teaching, such as Gianni Rodari and Jacqueline
Held. However, in order to see new relationships, it may be necessary to suspend conscious
attention, so that material which is on the periphery of our attention may gain access to the
unconscious layers of mind. The notion that these ideas are stimulated by a period of incubation,
while the conscious mind occupies itself with other things, is a constant theme of writers on
creativity. P-creativity requires that systematic rule-breaking and rule-bending be done in
domain-relevant ways’. Creativity has long attracted the attention of theorists. Gardner , picking
up on Francis Galton’s nineteenth-century work on geniuses, has investigated biographical

16
aspects of creativity in a number of H-creative people, hoping to find common factors among
them. His concentration on H-creativity may not help us very much, however, when we consider
creativity as a widely distributed attribute in the human population. Csikszentmihaly takes a
multidimensional view of creativity as an interaction between individual talent, operating in a
particular domain or discipline, and judged by experts in that field.

This helps to explain why some ideas, though creative, do not emerge until the time is
ripe. Koestler, in his monumental The Act of Creation takes up Helmholtz’ and Wallas’ idea of
creativity as a four-stage process. Given a ‘problem’, ‘puzzle’ or ‘conceptual space’, the creative
mind first prepares itself by soaking up all the information available. Following this first
Preparation stage, there is a stage of Incubation, in which the conscious mind stops thinking
about the problem, leaving the unconscious to take over. In the final Verification stage, the
conscious mind needs to check, clarify and elaborate on the insights gained. Koestler cites many
examples, especially from science, to support his theory.By contrast, Boden takes an AI
approach to investigating creativity. She draws attention to the importance of constraints in this
process. ‘Far from being the antithesis of creativity, constraints on thinking are what make it
possible’ . ‘It is the partial continuity of constraints which enables a new idea to be recognised,
by author and audience alike, as a creative contribution.

Amabile approaches creativity from a social and environmental viewpoint, claiming that
previous theories have tended to neglect the power of such factors to shape creative effort. One
of the most recent attempts to offer a comprehensive overview of the whole field of creativity is
Kaufman and Sternberg’s monumental Cambridge Handbook of Creativity . Their final chapter
‘Constraints on Creativity’ is an admirably concise summary of the factors which come in the
way of creativity. They are particularly critical of the way academic education, with its emphasis
on conformity, and learning measured through tests has a negative effect on creativity. The
greater the emphasis is on high-stakes assessment, the less is the emphasis on creativity’ . Much
the same point is made by Ken Robinson in Out of Our Minds , and it is a chilling reminder of
the institutional obstacles put in the way of any attempt to introduce creative ideas in the
educational domain. What is clear from the literature on creativity is that it is not a simple,
unitary concept. While we generally are able to readily identify creativity when we meet it, we
are less able to describe it.

17
 Creativity tends to accompany change, as we seek adaptive solutions to new
opportunities and constraints. In language teaching, we can consider the nineteenth-century
Reform Movement as one such paradigm shift, and the Communicative Approach perhaps
another. Creative adaptation to the new technologies may well prove another. Creativity
stimulates and motivates. Teachers who actively explore creative solutions tend to be more alive
and vibrant than those content to follow a routine. Students given the opportunity to exercise
their own creativity tend to respond positively. Several recent books have drawn attention to the
fact that much natural language use is not merely utilitarian and transactional, nor merely
interactional. People indulge in vast amounts of creative language play, through punning, riddles,
jokes, spoonerisms, insults, deliberate ambiguity, metathesis, unusual collocations, mixed
metaphors, mimicry, games with names and irreverence . Likewise, children learning their first
language play around with it a great deal, constantly testing its limits creatively. not all play is
creative but all creativity contains play’. Clearly, as this is a book focusing on materials writing,
I believe materials writers themselves should exercise creativity. They tend to be small, such as
Delta, Garnet and Helbling, but they do keep the flame of creativity alive. Self-publishing
through programmes such as Lulu and The Round also offer a new outlet for individual
creativity. A major aspect of the materials writer’s creativity is the extent to which their materials
can stimulate creativity among the teachers and students using them.

Materials which offer teachers choice and flexibility to develop in ways they judge to be
appropriate are likely to produce more creative behaviours. The question of perceived value and
relevance by users of creative materials again arises, however. There is little point in the
materials writer exhibiting great personal creativity in the design of materials, if they are rejected
as too ‘way out’ or ‘impractical’ by those they are intended for. The truly creative materials
writer may use quite simple and minimal inputs to stimulate methodological creativity on the
part of teachers, or linguistic creativity on the part of learners.

In his book Breaking Rules, John Fanselow (1987) recommends applying the heuristic
‘Do the opposite’, as a way of generating new possibilities in language teaching. This injunction
can be applied at any level: content, process, roles. For instance, regarding content, if you
habitually use written texts, try using listening instead.If you use long texts, try short ones. If you

18
use simplified texts, use authentic ones. Or try doing without texts altogether. If you set tests let
students write their own tests .

In the case of the shift to a Communicative Approach, a number of developments and

ideas crystallized quite rapidly, though many of them had been around for some time. The
communicative paradigm has now commanded near-universal acceptance for over 30 years. -
The emergence of small niche publishers, and of self-publishing, exploiting new publishing
technologies which enable them to publish fast, at relatively low cost and to control their print
runs on a daily basis. - The influence of critical theory on English as a global language , and in
particular the challenge to ‘native speakerism’.

This might herald a more context-sensitive approach to teaching English, after a period of
almost unbridled metropolitan triumphalism.

 The increase in awareness of global issues, and the importance of educating a new
generation in a greater respect for limited global resources .
 The confirmation of English as the single-most extensively used global language, and with
it, the need for teaching to more advanced levels of proficiency, and issues of standard
versus diversity.
 The likelihood that machine translation will soon offer an alternative to language learning .
 The vastly expanded networks of teachers and teachers’ associations worldwide, ensuring a
more rapid and efficient interchange of information and ideas, especially through social
networking channels, live streaming of conferences, webinars and online journals.
 Developments in the understanding of multiple intelligences .
 The emergence of ‘play’ and ‘playfulness’ as a major factor in language acquisition and
use.

The current obsession with smart technology, which offers a mesmerizing range of gadgets
and tools which tend to confuse novelty with creativity. We need to remind ourselves
constantly that technology should be a tool in the service of creativity and not a substitute for
it. Technology will continue to develop, and at a faster rate, so this is a problem which will not
go away. All the more reason, therefore, for materials developers to demonstrate critical

19
 judgement rather than unbridled enthusiasm, in an attempt to use the new technological
advances in creative ways, rather then being used by them.

I believe that the creative spirit, both among materials writers and among teachers and
learners, will nonetheless survive.

Chapter 12 : Developing Digital Language Learning Materials

The use of digital technology in language teaching has an extensive and increasingly
diverse history, often divided by commentators into three phases, or approaches – ‘restricted’,
‘open’ and ‘integrated’ in Bax’s terms . The ‘restricted’ phase is essentially learner interaction
with the computer, largely through the keyboard, with predetermined feedback on right and
wrong answers. The current age is generally referred to as Information and Communication
Technologies in language teaching, and will perhaps be viewed as at the border-crossing between
the ages of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 in the wider internet world. Discussions on ICT in ELT have
the power to divide teachers around the world as much as the potential to unite them, with some
movements such as Dogme ELT challenging a perceived increasing implementation of ICT in
the language classroom, while on the other side the web is awash with teachers’ technology
blogs and websites declaring the daily arrival of the new must-use tool, site or application.

There can be little doubt that digital media, through the computer screen, has become the
‘culturally dominant medium’ of our age and if Prensky’s claims are to be acknowledged, then
an ever-increasing number of students and teachers are the born-post-1980 digital natives with
expectations and awareness of technology in all aspects of their lives, the language classroom
included. Whether or not in language learning this digital competence can be seen as a form of
Common Underlying Proficiency in the Cummins sense, which provides cross-language intuitive
engagement with digital content, is still open to debate, but what is clear is that digital
technology is here to stay in the field of language learning and teaching.

Just a few years ago it may have been logical to look at digital materials in terms of their
intended context of use. The Bring Your Own Device movement , the One Student, One Laptop
schemes , the offers of free iPads or other tablets to enrolling university students from China to

20
Australia and the United States, and the increasingly commonplace use of digital and internet-
enabled devices outside the home or institution all mean that digital language learning tools and
materials can potentially support individual or collaborative learning in any physical location.
Consequently, this chapter is structured not on intended context of use of materials, but rather on
the actual or intended creator of the materials discussed, from student-created resources, to
teacher-created resources, through to independent or commercial publisher-created resources.
Another feature of the development of digital educational approaches in recent years, is a shift
from the concept of creation of ‘materials’ to harnessing and exploitation of ‘tools’, both those
initially designed for language learning and teaching, and those adopted and adapted from an
alternative intended use.

Furthermore, the chapter will focus primarily only on those tools or materials which can
be said to truly exploit a digital mode or media in their design or delivery. For example, use of
language corpora, although dependent on computer technology for its creation and use, has an
equal impact on print materials and will not be of particular focus here. However, the above list
is absolutely not intended as a statement of the inherent effectiveness of such digital language
learning and materials merely because they exploit their digital nature in some way that
‘traditional’ materials may not be able to. In fact, in terms of materials development, there can be
few areas in ELT where the saying ‘all that glitters is not gold’ is more appropriate as a
principled starting point from which to assess the current and potential future uses of digital
technology. In relation to effective use of interactive whiteboards and these principles hold good
for all digital language learning and teaching materials.

The effective engagement of learners for common aims outside the classroom is one of
the central educational principles underpinning the interest in hybrid learning. There is a need for
familiarity among teachers and learners with the structure, forms and norms of interaction, and
ways of accessing and adding content, but with careful staging of tasks and instruction, learners
can quickly acquire the skills needed to participate fully in teacher-created activities. Of course,
for a multilingual group of learners with a low level of proficiency, the challenge of creating
suitable and comprehensible content as well as ensuring learners have the technical competence
to use such a platform is significant. Equally, there is the time investment needed in training
teachers to exploit the potential of a VLE, both in terms of its available resources and activities,

21
and in terms of dealing with students’ technical questions, not to mention how to monitor,
support, tutor and give feedback through a VLE in a way that is effective, sensitive and
supportive.

Doubts over issues of privacy and exposure to ‘uninvited others’ from outside the class
are also prevalent in the use of virtual worlds for language learning. The potential for resource
creation, exposure to language and content, interaction, and entertainment is vast in virtual
worlds such as Second Life, and there is some very interesting teacher practice and experimental
research such as the classes run by Nergiz Kern , as well as the commercial activities of
organizations like Languagelab, who have built their own city in Second Life for their teachers
and students to work in . The flipside of this is the degree of technical familiarity needed to do
more than wander around randomly, the difficulties of maintaining task focus among learners
and the annoyance of trolls – other users who are deliberately offensive or destructive – in the
public spaces of virtual worlds. Many alternative virtual worlds exist alongside Second Life, as
well as open-source projects to create free and open virtual spaces online .

While interactive whiteboards are mistakenly seen as the tool in the classroom, rather
than a tool in the classroom, it is likely that the debate will continue and the notes of caution in
much of the research in the wider educational context (Smith et al., 2005) regarding the quality
of student participation or interaction, the novelty value, and the efficacy of visual, verbal and
physical information presented together will continue to be sounded. However, as a resource
which can be manipulated to take advantage of layering of information, multiple pages for
spontaneous exploration of emergent language, merging of multimedia resources, and
kinaesthetic and tactile direct participation, in addition to the benefits of being able to return to
co-constructed material across class iterations, the IWB and its related peripheral devices such as
student response systems (e.g. www.socrative.com) will continue to have a place as a valuable
tool and material-creation resource.

The response of the creators, users and critics of digital language teaching and learning
materials will doubtless be as varied as are the options available to all of them. Against the
backdrop of all these digital developments are twin concerns. First, that technological innovation
can often outpace pedagogical consolidation – that is the principled implementation of the

22
technology to support existing pedagogical practice, or the development of new pedagogies to
take advantage of technological advances. Second, the concern that digital media is having a
profound and potentially irreversible effect on learning and attitudes to it, with negative aspects
which can be swept under the carpet in the rush to embrace all things digital.

23
 2. A COURSE IN LANGUAGE TESTING PENNY UR

 RECEPTIVE SKILLS

When we talk about the teaching of receptive skills, we have to point out that there is a basic
methodology for teaching both listening and reading (Harmer, 270). For both types of input,
students have a choice between listening or reading superficially, with the aim of comprehending
a general idea of the text, and listening or reading carefully, with the focus on the search for the
specifically required information. These are two different skills and need to be equally practiced.
Teachers hence have a responsibility to develop both of the skills of their students. Harmer
further on suggests a few basic steps related to teaching practice, the steps for teaching receptive
skills are as following:

- leading-in (which means introducing students to the topic of the text, activating their
background knowledge, and asking them to predict what the text is going to be about),

- directing comprehension tasks (which means asking students to try to comprehend the general
idea)

- providing text or tape for students to read/listen,

- directing feedback (which means e.g. dividing students in pairs or smaller groups to go through
answers together; the teacher informs them about the level of their accomplishment while
focusing on the positive things)

- directing text-related task (which means questioning students about the content or some
language aspects of the text)

- repeating of the process (this step is optional, but welcome, and includes more detailed and
focused reading/listening of the text before doing text-related task).

24
LISTENING

Listening, as well as reading, is the basic and indispensable input for a foreign language

learner. Whether it is in natural surroundings, during a random conversation between two native

speakers in a foreign country, or in more formal environment, such as classroom during a lecture,

listening is of utmost importance and relevance for language learners. It provides them with

countless new words, phrases, and interjections, which appear in their original pronunciation and

stress pattern.

In language learning there are different types of listening, which often appear as pairs of

opposites, that is, in form of a dichotomy. Nunan introduces one such dichotomy: the reciprocal

and non-reciprocal listening (Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom, 23).

Reciprocal listening refers to listening from both sides, that is, a conversation. Here a listener not

only listens, but responds to a message, participates in a conversation and interacts, which further

stimulates his learning process. Non-reciprocal listening, on the other hand, refers to the listening

as a sole activity, deprived of any interaction. Here a learner listens in a situation where he is

unable to respond, such as during formal lecture, or a radio transmission (Nunan, 23).

Another listening dichotomy is introduced by Cook: bottom-up and top-down processing.

According to Cook, top-down implies “starting from the sentence as a whole and working down

to its smallest parts”, while bottom-up means, on the contrary, “starting from the smallest parts

and working up” (Second Language Learning and Language Teaching, 125). She further on

introduces another term, parsing, which is closely connected to the previously mentioned terms.

Parsing is, namely, “the process through which the mind works out the grammatical structure and

meaning of the sentence” (Cook, 125). Hence, bottom-up parsing involves listener’s focus on

25
analysing the smallest constituents of a sentence first, and then combining them and reaching the

entire sentence structure and the final meaning of the utterance. Meanwhile, top down process

suggests that the listener concentrates on the search for meaning of an entire utterance, listening

to the intonation and stress of the utterance and using his background knowledge and the context

in which the utterance was pronounced. Cook maintains that successful learners use both

listening strategies, while unsuccessful ones rely solely on the bottom-up strategy (128). As can

be noticed, the same dichotomy can be applied to the process of reading.

THE TEACHING OF LISTENING

One of the most common teaching strategies is a task-based approach. Tasked-based

approach is a strategy that consists of giving specific tasks to students to solve, which are closely

connected to language acquisition. The usual task is listening to a tape which contains a

conversation between two or more native speakers, and answering questions from a task sheet

about the conversation they heard. Questions may be very different in style and seek different

mental activities.

In her book, Cook is refering to Underwood's Teaching Listening when speaking about

three stages of teaching:

- Pre-listening (serves to acivate students' background knowledge and to get the general idea of

the listening material)

- While-listening (improving their ability to ineterpet the message)

26
- Post-listening (includes task sheets and possibly a second listening) (Seconda Language

Learning and Language Teaching, 129).

In the pre-listening stage, it is good to have printed copies of the scripts so the students

could follow the conversation more easily, especially if it is the case of beginner language

learners.

LANGUAGE TESTING IN LISTENING:

Work in pairs. Listen to the tape carefully and Àll in the missing dialogues.

Answers :
1. Okan : It is under the table
2. Mrs. Felani : It is on the table
3. Dion : spot is on the chair
4. Lola : I’m Here..
5. Aya : Your brooch is behind your book
6. Anti : the pen is in your book

27
READING

There are two types of reading: extensive and intensive, and according to Harmer, students need
to be engaged in both types of reading if they want to get maximum benefit (The Practice of
English Language Teaching, 283). Extensive reading refers to the reading of books a student
chooses for himself and his own pleasure, while intensive reading refers to the reading of special
literature assigned by the professor. When a learner is reading, he can focus on different things:
reading for gist or so called skimming (i.e., the goal is general understanding of the text), reading
for specific information or so called scanning, and reading for profound comprehension,
inference and attitude (the goal is to interpret the message “between the lines”) (Harmer, 283).

THE TEACHING OF READING

Since active and consistent reading can be very beneficial and enriching for the students’ minds,
teachers’ crucial role is to encourage them to keep on reading. It is not enough to simply urge
them to read a lot, their responsibility is to provide them with guidance, selection of appropriate
books, to offer them to choose their own favourite genre, to give them a task to report regularly
on their reading, or keep a reading journal. It would also be a good idea to organize reading clubs
or events of the sort. Some of the Hermer’s suggestions are very useful, such as: setting up a
library with specialised “language learner literature”.

When giving reading tasks in the classroom (and that involves intensive reading), teachers

should set clear rules from the beginning, so as to save time and achieve better outcomes. Some

of the rules should include:

- time limit: teacher should give students an exact amount of time to read a passage and then

answer to questions. Time frame can be extended only if most of students are struggling with the

task.

- meaning of words: since students are often eager to find out the meaning of every single word

they encounter, the search for unknown vocabulary in the dictionaries or multiple questions can

28
take a lot of time. Teachers should make a compromise with the students – they could answer a

certain number of inquiries, but the students need to comprehend the rest of the text from the

context

- goals: it is important to set a goal before the actual reading. Teachers should specify what they

expect from the students, whether it be skimming through the text to get some general

comprehension of the subject of the text, be it scanning the text for some specific information.

That way student can mentally prepare for the task and do it more efficiently.

- including students: a very good strategy to engage students in reading is to ask them what they
feel or think about the subject of the text they are about to read, what are their expectations and is
the topic already familiar or not. That way a teacher can prepare the students for the task and
provoke their interest in reading (Harmer, 287,288).

LANGUAGE TESTING IN READING :

Observe the picture and answer the questions that follow.

This is Window Pane.

1. How many window panes are here?

2. What colors are in the window panes are here?

3. What is the number of glass boxes in the red window panes?

4. Which number of window panes has a small amount of glass cases?

5. Which color window pane is usually like in your house?

29
 PRODUCTIVE SKILLS

Productive language skills consist of the learner’s abilities to efficiently write and speak in a
foreign language. It seems a great deal more difficult to accurately produce language forms,
whether in oral or written form, than simply to understand a language. While producing a
language, learners must be simultaneously aware of the message they are conveying, of the style
and vocabulary they are using, and ultimately of the correct grammatical construction. These are
all the reasons why so many advanced learners still feel inhibited when they speak in front of
native speakers or their teachers. They are self-conscious about all the mistakes they can say or
write, which can significantly slow down their improvement.

The basic steps for teaching productive skills are proposed by Harmer:

- leading-in (which means introducing students to the topic of the text, activating their
background knowledge, and asking them to predict what the text is going to be about),

- setting the task (at this point students are already familiar with the topic of, the teacher explains
exactly what they need to do and demonstrates an activity if necessary, e.g. a role-play)

- monitoring the task (the teacher is actively involved, walking around the class, helping or
directing the assignment)

- directing feedback (the teacher responds to the outcome of the task, helps students realize what
they did right and what they need to improve)

- repeating the process (the meaning of repetition is to ensure the student’s learning progress, the
same or similar exercise may follow the previous one).

30
WRITING

Points out that the purpose of writing is “to express ideas, the conveying of a message to the
reader” (A Course in Language Teaching, 70). Besides expressing ideas, a writer should also pay
attention to his style and form of writing, especially to correct vocabulary, grammar, spelling and
punctuation (Ur, 70).

THE TEACHING OF WRITING

The teaching of writing is an extremely demanding task for teachers. Ur split the teaching

of writing into several activities that need to be completed:

- Classifying writing activities and giving instructions

- Choosing the criteria for the evaluation of textbook writing activities

- (Supervising the process of composition)

- Giving feedback on writing (A Course in Language Teaching, 70-75)

We will now elaborate on the steps which Ur has suggested. Before the teacher begins their

instruction, it is important to know whether the students write as a means, as an end, or both as a

mean and as an end. It is the most beneficial to include both types of writing, so as the students

would pay attention simultaneous at the form (grammar, vocabulary, paragraphs organization)

and content (the message of their writing). The next step for teacher to do is to choose between

different writing tasks form the textbook. Their criteria should be composed of the following

questions:

- Is the task motivating and engaging enough to the students?

31
- Is the task on the appropriate level of difficulty (not to easy, not to hard)?

- Will the students benefit from this type of writing activity?

- Will if be necessary give additional instructions for this type of activity?

- Is it part of my teaching style?

After these criteria have been met, the teacher chooses a task. Some of the frequently given tasks

include instances like these:

- Write a report on the book you have read

- Write an instruction sheet explaining how to come to a certain place in a city

- Write a letter applying to a certain job

- Write a letter to a friend

- Write a newspaper article reporting on some recent event

- Give a description of your ideal holiday, etc. (Ur, 71)

While students are doing the assignment, the teacher can supervise their progress, helping them

with their form and organisation of paragraphs, giving ideas or encouraging brainstorming in the

class. After the students have finished with their essay/report/paper, the teacher should give them

feedback on their accomplishment. The teacher should, first of all, decide what to grade, content

of the paper or the language that they use. If the students are complete beginners, their

assignments could be full of grammatical mistakes. Teachers should certainly correct them for

the sake of learning; however, they should not concentrate solely on correcting grammatical

32
mistakes. They should give feedback on the content and style of their writing, so they would be

aware that the grammar is not all that matters. One of two interesting questions worth

considering are whether to ask students to rewrite their corrected papers, and should teachers

allow students to correct each other papers. There are certainly pros and cons to each of methods

(concerning time consumption and learning improvement), and teachers could individually

whether to employ them or not (Ur, 74).

LANGUAGE TESTING IN WRITING :

Students worksheet

A. Answer these questions orally.

1. What are in your bedroom?
2. What are in your kitchen?
3. Can you mention the things in your living room?
4. Can you mention the things in your bathroom?

B. Observe the following pictures. Then, work in pairs to list the things in
pictures 1 and 2.

1. 2.

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SPEAKING

The ability to speak in a foreign language is divided in two large categories: spoken

interaction and spoken production. The former one refers to a student’s ability to interact with

other interlocutors, whether native speakers or other learners. It includes the ability to listen,

comprehend, interpret the message using the background knowledge, producing response or

message relevant to the topic and grammatically correct. It is usually spontaneous and requires

quick reaction and ability to adapt to the stream of conversation. Spoken production, on the other

hand, does not include other interlocutors, but only a single person who is doing the talking. It

usually refers to giving a presentation in front of a group of people, a classroom lecture, or any

form of public speech. It could be spontaneous, but it is more often premeditated and organized.

According to Nunan, a dialogue has both the “transactual function” which is primarily concerned

with “the transfer of information”, and the “interactional function” which aims at “the

maintenance of social relationships” (Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classrooms, 27).

THE TEACHING OF SPEAKING

When authors talk about teaching of speaking, they first make a distinction between oral

and written text. While written language consists of “well-formed sentences which are

structured in highly structured paragraphs”, spoken language consists of “short, often

fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations” (Nunan, Designing Tasks for the

Communicative Classrooms, 26). Spoken language contains as well many interjections,

overlapping with the other speaker, non-specific words and repetitions, conversation fillers etc.

Bearing the complexity of spoken language in mind, Nunan suggests the following questions that

teachers need to consider:

34
- What is the appropriate form of spoken language to teach?

- What is the appropriate pronunciation to teach?

- How important the pronunciation really is?

- Should spoken language be taught like written language only with few conversational phrases

thrown in?

- Is it appropriate to teach the same structure to the learners of different levels of language

progress, etc. (Nunan, 27).

35
 LANGUAGE TESTING IN SPEAKING :

Choose the true or false based on the text above (circle the answer)

1. His name is Kania True / false

2. She’s eat vegetables a lot True / false
3. She eats vegetables a lot True / false
4. She has a cat True / false
5. Tania is 17 years old True / false
6. She loves to read books True / false
7. Tania comes from Nusa Laut True / false
8. Kania lives in Jl. Karang Panjang True / false
9. Kania is Tania's twins True / false

36
 3. The Practice of English Language Teaching (Jeremy Harmer) 3rd Edition

A. Teaching receptive skills

How we read and listen

1. What we bring to the task

If a british Reader walks past a newspaper stand and sees the headline “England in
six-wicket collapse’ he or she will almost certainly guess that the England cricket
team has been beaten in an international match. This guess will be based on the
readers pre-eisting knowledge of newspaper, their experience of how headlines are
constructed, their understanding that wicket is a cricketing term, and their knowledge
that england has not been doing too wellin the sport lately. If the reader then goes on
to buy the newspaper he or she will use all this pre-existing knowledge to predict the
relevant article’s contents both before and during the reading of it. However, a reader
who did not have such pre-existing knowledge (because he or she did notknow
anything about cricket, for example), would find the reading task more difficult.
What the above example suggest is that understanding a piece of discourse involves
much more than just knowing the language.
When we see a written text our schematic knowledge may first tell us what kind of
text genre we are dealing with.
In conversation a knowledgeof typical interactions helps participants to
communicateefficiently. As the conversation continues, the speakers and listeners
draw upon various schemata-including genre, topic, discourse patterning, and the use
of spesific lnguage features-to help them make sense of what they are hearing.

2. Reasons for reading and listening

we can divide reasons for reading and listening into two broadcategories :
 Instrumental : a large amount of reading and listening takes place because it
will help us to achieve some clear aim

37
  Pleasurable : another kind of reading and listening takes place largely for
pleasure.

3. Different skills

 Reading and listening for general understanding : good readers and listener
are able to take in a stream of discourse and understand the gist of it without
worrying too much about the details. Reading and listening for such ‘general’
comprehension means not stopping for every word, not analysing everything that
the writer or speaker includes in the text.
 Reading and listening for spesific information : in contrast to reading and
listening for gist, we frequently go to written and spoken text because we want
spesific details. We may listen to the news, only concentrating when the particular
item that interest us comes’up. We may quickly look through a film review to find
the name of the director or the star. In both cases we almost ignore all the other
information untill we come to the spesific item we are looking for.

a. Problems and solutions

1. Language
What is that makes a text difficult?in the case of written text some researchers look at
word and sentence-length (Wallaces 1992:77), on the premise that texts with longer
sentences and longer words will be more difficultto understand than those with
shorter ones. Others, however claim that the critical issue is quite simply the number
of unfamiliar words which the text contains. If readers and listener do not know half
the words in a text, they will have great difficulty in understanding the text as a
whole. To be successful they have to recognise a high proportion of the vocabulary
without consciously thinking anout it (Paran 1996).

When students who are engaged in listening encounter unknown lexxis it can be like
a dropped barrier causing them to stop and think about the meaning of a word and
thus making thm miss the next part of the speec’ (Underwood 1989:17). Unlike
reading, there nay be no opportunity to go back and listen to the lexis again.

38
 Comprehension is gradually degraded, therefore, and unless the listener is able to
latch on to a new element to help them back into the flow of what is being said the
danger is that they willlose heart and gradually disengage from the receptive task
since it is just too difficult.

There are spesific ways of addresssing the problem of language difficulty :

 Pre-teaching vocabulary
 Extensive reading and listening
 Authenticity

READING
A. EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE READING
1. EXTENSIVE READING
 Extensive reading materials : one of the fundamental conditions of a
successful extensive rerading programme is that should be reading the
material which they can be understand. If they are struggling to understand
every word, they can hardly be reading for pleasure- the main goal of this
activity. This means that we need to provide books which either by chance, oe
because they have been specially written, are readily accessible to our student.
 Extensive reading task : because students should be allowwed to choose
their own reading texts, following their own likes and interests, they will not
all be reading the same texts at once. For this reason-and because we want to
prompt students to keep reading – we should encourage them to report back
on their reading in a number of ways. We can also put comment sheets into
the books for students to write in, as the following example for a book called
The Earthquake shows:

Rating Your comment and your name

5 I’m afraid earthquake happens to us.
Sho

39
 ko.
5 Great !
Gabriel is nice. He is cool .
Tom
oko
4 “who is really taking care of me,”
I think after reading this book.
Yok
o
4 I had a chance to think what’s the most
important thing by reading this book.
His
ako

It does not really matter which of these tasks students are asked to perform
provided that what they are asked to do helps to keep them reading as much
and as oftenas possible.

2. Intensive reading : the roles of the teacher

However, there are further roles we need to adopt when asking students to read
intensively :
 Organiser : we need to tell students exactly what their reading purposes is, and
give them clear instruction about how to achieve it, and how long they have to
do this.
 Observer : when we ask students to read on their own we need to give them
space to do. This means restraining ourselves from interrupting that reading,
even though the temptation may be to add more information or instructions.
 Feedback organiser : when our students have completed the task, we can lead
a feedback session to check that they have completed the task successfully.
We may start by having them compare their answers in pairs and then ask for
answers from the class in generalor from pairs in particular.

40
  Prompter : when students have read a text we can prompt them to notice
language features in that texts. We mayalso as controllers, direct them to
certain features of the text construction, clarifying ambiguities, and making
them aware of issues of text structure which they had not come across
previously.

B. Reading lesson sequences

We use intensive reading sequences in class for a number of reasons. We may want to
have students practice spesific skills such as reading to extract spesific information, or
reading for general understanding (gist). In the following examples the reading activity is
specified. The skills which are involved are detailed, and the way that the text to identify
features of text construction.

Activity : reading to confirm expectations

Skills : predicting, reading for gist, reading for detailed comprehension
Age : adult
Level : upper intermediate

In this example students predict the content of a text not from a picture, but from a few
tantalising clues they are given (in the form of phrases from the passage they will read).

41
 LISTENING
A. EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE LISTENING
1. Extensive listening
Extensive listening: where a teacher encourages students to choose for themselves
what they listen to and to do so for pleasure and general language improvement.
Extensive listening will usually take place outside the classroom, in the students’
home, car, or on personal stereos as they travel from one place to another. Material
for extensive listening can be found from a number of sources. A lot of simplified
readers are now published with an audio version on tape. These provide ideal
listening material.

2. Intensive listening : using taped material

This has a number of advantages and disadvantages:
 Advantages : taped material allows students to hear a variety of different
voices apart from just their own teachers. It gives them an opportunity to
’meet’ a range of different characters, especially where real people are talking.
But even when tapes contain written dialogues or extracts from plays, they
offer a wide variety of situations and voices. For all those reasons most course
books include tapes, and many teachers rely on tapes to provide a significant
source of language input.
 Disadvantages : in big classroom with poor acoustics, the audibility of taped
and disk material often give cause for concern. It is often difficult to ensure
that all students in a room can hear equally well. Another problem with
classroom tapes is that everyone has to listen at the same speed, a speed
dictated by the tape, not by the listeners. Although this replicates the situation
of radio, it is less satisfactory when students have to take information from the
tape. This is because they cannot, themselves, interact with the taped speakers
in any way. Nor can they see the speaking taking place. Finally, having a
group of people sit around listening to a tape recorder or disk player is not an
entirely natural occupation.

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For the example of intensive listening, there is a conversation it is:

Anna : good morning Stuart. What time do you call this?

Stuart : oh dear. Yes, sorry I’m late.

Anna : well? What happened to you?

Stuart : I woke up late,I’m afraid. I didn’t hear the alarm.

Anna : were you out late last night?

Stuart : yes. I’m afraid I was.

Anna : so what happened?

Stuart : well, when I saw the time I jumped out of bed, had a quick shower, and
ran out of the house. But then, when I got the car I realised I’d forgotten my keys.

Anna: oh really?

Stuart : but the door to my house was shut

Anna : what did you do?

Stuart: I ran round to the garden at the back and climbed in through the window.

Anna : and?

Stuart : well someone saw me amd called the police

Anna : what happened then?

Stuart : well, I told them it was my house and at first they wouldn’t believe me. I
took a long time!

Anna : I can imagine.

Stuart : and you see that’s why I’m late!

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B. Teaching Productive Skill

Productive Skills : The productive skills of writing and speaking are different in many
ways. However, there are a number of language production processes which have to be
gone through whichever medium we are working in.

A1. Different Between Reading and Writing skill

When we talk about 'language', sometimes we mean speech (spoken language),

sometimes writing (written language). How are they different? Of course, speech is
spoken and heard, while writing is written and read. But there are many other differences:

Age.

Speech goes back to human beginnings, perhaps a million years ago. Writing is relatively
recent, however; it was first invented by the Sumerians, in Mesopotamia, around 3200
B.C. Since then, the idea of writing has spread around the world and different writing
systems have evolved in different parts of the world.

Universality.

Humans everywhere can speak. But before the Sumerian invention, people were non
literate. Even now there are many non literate groups (e.g. in New Guinea), and many
non literate people in officially literate societies.

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Acquisition.

People everywhere start speaking during the first two years of life; many of the abilities
involved are probably inborn rather than learned. Learning to write typically builds on
learning to speak.

Levels of Structure.

Speech consists of two types of basic units: 'Phonemes' or units of sound, which are
themselves meaningless, are combined into 'morphemes', which are meaningful units; so
the phonemes /b/, /i/, /t/ form the word 'bit'. Alphabetic scripts work the same way. In a
different type of script, the syllabary, the basic unit, corresponds to a spoken syllable;
Japanese and Cherokee use this system. In logographic script, e.g. Chinese, each
character corresponds to an entire morpheme (usually a word). (For further information
on scripts, see Daniels and Bright 1996.)

Interdependence.

Most literate people can convey the same messages in either speech or writing, but
speech typically conveys more explicit information than writing. Hebrew and Arabic
scripts indicate consonants but often omit symbols for vowels. In Chinese, the symbols
that correspond to words may give no indication of pronunciation, or only partial cues.
The spoken and written forms of a given language tend to correspond on one or more
levels and may influence each other—as when 'through' is spelled 'thru'. Conversely, in
spelling pronunciation, people may come to pronounce the 't' in 'often' even though
historically it had been lost. Some formal literary styles, like Classical Chinese, acquire a
life of their own in written form and have little direct relationship to speech.

Retrievability.

Until the invention of magnetic recording, speech could not be captured or preserved,
except by fallible memories and by writing. But writing can be preserved for millennia.

45
Its permanence has made possible such human institutions as libraries, histories,
schedules, dictionaries, menus, and what we generally call 'civilization'.

Literary Use.

Non literate societies have traditions—songs, rituals, legends, myths—composed orally

and preserved by memory. Such texts may be called oral literature. By contrast, writing
permits what is more often called 'literature', i.e. bodies of text which are much larger and
more codified than memory permits. Yet even in literate societies, dramatic performance
and reading aloud remain important traditions.

Prestige.

Written language is associated with political and economic power, admired literature, and
educational institutions, all of which lend it high prestige. In literate societies, people
often come to think of their written language as basic; they may regard speech as inferior.
Nevertheless, writing can be perceived as colder or more impersonal than speech.

Standardization.

Spoken languages have dialects—forms varying across geographical areas and social
groups. But in complex societies that use writing, the needs of communication encourage
moves toward a single written norm, codified by governmental, educational, and literary
institutions. The prestige of the written standard is then likely to influence speech as well.

Formality.

Communication may be formal or casual. In literate societies, writing may be associated

with formal style and speech, with casual style. In formal circumstances (oratory,
sermons), a person may 'talk like a book', adapting written style for use in speech. Formal
and informal styles may be very distinct, e.g. in Arabic, and can virtually be different
languages.

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 Change.

Spoken language, everywhere and always, undergoes continual change of which speakers
may be relatively unaware. Written language, because of its permanence and
standardization, shows slower and less sweeping changes; the spelling of English has
changed much less than its pronunciation since Chaucer's time. This in turn is linked to
the factors of formality and prestige.

A2. Dealing with difficulty

When speakers or writers of their own or of a foreign language do not know a word or just
cannot remmeber it, they may employ some or all of the following strategies to resolve the
difficulty they are encountering :

a. Improvising
Speakers sometimes try any word or phrase that they can come up with in the hope that is
it about right. Such improvisations sometimes work, but they can also obscure meaning.
b. Discarding
When speakers simply cannot find words for what they want say, they may discard the
thought that they cannot put into words.
c. Foreignising
When operating in a foreign language, speakers (and writes) sometimes choose a word in
a language they know well (such as their first language) and ‘foreignise’in it the hope that
it will be equivalent to they meaning they wish to express in the foreign language.
d. Paraphrasing
Speakers sometimes pharaprase, talking about something for cleaning the teeth if they do
not know the words tootbrush, or saying that they are not happy with somebody when
they want to say they are really fed up. Such lexical substitution or circumlocution gets
many speakers out of trouble, though it can make communication longer and more
convoluted.

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 Clearly some of these ‘difficulty strategies’ are more appropriate than others. As teachers
we should encourage paraphrasing and Improvising as more useful techniques that
discarding thoughts or foreignising words blindly.

A. Productive skils in the classroom

The productive skills are speaking and writing, because learners doing these need to
produce language. They are also known as active skills. They can be compared with the
receptive skills of listening and reading.

 Example
Learners have already spent time practising receptive skills with a shape poem, by
listening to it and reading it. They now move on to productive skills by group
writing their own, based on the example.

 In the classroom
Certain activities, such as working with literature and project work, seek to integrate
work on both receptive and productive skills.

B1. Reception and Production

Input and output in second language acquisition

Input vs. output

The input refers to the processible language the learners are exposed to while listening or
reading (i.e. The receptive skills). The output, on the other hand, is the language they
produce, either in speaking or writing (i.e. The productive skills).

The input is multidimensional. It comes from the teacher, the coursebook, and the
students themselves. It may also be derived from sources outside the confinement of the
classroom (e.g. TV, podcasts, social media, etc.).

48
 There is an interaction between the input and the output – between the receptive and the
productive skills.

B. Problem and Solution

The productive skills are speaking and writing, because learners need to articulate words
and write to produce language. Learners receive language by listening to conversation,
music, video and also by reading comprehension, newspaper, poem, book, etc. Then they
move on to the next stage where they produce the language to express their thoughts by
using productive skills. Speaking is an oral production of language. McDonough and Shaw
stated that, speaking involves expressing ideas and opinions, expressing a wish or desire to
do something, negotiating or solving problems or establishing and maintaining social
relations[1] . So, speaking is the oral process to produce language. On the other hand,
writing is a productive skill in written mode. When scientists talk about writing there is
usually two-way distinction of writing: institutional and personal writing. Institutional
writing includes textbooks, reports, applications, business correspondence whereas personal
writing covers personal letters and creative writing. Ur said that, “Speaking is the

49
productive aural/oral skill. It consists of producing systematic verbal utterance to convey
meaning”. According to Gower, Philips and Walters every opportunity for speaking in
classroom should be taken. It can be done by trying to communicate that students realize
their need for language and by speaking that they increase their fluency and confidence. At
first students may be self-conscious and reluctant to speak in front of people. However,
there are ways (repetition work and pair work activities) of providing a safer, less public
environment in which the students can begin to practice speaking. As a productive skill
speaking is very important. Previously speaking was not a popular activity to practice in our
classrooms. But nowadays the process of speaking activity has changed a lot. Teachers now
try to encourage the students to improve their communication skills through speaking.
According to Nunan , to be successful in acquiring the speaking skill in the target language,
the following sub skills should be developed:
 “The ability to articulate phonological features of the language comprehensively;
 Expertise on stress, rhythm, intonation patterns,
 An acceptance degree of fluency,
 . Transactional and interpersonal skills,
 Skills in talking short and long speaking turns,
 Skills in the management of interaction,  Using appropriate formulae and fillers”.
According to Gower, “Accuracy involves the correct use of vocabulary, grammar and
pronunciation. In controlled and guided activities the focus is usually on accuracy and the
teacher makes it clear from feedback that accuracy is important”. In speaking, accuracy is
very important and teachers should encourage the students for the correct use of language.
He also added, “Fluency is the ability to keep going when speaking spontaneously”. As the
main aim of fluency is to give the students the opportunity to speak so, Scrivener suggested
that, teachers should reduce their talking time to give the students more space to talk. He
also added that, if the teachers correct students middle of a fluency task it can interrupt the
flow of speaking and students often find it hard to continue after a correction, whilst others
in class may become more reluctant to speak for fear of similar interruption. So, teachers
should give a proper instruction before an accuracy-focused work or a fluency-focused
work. To conclude, the above mentioned ideas, we may say that, teaching productive skills
as speaking and writing require the teachers a hard work. It is necessary to get information

50
about strategies of teaching productive skills in order to teach them step by step. Language
acquisition works better if teachers are well informed about the theoretical background
teaching productive skills and can exploit them in the classroom perfectly.

Writing
A. Writing convestions
Written text has a number of conversations which separate it out from speaking.
Apart from diferences in grammar and vocabulary; there are issues of letter, word,
and text formation, manifested by handwriting, spelling, and layout and punctuation.

1) Handwriting
Handwriting is a very important part of education. Teachers have tried their level
best to make the students understand to not make their 'h' and 'n' look like each
other. Parents have complained many times of how students write in a script they
do not understand.
For example :

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2) Spelling
The most basic kind of knowledge required for good English spelling involves
phonics knowledge, or knowledge of common letter-sound relationships.
For example :
Cchildren need to learn that the sound they hear at the beginning of the spoken
word "bag" is spelled with the letter b, the medial sound is spelled with the letter
a, and the final sound is spelled with the letter g. Unfortunately, however, basic
phonics knowledge is necessary, but often not sufficient, for accurate spelling in
English.

3) Layout and punctuation

Layout is the physical organisation of text on the page, the screen, or any other
medium of written communication. It refers to the visual conventions of
arranging text to assist reading and comprehension. There are conventions of
layout in written communication in English. Some of these are based purely on
function, and some on tradition.
Punctuation involves orthography, punctuation marks, writing ( grammar) in
order to give a concordance and speed or brakes giving harmony to a written
piece of work. You use punctuation marks to structure and organize your writing.
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of
written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading
aloud. The rules of punctuation vary with language, location, register and time
and are constantly evolving. Certain aspects of punctuation are stylistic and are
thus the author's (or editor's) choice.

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 B. Approaches to students writing
There are number of different approaches to the practice of writing skills booth in
and outside the classroom. We need to choose between them, deciding whether we
want students to focus more on the process of writing than its product, whether we
want to encourage creative writing-either individually or cooperatively- and how the
computer can be a useful writing tool. We need to be aware of the different roles we
can and should assume for writing activities.

B.1 Process and product

Writing as a Product

This model sees writing as static, as an object that can be broken down and
analyzed. Anyone who thinks deeply about writing does this almost
automatically, and it helps us understand and deal with the complex
interrelationships of a text. BUT the danger is that we will try to advise students
about every aspect of a text all at once, and less important aspects of a piece of
writing may assume more importance than more critical elements. Also, the
student will be overwhelmed with all the bits and pieces he/she must address.
Finally, it ignores the fact that the reader's impression of a piece of writing is of
the WHOLE text, not just selected elements.

Writing as a Process

This model views writing as ongoing, either in a linear progression or in a circular

(recursive) fashion. There are several alternatives:

 The stage-model theory. This viewpoints sees the writing process as a series of
distinct, sequential steps: planning, prewriting, drafting, revising. It does not view the
writing process as something that circles back on itself--that is, that one revises as one
drafts, or that you have to stop in the middle of drafting and rethink your plan. It's a

53
 good model for structuring writing assignments and tutorials at the Writing Center (in
other words, it fits into the constraints of time that institutions force on us), but it may
not be an accurate reflection of what happens when people write.
 The recursive-cognitive process model. Based on the work of Emig, Flowers, Hayes,
Britton, and others, this model argues that the writing process is recursive (stages are
constantly re-visited) and that it is rooted in the psychological environment of the
writer, as well as the communication situation at hand. While adopting the basic
tripartite structure of the stage-model theory (planning, translating [drafting],
reviewing [revising]), this model places that structure in the context of the rhetorical
situation and the memory and thinking patterns of the writer. How does this impact
tutoring? First, while we generally tackle invention, global revision, and local revision
in that order, we may have to backtrack (or look forward) to other stages during a
tutorial. Second, we should question the client about the "environment" of the
assignment: previous assignments, what was discussed in class, the expectations of
the teacher, etc. Third, we need to plumb/query the student's recollection and
organization of knowledge about the topic, and try to get him/her to see where and
how to use those memories and ideas in the text.
 The conversation or social constructionist model. This model argues that a writer is
actually tapping into a whole social context when he/she writes--that he/she is
responding to a multitude of voices and other texts when she/he writes. In other
words, writing is part of a wider dialogue. A piece of writing then is constructed
socially, as part of social communication. This has less immediate apparent
implications for tutoring, but it does have a few implications. First, we need to look at
a student's paper as part of scholarly commentary on a particular topic. This means
understanding, if only broadly, some of the major issues and writers on that topic is
essential to a successful paper. If content/authority is thin, the paper will not succeed.
Second, again, papers need to be seen within the social and intellectual context of the
class in which they were assigned--the
topic of the class, the sequence of
writing assignments, the instructions
and expectations of the instructor, etc.

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 Third, the writer's task is difficult, because he/she has to find his/her own voice but
still synthesize many others.

B.2 Creative writing

You might have heard it called different things. Traditionally referred to as literature, creative
writing is an art of sorts - the art of making things up. It's writing done in a way that is not
academic or technical but still attracts an audience. Though the definition is rather loose, creative
writing can for the most part be considered any writing that is original and self-expressive. A
news article, for example, cannot be considered creative writing because its main goal is to
present facts and not to express the feelings of the writer. While a news article can be
entertaining, its main purpose is to present the facts.

The purpose of creative writing is to both entertain and share human experience, like love or
loss. Writers attempt to get at a truth about humanity through poetics and storytelling. If you'd
like to try your hand at creative writing, just keep in mind that whether you are trying to express
a feeling or a thought, the first step is to use your imagination.

Types of creative writing include:

 Poetry
 Plays
 Movie and television scripts
 Fiction (novels, novellas, and short stories)
 Songs
 Speeches
 Memoirs
 Personal essays

55
B3. The roles of teacher Example :

 WRITING IS A LANGUAGE ACT

Most importantly we want students to learn what good writing sounds like.
Teachers support a developing awareness of the social nature of writing, in
particular the notion that writing is a form of communication. Teacher
demonstrations and teacher talk can help young writers notice and appreciate the
role of writing as a form of communication to oneself as well as to others. As students
develop a sense of the social nature of writing, a more sophisticated knowledge of
audience and purpose will evolve. Teachers provide opportunities for students to
share the sources of their inspiration for their writing.

 WRITING IS WORTH LEARNING

Teachers give students the opportunity to write every day in a supportive, risk-free
environment. While there is much to teach in the writing classroom, teachers must also
give time to providing opportunities to use and practice what students are learning. Daily
writing takes a variety of forms and is one of the most important parts of the writing
program for students of all ages. Daily writing includes students being provided with
regular opportunities to write creatively about themselves and their world. It also includes
opportunities to write across all learning areas in a range of genres.

 WRITERS NEED TO UNDERSTAND THEROLES OF AUDIENCE AND

PURPOSE
Teachers always give students opportunities to talk about the purpose and audience for
their writing before they begin writing. In the same way that helping circles can assist
students in getting genuine audience feedback for their writing, so too can “getting started
chat groups” in the focusing stage of the writing process. Students in these group chats
focus each other on their respective writing tasks, and in doing so they clarify the purpose
and audience for that writing.

56
 WRITERS NEED TO UNDERSTAND THEWRITING PROCESS
- Teachers regularly model all aspects of the writing process in an explicit and
systematic manner. We use modeling and teacher talk to demonstrate to students
all the processes of writing, including focusing, composing, editing, and
proofreading. Teacher modeling is not just about the surface features of writing
but is concerned with control of the process, even with beginning writers.
Engagement in all the processes requires a range of skills, so teacher modeling
and instruction are important to ensure the development of these skills.
- Teachers explicitly teach and model editing and proofreading strategies. The
skills of editing and proofreading are taught explicitly and systematically within
the context of writing

C. Writing Lesson sequences

In the following examples the writing activity is specified, together with its
particular focus. The way that the text can be used within a lesson is explained.
Examples :

Example :

57
58
 SPEAKING
A. Elements of Speaking
The components of speaking skill According to Vanderkevent (1990) there are three
components in speaking :
 The Speakers
The speakers are a people who produce the sound. They are useful as the tool to express
opinion or feelings to the hearer. So if there are no speakers, the opinion or the feelings or
the feeling won’t be stated.
 The Listeners
Listeners are people who receive or get the speaker’s opinion or feeling. If there are no
listeners, speakers will express their opinion by writing.
 The Utterances
The utterances are words or sentences, which are produced by the speakers to state the
opinion. If there is no utterance, both of the speakers and the listeners will use sign.
According to Harris (1974) there are five components of speaking skill concerned with
comprehension, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency.
a) Comprehension For oral communication, it certainly requires a subject to respond, to
speech as well as to initiate it
b) Grammar
It is needed for students to arrange a correct sentence in conversation. It is in line with
explanation suggested by Heaton (1978: 5) that students’ ability to manipulate structure
and to distinguish appropriate grammatical form in appropriateness. The utility of
grammar is also to learn the correct way to gain expertise in a language in oral and
written form.
c) Vocabulary
Vocabulary means the appropriate diction which is used in communication. Without
having a sufficient vocabulary, one cannot communicative effectively or express their
ideas both oral and written form. Having limited vocabulary is also a barrier that
precludes learners from learning a language. Without grammar very little can be
conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. So, based on this explanation,

59
 the researcher concluded that without mastering vocabulary sufficiently is English
learners will not be able to speak English or write English properly.
d) Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way for students‟ to produce clearer language when they speak. It
deals with the phonological process that refers to the component of a grammar made up
of the elements and principles that determine how sounds vary and pattern in a language.
There are two features of pronunciation; phonemes and supra segmental features. From
the statement above, the researcher concluded that pronunciation is the knowledge of
studying about how the words in a particular language are produced clearly when people
speak. In speaking, pronunciation plays a vital role in order to make the process of
communication easy to understand.
e) Fluency
Fluency is the ability to read, speak, or write easily, smoothly and expressively. In other
words, the speaker can read, understand and respond in a language clearly and concisely
while relating meaning and context. Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak
fluently and accurately. Fluency in speaking is the aim of many language learners. Signs
of fluency include a reasonably fast speed of speaking and only a small number of pauses
and “ums”or “ers”. These signs indicate that the speaker does not have spent a lot of time
searching for the language items needed to express the message. From the ideas above,
the researcher concluded that another important component is fluency. Fluency means the
capability of someone speaks fluently and accurately with little using pauses like „ums‟
and „ers‟, and so on

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 B. Classroom Speaking Activities
There were 10 kinds of speaking activitiesfrom those categories
conducted in the classroom. Here is the detail.
1. Imitative: drilling and singing a song;
2. Intensive: directed response, sentence/dialogue completion,
picture-cued, and translation (of limited stretches of discourse);
3. Responsive: question and answer,
4. Interactive (transactional): discussion and games; and
5. Extensive (monologue):oral presentation. The teacher also
conducted another speaking activity beside those proposed by
Brown (2004), namely singing a song. The following table reveals
the detail of speaking activities conducted by the teacher in each
meeting.
The detail of speaking activities conducted by the teacher in each

meeting.

1. Drilling

The teacher conducted drilling in four meetings. It was done to

help the students to memorize the material about Indonesian

Traditional Clothes which became their project. By drilling, the

teacher hoped that the students would understand certain language

elements subconsciously in long-term memory. Sometimes the

teacher did the drilling by sang it.

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2. Directed Response

The result indicates that the teacher used directed response in four meetings
to evaluate the students’ linguistics competences as well as to trace their
language deficiency. The language produced by the students in this study was
in the form of responding to the teachers’ instructions at minimal length.
Here, the students were required to process a little meaning to produce the
languages which are grammatically appropriate. In this case, students’
grammatical errors only serve as the indicator of students’ difficulty from
which later the teacher can give reinforcement.
3. Sentence/Dialogue
CompletionThe finding presents that teacher only used this activity once
while the students were discussing their homework. The purpose of this
activity was to introduce the written form of the language, and to give
guidelines for the students to talk.The result isirrelevant with Brown’s (2004)
idea which states that sentence completion functions to give students more
time to think the answers. Yet, the second purpose is relevant to Harmer’s
(2001). He stated that a guideline is useful to maintain students’ feelingof
security and confidence. It tells students what to talk in the
communication process.
4. Picture-Cued
Picture-cued was used in four meetings by the teacher. The purposes were to
check students’ prior knowledge, accommodate students’ multiple
intelligences, and give the concrete visualization of what being learnt to
children since children cannot learn abstract concept. This finding is in line
with Brown’s (2004) statement that picture-cued activity is one of the most
popular ways to elicit oral language performance. In this sense, responding to
picture prompt is appropriate for children at this age i.e. 8 to 10 years or
grades 3, 4, 5 (Curtain & Dahlberg, 2010).

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5. Translation (of limited stretches of discourse)
The teacher conducted this activity once while teaching new
vocabulary. It was done when eliciting the vocabulary using
pictures was unsuccessful. From the interview, it is known that the
teacher believed Freeman’s (1986) idea which states that
translation is ineffective since children are indeed focus on
meaning already. In learning a foreign language, the L1 and L2
have different linguistics system. They should be kept apart to
prevent the interference of the L1 to the L2.

6. Question and Answer

Question and answer was conducted in the entire meetings. The teacher did
this activity in greeting the students, reviewing previous lessons, telling
stories, discussing group result, and attracting students’ attention. This result
is in line with Brown’s (2004) statement that question and answer allows
students to interact with others more creatively as they produce meaningful
language in response. The feature also makes it appropriate for young learners
as they focus predominantly on meaning (Moon, 2000).

7. Discussion
Discussion was conducted by the teacher two times to let the students interact
with their peers in their own language. Through the discussions, they could
practice their talk without any worries of adults’ interference. The discussions
that were conducted by the teacher are what Harmer (2001) calls “buzz group”
in which the students were given time to discuss before they talk in front of
the class.

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8. Games
Teacher conducted games once to increase students’ mood and to provide
some spaces for the students to move. This finding is relevant to Curtain &
Dahlberg’s (2010) statement which maintains that game, and other activities
that involve movements have positive emotion associated with them. If the
activity is associated to positive emotions, there will be a “brain-patterning”
which reinforce any language elements that teachers deliver (Caine, 1997, as
cited in Curtain & Dahlberg, 2010).
9. Oral Presentation
Oral Presentation was done when the students were presenting about the
project. The teacher claimed that oral presentation was the core of PBL,
especially when it was speaking class. Oral presentation gives students the
opportunity to talk or communicate with others by using their own language.
10. Retelling A Story
Retelling a story was conducted by the teacher once. He conducted this
activity to train students’ pronunciation as well as students’ vocabulary
mastery. Stories are very appropriate media to teach vocabulary and
pronunciation to children (Cameron, 2001). Compared to paraphrasing, one
benefit of this activity is that it involves students’ emotion which is proven
can promote learning (Curtain & Dahlberg, 2010).

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C.Speaking lesson sequences
Examples of the task that teachers can conduct in speaking classroom :

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66
 4. Teaching Grammar

Grammar can be introduced in a number of ways, or we can show students grammar evidence
and ask them to work out for themselves how the language is constructed. We will also want to
provide opportunities for students to practice different grammar points, and we may want to use
games to make such practice more engaging.

A. Introducing grammar
In this grammar presentation (which follows a PPP or Straight arrows sequence in terms of ESA
- see page 67), students learn how to make sentences using the present simple in the third person
singular. They have already learnt how to say affirmative and negative sentences in them first
and second person (e.g. / like coffee* you don't like bananas). Another way for introducing
grammar is by telling students to tell about their experiences and ask them to use verbs that they
already learned.

B. Discovering grammar
In the following examples, students are encouraged to work out for themselves how language
forms are constructed and used. They then go on to do exercises using the language they have
uncovered. It is highly possible that they have seen the language before, of course, but this may
be the first time they have studied it properly. In this example, students have listened to a
dialogue in which people have been comparing things. Before moving on to make their own
sentences, the teacher wants to draw their attention to the way that we make adjectives
comparative. She could have done this by giving rules, or perhaps just by ignoring such technical
information and hoping that students would 'notice' the various possibilities. Instead, she chooses
to put them in pairs and give them the exercise.

C. Practising grammar
This activity is designed to get students making sentences using the present continuous. (It can
also be used to practise the past simple.) It has a slight game element because the other students
have to guess what the speaker is talking about. We tell students to think of a place they'd really
like to be (e.g. a beach, a night club, on the sports field). They should keep their choice to

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themselves. Now we tell them to imagine they are in this place and we ask them to look around
them and write down three things that they can see using the present continuous (e.g. at a
football game: A lot ofpeople are shouting. A man is blowing a whistle. Someone is kicking a
ball). While they are doing this, we can go round the class monitoring their progress and
suggesting alternatives or prompting students who can't think what to write.
Another activity for practicing grammar. The following activity is designed to get students to
look again at various past tense forms, before using them for language practice. Students are
asked to read the story about Simon in Figure 18. When they have done this, they have to
underline all the past tenses in the story, and then separate them into three different types (i.e. the
past simple - was, went down looked, took, etc., the past continuous - was rising, were breaking,
were running, were just coming back, and the past perfect – had woken up, hadn't been able, had
left, had looked for, had become)

D. Grammar games
Students sit in two teams. There is a pile of cards between them. On each card there is a word or
phrase. The cards are face down. A member of team A picks up the first card and then has to ask
the other team members questions until they give exactly the answer that is written on the card.
The game, which is suitable for all levels, forces students to think extremely carefully about the
exact construction of the questions they are asking.

E. Grammar books
Grammar books come in many shapes and sizes. They range from ones for students at lower
levels (which tend to offer quick digestible explanations of grammar points and provide
opportunities tor practice of these specific points) to works designed for the more serious
researcher, teacher or advanced student. Many commentators make a distinction between
descriptive and pedagogic grammars. The former describe everything there is, the whole of the
language and its workings, whereas the latter are designed specifically to be of help to teachers
and students of the language. The way in which grammar rules are offered will depend on the
level the grammar is designed for, of course, and, as a result, compromises frequently have to be
made about the amount of detail we may want to give about a particular grammar point. If we

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give too much detail, we may confuse lower level students; if we give too little, we may not be
telling students things they ought to know.

Teaching Vocabulary

A major reason for reading texts in class (in contrast to extensive reading is to give students new
language input. And whenever we ask students to read or listen, we will want them to see how
words are used. That is why when students read the text on page 291 we will ask them to do
exercises such as matching words from the text with their definitions. If they read the text about
plastic surgery (on page 298), we may ask them to find a word in the text that means 'people
whom doctors see and care for' (patients), etc. We may
ask them to say what a word means, or ask them which word in the text is the opposite of a given
word, etc.

A. Introducing vocabulary
When we introduce new vocabulary, there is always a chance, of course, that it is not new to
some of the students in the class. That is why elicitation is so important (see page 203). By the
time students get to upper intermediate level or beyond, we can be sure that some of them will
know some of the words we are asking them to focus on. Example 4 below is clearly designed to
focus the students' attention on an aspect of vocabulary they certainly know quite a lot about, but
they may never have studied prefixes in quite such detail before.

B. Practising vocabulary
In the following lesson sequences the aim of the activity is either to have students use words that
they more or less know, but which they need to be provoked into using, or to get them to think
about word meaning, especially in context.
In this activity, students look at a wheel of words (see Figure 9) and try to say which words
combine with book and TV to make compound words. We start by showing students the wheel
and then make sure that they realise that while book + case can make bookcase, TV + case
doesn't work in the same way. Students are put into pairs or groups and told to come up with the
combinations as quickly as possible They should do this without using dictionaries at first, and

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then when we go through the answers with the class, we can put up some of them on the board
and ask students to check with their dictionaries to see if they are right (some of them will not
be).

C. Vocabulary games
There are many games which are appropriate for use with collections of vocabulary items.
Sometimes games which are not designed especially for language students work equally well in
our lessons. These include dictionary (where players have to draw words which their team then
have to guess), Call my bluff (see page 350) and charades (where players have to act out the title
of a book, play or film).

D. Using dictionaries
Dictionaries, whether they are in book form, on CD-ROMs, online or bundled into the electronic
machines that students like to carry around, are perhaps the greatest single resource students can
have at their disposal. However, they are sometimes the least widely-used resource that learners
work with. This is sad because they contain a wealth of information about words, including of
course what they mean, but also how they operate (see below). In this section we will discuss the
difference between reference and production dictionaries and then look at exercises designed to
train students in dictionary use or which incorporate dictionary use into lesson sequences.

Teaching Pronunciation

A. Pronunciation issues

Almost all English language teachers get students to study grammar and vocabulary, practice
functional dialogues, take part in productive skill activities and try to become competent in
listening and reading. Yet some of these same teachers make little attempt to teach pronunciation
in any overt way and only give attention to it in passing. It is possible that they are nervous of
dealing with sounds and intonation; perhaps they feel they have too much to already and
pronunciation teaching will only make things worse. They may claim that even without a formal

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pronunciation syllabus, and without specific pronunciation teaching, many students seem to
acquire serviceable pronunciation in the course of their studies anyway. In some particular cases,
pronunciation help allows students to get over serious intelligibility problems. Joan Kerr, a
speech pathologist, described (in a paper at the 1998 EL1COS conference in Melbourne,
Australia) how she was able to help a Cantonese speaker of English achieve considerably greater
intelligibility by working on his point of articulation - changing his focus of resonance. Whereas
many Cantonese vowels occur towards the back of the mouth, English ones are frequently
articulated nearer the front or in the centre of the mouth. The moment you can get Cantonese
speakers, she suggested, to bring their vowels further forward, increased intelligibility occurs.
With other language groups it may be an issue of nasality (e.g. Vietnamese) or the degree to
which speakers do or do not open their mouths. Some language groups may have particular
intonation or stress patterns in phrases and sentences which sound strange when replicated in
English, and there are many individual sounds which cause difficulty for speakers of various
different first languages.

B. Examples of pronunciation teaching

The areas of pronunciation which we need to draw our students' attention to include individual
sounds they are having difficulty with, word and phrase/sentence stress and intonation. But
students will also need help with connected speech for fluency and with the correspondence, or
lack of it, between sounds and spelling.

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 5. Constituents and Categories of Methods

 Constituents of Language Teaching Methods

A variety of labels such as approach, design, methods, practice, principles, procedure,

strategies, tacties, techniques, and so on are used to describe various elements
constituiting language teaching.

a. Method and Methodology

Method is central to any language teaching enterprise. Many of us in the language
teaching profession use the term method, so much and so often that we seldom recognise
its problematic nature. The term method refers to two different elements of language
teaching : method as proposed by theorist, and method as practiced by teachers. What
teachers actually do in the classroom is different from what is advocated by the theorists.
One way of clearing the confusion by the indiscriminate use of the term method is to
make a distinction between method and methodology. Method refers to established
method conceptualized and constructed by expert in the field (related with the theory of
expert), and methodology refers to what practicing teachers actually do in the classroom
in order to achieve their stated or unstated teaching objectives (related with practicing in
the class). This distinction is nothing new; it is implicit in some of the literature on
language teaching. Such a distinction is, in fact the basis by which Mackey (1965)
differentiated what he called 'method analysis' from 'teaching analysis'. A teaching
analysis can be done only by analyzing and interpreting authentic classroom data that
includ the methodological practices of the teacher as revealed throgh classroom input and
interaction, and teacher intention and learner interpretations. A method analysis on the
other hand, can be carried out by method presented in standard textbooks on language
teaching methods using any appropriate analytical framework.

b. Approach, Method and Technique

Approach is a set of correlative assumption dealing with the nature of language and the
nature of language teaching and learning. A method however is an overall plan for the
orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts and all of which is
based upon the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural.

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 Methods are implemented in the classroom through what are called techniques. A
technique is defined as a particular trick, strategem, or contrivance used to accomplish an
immediete objective.
c. Approach, Design and Procedure
Approach defines those assumptions, beliefs and theories about the nature of language
and the nature of language learning which operate as axiomatic constructs or reference
points and provide a theoritical foundation for what language teachers ultimately do with
learners in classroom. The second level in the system, design, specifies, the relationship
theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials
and activities in instructional settings. The third level, procedure comprises the classroom
techniques and practices which are consequencess of particular approaches and design.
d. Principles and Procedure
The term principles may be operationally defined as a set of insights derived from
theoritical and applied linguistics, cognitive psychology, information science, andother
allied disciplines that provide theoritical bases for the study language learning, language
planning and language teaching. Similarly, procedures may be operationally defined as a
set of teaching strategies adopted/adapted by the teacher in order to accomplish the tated
and unstated, short- and long-term goals of language teaching and teaching in the
classroom.

 Categories of Language Teaching Methods

For the purpose of analysis and understanding, to categorized established method into :(a)
language-centered methods, (b) learner-centered methods, (c) learning-centered methods
(Kumaravadivelu,1993b). This categorization, which seeks to provide conceptual coherence, is
made based on theoritical and pedagogic consideration that are presented in a nutshell below.

a. Language-centered method
Language-centered methods are those that are principally concerned with linguistic form.
It concern with teacher cognitive or skill to transfer the knowledge. These methods seek

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 to provide opportunities for learners to practice preselected,presequenced linguistic
structures through form-focused exercise in class, assuming that a preoccupation with
form will ultimately lead to the mastery of the target language and that the learners can
draw from this formal repertoire whenever they wish to communicate in the target
language outside the class.
b. Learner-centered methods
Learner-centered methods are those that are principally concerned with learner needs,
wants and situation. It focus on students, these methods seek to provide opportunities for
learners to practice preselected, presequenced linguistic structures and communicative
notions/functions through meaning-focused activities, assuming that a preoccupation with
form and function will ultimately lead to target language mastery and that the learners
can make use of both formal and functional repertoire to fulfill their communicative
needs outside the class. Learner-centered pedagogist aim at making language learners
grammatically accurate and communicatively fluent.
c. Learning-centered method
Learning-centered methods are those that are principally concerned with cognitive
processe of language learning. Meaningful learning should have interaction to achieve the
goals. These methods seek to provide opportunities for learners to participate in open-
ended meaningful interaction through problem-solving tasks in class, assuming that a
preoccupation with meaning-making will ultimately lead to target mastery and that the
learners can deploy the still-developing interlanguage to achieve linguistics as well as
pragmatic knowledge/ability.

 Designer Nonmethods

Total physical response recommends that teacher activate their learners motor skills trough a
command sequence in which learners perform an action, such as standing up,sitting
down,walking to the board and so forth. These methods have alson been dubbed as designer
nonmethod, because none of them desrves the status of a method.

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 A Spesial Task

As the novelty of communicative language teaching is gradually wearing thin, TBLT is

gaining ground. The word 'communicative', which was ubiquitously present in the title of
scholarly books and students textbooks published during th 1980s is being replaced by yet
another word 'task'. Since the late 1980s, we have been witnessing a steady stream of books
on TBLT, in addition to numerous journal articles.

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