INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY, BANGLADESH

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS AND CHEMISTRY (EEE132)

SPRING 2020
SECTION - 01

PROJECT REPORT

Topic - Conductors and Insulators

Submitted By: Sabrine Islam Toma

ID: 1920054
Submitted To: Dr Mustafa Habib Chowdhury
Email: mchowdhury@iub.edu.bd

1
 PROJECT REPORT ON

“CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS”

Table of Contents:
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Basics
4. Conductor And Insulator History
5. Modern Conductor And Insulator
6. Simple Experiment
7. Summary
8. Conclusion
9. References

2
Abstract:
This report provides information on the
history, design, qualification and perfor
mance characteristics of conductors
and insulators. It also describes there
working, application and uses.
Introduction:
Conductivity is the ability or power to
conduct or transmit heat, electricity, or
sound. Conductors are materials that
electricity easily passes through, that do
not resist the flow of electricity. On the
other hand, Insulators are materials that
resist the flow of electricity, so
electricity does not easily pass through.
This report focuses on basic parameters
for understanding, designing,
evaluating performance of conductors
and insulators. The world of conductors
and insulators are much larger of course
– encompassing a myriad of products
such as those used in low voltage
applications in home wiring, control
circuitry etc.
Our purpose here is to assist those
responsible for specifying, selecting, in
substations etc – conductors and
insulators used in applications at
different fields.
Basics:
That said – let’s start with definition –
“what are conductors”?
Conductors are the materials or
substances which allow electricity to flow
through them. They are able to conduct
electricity because they allow electrons to
flow inside them very easily. Conductors
have this property of allowing the
transition of heat or light from one source
to another. Materials made of metal are
common electrical conductors.
Metals, humans, earth, and animal bodies
are all conductors. This is the reason we
get electric shocks! The main reason is
that being a good conductor, human body
allows a resistance-free path for the
current to flow from wire to our body.
Conductors have free electrons on its
surface which allows current to pass
through. This is the reason why
conductors are able to conduct electricity.
The voltage on a conductor is
determined by the connected circuitry
and has nothing to do with the conductor
itself. Conductors are usually
surrounded by and/or supported by
insulators and the insulation determines
the maximum voltage that can be
applied to any given conductor.
Voltage of a conductor "V" is given by
V = IR
Where
I is the current, measured in amperes
V is the potential difference measured in
volts
R is the resistance measured in ohms
Examples of Conductors-
 Silver is the best conductor of
electricity. However, it is costly and
so, we don’t use silver in industries
and transmission of electricity.
 Copper, Brass, Steel, Gold,
and Aluminium are good conductors
of electricity. We use them mostly
in electric circuits and systems in the
form of wires.
3
 Mercury is an excellent liquid
conductor that finds use in many
instruments.
 Gases are not good conductors of
electricity as the particles of matter
are quite far away and thus, they are
unable to conduct electrons.
Conductors are quite useful in many ways.
They find used in many real life
applications like-
 Mercury is a common ingredient in
thermometer to check
the temperature of the body.
 Aluminium finds use in making foils
to store food and also in
the production of fry pans to store
heat quickly.
 Iron is common in vehicle engine
manufacturing to conduct heat.
 The plate of an iron is made up of
steel to absorb heat briskly.
 Conductors find their use in car
radiators to eradicate heat away
from the engine.
And “what are insulators”?
Insulators are the materials or substances
which resist or don’t allow the current to
flow through them. They are mostly solid
in nature and are finding use in a variety
of systems. They do not allow the flow of
heat as well. The property which makes
insulators different from conductors is its
resistivity.
Dry wood, cloth, glass, mica, ceramic and
quartz are some good examples of
insulators. Insulators are also
protectors as they give protection against
heat, sound and of course passage of
electricity. Insulators don’t have any free
electrons and it is the main reason why
they don’t conduct electricity. The short
answer is simply that an insulator is a
very, very poor conductor – specifically:
“An insulator is a device intended to
give flexible or rigid support to electric
conductors or equipment and to insulate
these conductors or equipment from
ground or from other conductors or
equipment.”
Examples of Insulators -
 Ceramic and Glass are the best
insulator as they has the highest
resistivity.
 Plastic is a good insulator and it
finds its use in making a number of
things.
 Rubber is a common component in
making tyres, fire-resistant clothes
and slippers. This is because it is a
very good insulator.
Being resistive to flow of electron,
insulators find application worldwide in a
number of ways. Some of the common
uses include-
 Thermal Insulators, disallow heat to
move from one place to another. We
use them in making thermoplastic
bottles, in fireproofing ceilings and
walls.
 Sound Insulators help
in controlling noise level, as they are
good in absorbance of sound.
Therefore, we use them in buildings,
conference halls, and buildings to
make them noise-free
 Electrical Insulators hinder the flow
of electron or passage of current
through them. We use them
extensively in circuit boards,
high-voltage systems and also in
coating electric wire and cables.
4
In the view of chemistry, all metallic
elements are good conductors of
electricity and heat, due to the way the
atoms bond with each other. The
electrons of the atoms comprising a
mass of metal are so uninhibited in their
allowable energy states that they float
freely between the different nuclei in the
substance, readily motivated by any
electric field. The electrons are so
mobile, in fact, that they are sometimes
described by scientists as an electron gas,
or even an electron sea in which the
atomic nuclei rest. This electron
mobility accounts for some of the other
common properties of metals: good heat
conductivity, malleability and ductility
(easily formed into different shapes),
and a lustrous finish when pure. On the
other hand, nonmetals are not shiny,
malleable, or ductile nor are they good
conductors of electricity. So some of the
chemical elements acts as electrical
conductor. According to ‘Band Theory’,
lithium can be a good electrical
conductor. For metals, band theory
described even an infinitesimal amount
of energy can promote an electron into
the valence band. The nonmetal, on the
other hand, has a large energy gap
between the filled valence band and the
empty conduction band. So it takes a
significant amount of energy to reach
that empty band, where electron
movement would be allowed. Under
ordinary circumstances, electrons will
not have enough energy to overcome
this large band gap, so nonmetals do not
conduct and are referred to as insulators.
The diamond form of carbon is an
excellent example of a nonconductive
material. Some materials are practical
electrical conductors but are not good
thermal conductors.
If an electric field is applied to a
material, and the resulting induced
electric current is in the same direction,
the material is said to be an isotropic
electrical conductor. If the resulting
electric current is in a different direction
from the applied electric field, the
material is said to be an anisotropic
electrical conductor.
The function of the conductor and
insulator being to “support” both
mechanical and electrical loads requires
that the product is made from materials
that are both mechanically and
electrically strong. The history of
conductors and insulators centers on that
very thing – finding the right materials.
Conductor And Insulator
History:
In 1734 Stephen Gray (c.1666-1736), an
English experimenter, discovered that
electric charge could be conducted over
distance. He also classified various
substances into conductors and
insulators of electricity. He suggested
that metals were the best conductors and
thus introduced the use of electric wire.
In 1734 Musschenbroek, a professor
from Leyden in Holland discovered that
electricity could be stored in a jar of
water.
During the same year, von Kleist, a
German scientist also discovered the
same principle independently. In later
versions of what became known as the
Leyden jar, water was replaced by
copper foil inside and outside the jar.
The Leyden jar became a novelty and in
village faires magicians used ‘electricity
in a bottle’ to amaze and entertain
villagers.
Electrical insulators have been around
quite a long time - in fact since the late
1790s’. There are numerous books and
web sites devoted to the subject of
electrical insulators. They indicate that
insulators as we know them today
originated in the late 1890s with the
5
development of wet process porcelain
and glass insulators of adequate quality
to with stand the rigors of service. Prior
to that time, many different materials
were tried ranging from wood to cement
to glass. In that period from the late
1700s to the late 1800s, application was
associated with telegraph lines and thus
voltages were low - but reliability was
also low - which presented a serious
problem – especially when in the
late1800s, early 1900s the development
of the electric power industry began in
earnest (i.e. higher voltages were now
being used) and the need for good
electrical insulators became a real
necessity. It is this low reliability that is
purported to have been the driving force
behind the development of the “modern”
insulator by Fred Locke. While Locke
and subsequent early developers
patented many, many unique designs of
insulators,their real contribution was in
the development of a material that meets
the requirements noted above –
mechanically and electrically sound –
especially when exposed to the
elements.
Modern Conductor And
Insulator:
 Conductor-
In modern era, many materials are used
to transmit electrical energy, but those
most frequently specified for types of
conductors are copper, copper-covered
steel, high strength copper alloys, and
aluminum. For more unusual
applications, conductors are fabricated
from pure nickel, pure silver,
copper-covered aluminum, and a host of
metals, metal alloys, and metal
combinations.
These metals may be coated with rubber,
polyethylene, asbestos, thermoplastic, or
varnished cambric material, which are
called insulators as they have very low
electron mobility (few or no free
electrons), all of which depend on the
voltage of the circuit, the temperature,
and whether the circuit is exposed to
water or chemicals.
Not all conductive metals have the same
level of conductivity – some obviously
being better than others – and not all
insulators are equally resistant to
electron motion. Additionally, it’s also
useful to know that some materials
experience changes in their electrical
properties under different conditions.
The following section will go over some
of these differences.
 Metals Used
Copper
Copper is by far the most widely used
conductor material. Among its physical
properties are high electrical and thermal
conductivity, ductility, malleability and
solderability, high melting point, and
high resistance to corrosion, wear, and
fatigue.
Copper-covered steel
Copper-covered steel combines the
conductivity and corrosion resistance of
copper with the strength of steel. Three
types are presently available, differing
primarily in method of producing the
composite metal. In one type, molten
welding permanently bonds the two
components; in another, a copper layer
is electroplated over a steel rod; and in
the third, the copper and steel are
metallurgically bonded.
High Strength Alloys
Though more expensive than
copper-covered steel wires, copper alloy
conductors are specified because they
permit significant size and/or weight
reductions especially important in
computer and aerospace cable and wire
applications. They offer high breaking
strength and greater flex life with only a
6
small increase in DC resistance.
Cadmium-chromium copper, cadmium
copper, chromium copper, and
zirconium copper are most frequently
used.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is used for medical lead
wires and cables. Stainless steel has poor
conductivity compared to copper and
may have to be gold plated to improve
the conductivity.
 Conductor Coatings
Bare Copper
Bare copper slowly combines with
oxygen at room temperatures to form
copper oxide. Raising the temperature
accelerates this reaction, and at about
180°C and higher, bright copper wire
turns black in just a few minutes. Oxide
film is a poor conductor of electricity
and must be either removed or prevented
from forming in order to assure
reliability of connections. This is usually
accomplished by coating the copper wire
with another metal which oxidizes more
slowly at operating and processing
temperatures. Thus, a coating is
sometimes used to facilitate termination
(soldering); sometimes as a processing
aid (preventing oxidation of the copper
at Teflon® TFE extrusion temperatures);
and sometimes to offer a
lower-resistance connection
(“Wire-Wrap” termination). Bare copper
is satisfactory at temperatures up to
about 100°C.
Tinned Copper
Tinned copper conductors are a
soldering aid and are usually specified
where this terminating method is to be
used. Suitable for conductors continually
exposed to temperatures not exceeding
150°C, tinned copper conductors are
slightly more expensive than bare
copper wires. However, the labor
savings gained by using tinned copper
more than offset the additional expense,
especially when manual twisting and
solder dipping of the stripped lead is
required.
Silver Coated Copper
Silver plated copper is made by
electro-plating pure silver on 18 AWG
wire which then is cold drawn to size
and finally annealed. Minimum silver
thickness is 40 micro-inches. Though
higher in cost than tinned copper,
silver-coated conductors are
recommended for wires operating from
above 150°C to about 200°C and in high
frequency applications where, because
of skin effect, higher conductivity of
silver is desirable. They are readily wet
by solder, permitting rapid soldering
with hand irons. Care must be taken,
however, to prevent solder wicking
under the insulation, which may reduce
conductor flex life. Silver coated copper
will oxidize after a few hundred hours at
250°C.
Nickel Coated Copper
Nickel plated conductor (50
micro-inches minimum nickel thickness)
is recommended for Teflon® TFE
hook-up wire operating for prolonged
periods at temperatures of from 200° to
260°C, and where silver coating is
objectionable because of possible solder
wicking. Ordinary soft solder does not
wet nickel as readily as it does tin or
silver. It adheres well enough to make a
good termination, but will not wick into
the stranded conductor beyond the joint,
thereby leaving flexibility unimpaired.
Connections exposed to temperatures
above the melting point of soft solder
require special soldering techniques. The
term "nickel clad" refers to a much
thicker coating – 10% to 30% of the
radius of the strand.
Also silver is 6% more conductive than
copper, but due to cost it is not practical
in most cases. However, it is used in
7
specialized equipment, such as satellites,
and as a thin plating to mitigate skin
effect losses at high frequencies.
Famously, 14,700 short tons (13,300 t)
of silver on loan from the Treasury were
used in the making of
the calutron magnets during World War
II due to wartime shortages of copper.
Aluminum wire is the most common
metal in electric power
transmission and distribution. Although
only 61% of the conductivity of copper
by cross-sectional area, its lower density
makes it twice as conductive by mass.
As aluminum is roughly one-third the
cost of copper by weight, the economic
advantages are considerable when large
conductors are required.
The disadvantages of aluminum wiring
lie in its mechanical and chemical
properties. It readily forms an insulating
oxide, making connections heat up. Its
larger coefficient of thermal
expansion than the brass materials used
for connectors causes connections to
loosen. Aluminum can also "creep",
slowly deforming under load, which also
loosens connections. These effects can
be mitigated with suitably designed
connectors and extra care in installation,
but they have made aluminum building
wiring unpopular past the service drop.
Organic compounds such as octane,
which has 8 carbon atoms and 18
hydrogen atoms, cannot conduct
electricity. Oils are hydrocarbons, since
carbon has the property of
tetracovalency and forms covalent bonds
with other elements such as hydrogen,
since it does not lose or gain electrons,
thus does not form ions. Covalent bonds
are simply the sharing of electrons.
Hence, there is no separation of ions
when electricity is passed through it. So
the liquid (oil or any organic compound)
cannot conduct electricity.
While pure water is not an electrical
conductor, even a small portion of ionic
impurities, such as salt, can rapidly
transform it into a conductor.
The ampacity of a conductor, that is, the
amount of current it can carry, is related
to its electrical resistance: a
lower-resistance conductor can carry
more current. The resistance, in turn, is
determined by the material the
conductor is made from (as described
above) and the conductor's size. For a
given material, conductors with a larger
cross-sectional area have less resistance
than conductors with a smaller
cross-sectional area.
For bare conductors, the ultimate limit is
the point at which power lost to
resistance causes the conductor to melt.
Aside from fuses, most conductors in the
real world are operated far below this
limit, however. For example, household
wiring is usually insulated with PVC
insulation that is only rated to operate to
about 60°C, therefore, the current
flowing in such wires must be limited so
that it never heats the copper conductor
above 60°C, causing a risk of fire. Other,
more expensive insulations such as
Teflon or fiberglass may allow operation
at much higher temperatures.
The American wire gauge article
contains a table showing allowable
ampacities for a variety of copper wire
sizes. In many countries, conductors are
measured by their cross section in
square millimeters. However, in the
United States, conductors are measured
by American wire gauge for smaller
ones, and circular mils for larger ones.
In some poor countries they have
overloaded wires going into one circuit.
 Insulator-
The history of insulators in the 20th
century can be divided into 2 distinct
8
eras – the “ceramic” era (porcelain and
glass) and the non ceramic (NCI) era.
Ceramic and glass insulators dominated
until the early 1970s, when various new
types of insulators began to be
introduced based on organic rather than
inorganic insulating materials.
Ceramic materials such as porcelain and
glass are strong and rigid, and under
appropriate, controlled loading
conditions – they are mechanically
strong. They are excellent insulating
materials electrically.
The materials that are predominantly
used for NCIs (silicone rubber or
EPR/EPDM rubber) are not
mechanically strong – in fact they are
quite weak. Use of these materials
required that some other method be
found to provide the primary mechanical
support – and the solution was the use of
the fiberglass rod (core) surrounded by
the rubber weather sheds which is the
common feature of most NCIs in use
today.
The question then is why did this change
in materials occur – why were the new
types of insulators developed? The
answer is because the new designs and
materials offered some advantages over
the ceramic insulators, advantages
ranging from lighter weight to higher
tensile strength to easier handling, to
greater “toughness”, and - perhaps most
significantly - surface properties such as
hydrophobicity that greatly improve
insulating performance in contaminated
conditions (i.e. improving the resistance
to “shorting out” the air gap under
difficult operating conditions).
The search for better insulators - better
materials, better designs, and better
manufacturing methods continues to this
day – and will continue into the future.
Ceramic insulators have seen
tremendous improvements in the quality
and consistency of the materials
themselves, improvements in
manufacturing processes (both
improving quality and reducing costs),
and the development of designs
and materials specifically intended for
application in contaminated
environments. While the history of NCIs
is shorter (nearly 40 years, however) –
the development process has been
extremely rapid, with current designs,
materials, and manufacturing methods
being “generations” ahead of the
original attempts. Like any new idea,
first attempts are rarely perfect – but
they lead the way to improvement after
improvement – to the point that today
the NCI is considered essentially a
mature product – not a “prototype” and
not a “risky alternative” to other
insulating methods and materials.
There are some types used in
transmission lines as overhead
insulation-
 Pin Insulator
 Post Insulator
 Suspension Insulator
 Strain Insulator
 Stay Insulator
 Shackle Insulator
 Bushing
 Line Post Insulator
 Station Post Insulator
 Fuse Cut-out
Pin, Suspension and Strain insulators are
used in medium to high voltage systems.
While Stay and Shackle Insulators are
mainly used in low voltage applications.
Pin Insulator
The pin type insulator is mounted on a
pin on the cross-arm on the pole. There
is a groove on the upper end of the
insulator. The conductor passes through
this groove and is tied to the insulator
with annealed wire of the same material
as the conductor. It is the earliest
developed overhead insulator, but are
still commonly used in power networks
up to 33KV system. Pin type insulator
can be one part, two parts or three parts
9
type, depending upon application
voltage. In a 11KV system generally use
one part type insulator where whole pin
insulator is one piece of properly shaped
porcelain or glass.
Post Insulator
Post insulators are similar to Pin
insulators, but post insulators are more
suitable for higher voltage applications.
Post insulators have a higher number of
petticoats and a greated height compared
to pin insulators. We can mount this
type of insulator on supporting structure
horizontally as well as vertically. The
insulator is made of one piece of
porcelain and it has clamp arrangement
are in both top and bottom end for fixing.
It is more compact than traditional
pin-type insulators and which has
rapidly replaced many pin-type
insulators on lines up to 69KV and in
some configurations, can be made for
operation at up to 115KV.
Suspension Insulator
For voltages greater than 33KV, it is a
usual practice to use suspension type
insulators, consisting of a number of
glass or porcelain discs connected in
series by metal links in the form of a
string. The conductor is suspended at the
bottom end of this string while the top
end is secured to the cross-arm of the
tower. Each insulator of a suspension
string is called disc insulator because of
their disc like shape. The number of disc
units used depends on the voltage. In
higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it
becomes uneconomical to use pin
insulator because size, weight of the
insulator become more. Handling and
replacing bigger size single unit
insulator are quite difficult task. For
overcoming these difficulties,
suspension insulator was developed.
Strain (Tension) Insulator
When suspension string is used to
sustain extraordinary tensile load of
conductor it is referred as string
insulator. A dead end or anchor pole or
tower is used where a straight section of
line ends, or angles off in another
direction. These poles must withstand
the lateral (horizontal) tension of the
long straight section of wire. To support
this lateral load, strain insulators are
used. For low voltage lines (less than
11KV), shackle insulators are used as
strain insulators. However, for high
voltage transmission lines, strings of
cap-and-pin (suspension) insulators are
used, attached to the cross-arm in a
horizontal direction. When the tension
load in lines is exceedingly high, such as
at long river spans, two or more strings
are used in parallel.
Stay Insulator
For low voltage lines, the stays are to be
insulated from ground at a height. The
insulator used in the stay wire is called
as the stay insulator and is usually of
porcelain and is so designed that in case
of breakage of the insulator the guy-wire
will not fall to the ground.
Shackle Insulator
The shackle insulator (also known as a
spool insulator) is usually used in low
voltage distribution network. In early
days, the shackle insulators were used as
strain insulators. But now a day, they are
frequently used for low voltage
distribution lines. It can be used in both
the horizontal or vertical positions. The
use of such insulator has decreased
recently after increasing the using of
underground cable for distribution
purpose.
The tapered hole of the spool insulator
distributes the load more evenly and
minimizes the possibility of breakage
when heavily loaded. The conductor in
the groove of shackle insulator is fixed
with the help of soft binding wire.
Bushing
10
Bushing enables one or several
conductors to pass through a partition
such as a wall or a tank, and insulates
the conductors from it.
Simple Experiment:
We know that electric current can only
occur if a complete path is created to
allow the current to flow continuously.
There are many materials that can be
used to “close” a circuit, or allow
current to flow. Materials that allow
electric current to flow through easily
are called conductors. Most metals
including aluminum are good
conductors of electricity as well as water.
Materials that do not allow electric
current to flow well are insulators. Most
items made of plastic and rubber are
insulators. It is important to understand
the difference between a conductor and
insulator not simply to create circuits but
also in the construction of our homes
and cooking our meals. It is also
important to know the difference
between conductors and insulators to
prevent injury when dealing with
electricity.
Materials-
 At least four pieces of coated
electrical wire (preferably with
alligator clips on each end of wires).
 D battery.
 Small light bulb.
 Various household items to
test-paper clip, toothpick, aluminum
foil, banana, soda can, copper penny,
etc.
 Bulb holder (optional).
 D battery holder (optional).
Procedure-
 We can create a simple closed
circuit by connecting two wires to
the battery and light bulb. See
diagram for example.
If there is no bulb holder or battery
holder, we can connect the wires by
clipping the alligator clip of one wire to
the positive post of the battery and the
other end to the metal contact (bottom
tip) of the bulb. Attached the alligator
clip of a second wire to the bottom or
negative side of the battery by using
masking tape or simply holding the clip
in place. (USE CAUTION if holding
clip. Heat can be generated.) Attached
the other end of the wire to the metal
threaded cap of the bulb. If the circuit is
correctly closed and a complete path is
created, the bulb will light.
 Next we will test items to see if they
are conductors or insulators. We
will gather at least 10-14 household
items to test. Include items made of
different materials such as metal,
plastic, and wood.
 Incorporate one item at a time into
the circuit to test if it is a conductor
or insulator. Starting by disconnect
one alligator clip from the bulb and
attaching the clip to the test item.
Connect another wire to the test
item and then back to the bulb.
Results-
11
If the bulb lights, the test item is a
conductor. If the bulb does not light, the
test item is an insulator.
Summary:
In a conductor, electric current can flow
freely, in an insulator it cannot. Metals
such as copper typify conductors, while
most non-metallic solids are said to be
good insulators, having extremely high
resistance to the flow of charge through
them. "Conductor" implies that the outer
electrons of the atoms are loosely bound
and free to move through the material.
Most atoms hold on to their electrons
tightly and are insulators. In copper, the
valence electrons are essentially free and
strongly repel each other. Any external
influence which moves one of them will
cause a repulsion of other electrons
which propagates, "domino fashion"
through the conductor.
There are many types of conductors that
conduct electricity like different types of
electrical wire. And to be sure – there
are many “arguments” made both for
and against each of the types of
insulators, but the mere fact that these
discussions continue after so many years
of service is simply testament to the fact
that both ceramic and non ceramic
insulators successfully fulfill the roles
they were developed for. While neither
ceramic nor non-ceramic insulators are
without some “intrinsic” limitations –
such as fragility and weight for ceramics,
and potential tracking or erosion for non
ceramics, the utility engineer today can
– with a basic understanding of the
concepts behind each type of insulator –
make an intelligent, economical choice
of the correct way to insulate.
Conclution:
 Electrical conductivity of a material
is determined by the configuration
of electrons in that materials atoms
and molecules (groups of bonded
atoms).
 All metals are conductor as because
the electrons are free to move.
 In non metals the electrons are held
tightly by the nucleus of the atom so
cannot flow we call these materials
insulators.
 An insulator like glass or
a vacuum has low conductivity.
References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
conductor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(
electricity)
http://histoires-de-sciences.over-blog.fr/
2018/04/history-of-electricity.the-discov
ery-of-conductors-and-insulators-by-gra
y-dufay-and-franklin.html
https://ahistoryofscience.wordpress.com/
tag/conductors-and-insulators/
https://science.jrank.org/pages/2321/Ele
ctrical-Conductivity-History.html
https://www.scribd.com/document/3433
75098/Video
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/e
lectric-charges-and-fields/conductors-an
d-insulators/
https://studylib.net/doc/18068303/insulat
ors-and-conductors
12
http://ieee-ac.org/TISP/pdf/insandcond.p
df

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbo
ok/direct-current/chpt-12/introduction-c
onductance-and-conductors/

https://www.calmont.com/resources/typ
es-of-conductors/

https://www.electrical4u.com/types-of-e
lectrical-insulator-overhead-insulator/

https://electricalshouters.com/types-of-in
sulators/

https://www.education.com/download-p
df/science-fair/72387/

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/
entry/Electrical_conductor

13