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Modelling of Load Devices
and
Studying Load/System Characteristics
Kerstin Lindén
and
Inger Segerqvist
Technical Report No. 131L

Department of Electrical Power Systems
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
1992
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Göteborg, Sweden
Technical Report No. 131L

(Revised edition)
Modelling of Load Devices

and
Studying Load/System Characteristics
by
Kerstin Lindén and Inger Segerqvist
Submitted to the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

Chalmers University of Technology,
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Licentiate of Engineering
TEKNISKA
S
HO
ALMER
GSKOLA
CH
GO
TEBORG
Department of Electrical Power Systems

Göteborg, Augusti 1992
CHALMERS TEKNISKA HÖGSKOLA
Institutionen för Elkraftsystem
S–412 96 GÖTEBORG, Sweden
ISBN 91–7197–038–X
Chalmers Bibliotek
ReproService
Göteborg, Oktober 1993
Abstract
This thesis deals with deriving load models from laboratory measurements and
studying the impact of tap-changers on both load and system characteristics.
The laboratory measurements were carried out on various types of lighting,

thermostat regulated radiators and refrigerators. The results show that lamps have
no pronounced dynamic voltage dependence and that a large group of the tested
lamps have an almost quadratic static voltage dependence in active power. Both
fluorescent and mercury lamps have also a strong voltage dependence in reactive
power.
The bimetallic regulated radiators act as a constant impedance load during a time
period of tens of seconds, but have a pronounced dynamic behaviour in a time range
of minutes. Unexpectedly, the mean power was changed in an opposite direction to
the voltage, i.e. when the voltage step was negative the mean power increased and
vice versa, and the original mean power as it was prior to the disturbance was not
regained. This effect is explained by two resistors in the bimetallic switch.
The electronically regulated radiators also act as a constant impedance load during
a time period of tens of seconds. The dynamic behaviour after a voltage step, in a
time range of minutes, is a damped oscillation in mean power, where the prior mean
power is regained.
Refrigerators show no dynamic voltage dependence and active power has a static
voltage dependence between constant current load and constant impedance load.
Refrigerators have a poor power factor, are uncompensated, and the reactive power
has a rather high voltage dependency.
The studies on the impact of tap-changers on load and system characteristics are
performed using load characteristics and the well-known up-curves. The studies are
intended to elucidate the processes described (an increase in load and a decrease in
feeding voltage) in an illustrative way.
Key words
Load devices, load model, power system, up-curve, load characteristics, laboratory
measurements.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank our supervisor, Professor Bertil Stenborg, for his guidance
and encouragement throughout this project.
Special thanks to Kenneth Walve, Svenska Kraftnät, for the idea of this project and
encouraging support, and to Bert Lanne, Chalmers University of Technology, for
sharing his knowledge of measuring.
Everyone at the Department of Electrical Power System and the Department of

High Voltage are warmly acknowledged for creating a most friendly atmosphere.
Special thanks to Jan-Olov Lantto for his help when producing this thesis, and to
Jan Andersson for his help with the field measurements.
We would like to express our gratitude to Vattenfall, Transmission, and to Svenska

Kraftnät who took over the responsibility after the reorganization of Vattenfall, for
the financial support. Special thanks to manager Dag Holmberg and Per-Olof
Lindström for their interest in this project.
Finally, we thank El och Trafikteknik AB and Göteborg Energi AB for letting us

use their network in the field measurements and for furnishing us with street lamps,
and Osram and Philips who provided us with lamps as test objects.
Introduction
One of the fields of research presenting greatest international interest is the study
and analysis of voltage condition in power systems. The research is aimed towards
problems concerning voltage stability and “voltage collapse”, as well as problems
of transient stability. It is necessary to have sufficiently good models of how the
load varies with voltage and frequency in order to carry out an analysis of these
problems.
The aim of this thesis is to increase the knowledge in load modelling - to derive
accurate static load models and to estimate time constants for different load
components. Furthermore the impact of on-load tap changers is studied.
Chapter 1 gives a presentation of the load modelling definitions recommended by

IEEE task force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance and a discussion
on some commonly used static and dynamic load models.
Chapter 2 takes a look at some statistics on load compositions and the occurrence
of the load devices tested in the laboratory at the Department of Electrical Power
Systems at Chalmers University of Technology in Göteborg.
Chapter 3 presents laboratory measurements on different types of lighting, radiators

and refrigerators. Both static and dynamic measurements are performed in order to
derive static load models and to identify the time-constants for the load components.
Chapter 4 presents results from a field measurement on street lighting, and the
results from the laboratory measurements are compared to the results from a field
measurement on a composite load.
In Chapter 5 the impact of on-load tap changers on both system and load
characteristics are discussed. In Section 5.5 the studies are based on the ideas of
Professor B. Stenborg.
Symbols and graphics
The symbols used for quantities and units coincide with the IEC recommendations,
except for the decimal sign which in this thesis is represented by a dot, and voltage
which in this thesis is represented by U and u.
Irregularities in the curves in Chapter 5 are due to the insufficient resolution of the
plotting routines of the computer graphics application.
Contents
Abstracti
Acknowledgementiii
Introductionv
Contentsvii
1 An introduction to load modelling1

1.1 Introduction1
1.2 Definitions1
1.3 Load models2
1.3.1 Static load models3
1.3.2 Dynamic load models5
1.3.3 How to derive parameters7
1.4 References9
2 Load composition11
2.1 Introduction11
2.2 Identifying a composite load11
2.3 Load components13
2.3.1 Lighting13
2.3.2 Electric heating13
2.3.3 Refrigerator/Freezer14
2.4 References15
3 Laboratory measurements on various loads17

3.1 Introduction17
3.2 Data acquisition system17
3.3 The static measurements19
3.4 The dynamic measurements19
3.5 Accuracy analysis19
3.6 Laboratory measurements on lamps20
3.6.1 Test objects20
3.6.2 Results from static measurements21
3.6.3 Results from dynamic measurements22
3.6.4 Accuracy analysis24
3.6.4.1 Harmonics generated by discharge lamps27
3.6.4.2 The inaccuracy due to harmonics30
3.6.4.3 The definition of reactive power under non-
sinusoidal conditions31
3.6.5 The static load models32
3.6.6 The dynamic behaviour34
3.6.7 Discussion35
3.7 Laboratory measurements on electric heating devices36
3.7.2 The climate box38
3.7.3 Results39
3.7.4 Load model41
3.7.5 Discussion41
3.8 Laboratory measurements on refrigerators42
3.8.2 Results from static measurements43
3.8.3 Results from dynamic measurements44
3.8.4 Accuracy analysis44
3.8.5 The static load models45
3.8.6 Discussion47
3.9 References48
4 Field measurements49
4.1 Introduction49
4.2 Field measurements on street-lamp networks49
4.2.1 Test net49
4.2.2 Data acquisition system50
4.2.3 Dynamic measurements51
4.2.4 Accuracy51
4.2.5 Results52
4.2.6 Discussion55
4.3 Field measurements on composite load56
4.4 References57
5 Voltage stability with regard to system and load characteristics59
5.1 Introduction59
5.2 System characteristics59
5.3 Load characteristics63
5.4 Tap changer influence on load characteristics64
5.4.1 Increase in load64
5.4.2 Decrease in feeding voltage67
5.4.3 Discussion69
5.4.3.1 Increase in load69
5.4.3.2 Decrease in feeding voltage71
5.5 Tap changer influence on system characteristic72
5.5.1 Increase in load74
5.5.2 Decrease in feeding voltage75
5.5.3 Discussion76
5.6 Reflections on some simplification77
5.6.1 Resistance77
5.6.2 Relation between the active and the reactive power.80
5.7 References81
6 Future work83
Bibliography85
Appendix
A Street Lighting87
B Inaccuracy due to measurement devices and measurement
arrangement91
C Dynamic voltage tests95
D Accuracy analysis103
E Wave forms111
F Derived static load models115
G Evaluation of the equations for up-curves and qu-curves127
H Evaluation of the equations for the impact of tap changer on
system characteristics133
I Exponential load model137
Ryggtext:
K Lind n & I Segerqvist Modelling of Load Devices and Studying
xi
Chapter 1: An introduction to load modelling
Chapter 1
An introduction to load modelling
1.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with basic load modelling definitions recommended by IEEE
Task force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance [1] and a discussion
on some commonly used static and dynamic load models based on the references of
this chapter and the bibliography listed at the end of this thesis. The advantages and
disadvantages of component based or field measurement based methods are
discussed, and some parameters for different load objects are also presented.
1.2 Definitions
Following definitions described in ref. [1] are used in this thesis.
Load The term “load” is a wide conception:
1. A device, connected to a power system, that consumes

power. To clarify, the term “load device” may be used
for this “type”.
2. The total power (active and/or reactive) consumed by all

devices connected to a power system. To clarify, the
term “system load” may be used for this “type”.
3. A portion of the system that is not explicitly represented

in a system model, but rather is treated as if it were a
single power-consuming device connected to a bus in the
system model. This includes tap changers, capacitors,
distribution network etc. To clarify, the term “bus load”
may be used for this “type”.
1
4. The power output of a generator or generating plant. To

clarify, the term “generator or plant load” may be used
for this “type”.
In describing the composition of the load, this thesis also uses the recommendations
from ref. [1].
Load component A load component is the aggregate equivalent of all devices

of a specific or similar type, e.g. fluorescent lighting.
Load class A load class is a category of load, such as residential,

commercial or industrial.
Load composition A load composition is the fractional composition of the load

by load components.
Load class mix A load class mix is the fractional composition of the bus
load by load classes.
Load characteristic Load characteristic is determined by a set of parameters that

characterise the behaviour of a specified load, such as the
variation of the active power P with voltage U. This term
may be applied to a specific load device, a load component,
a load class or the total bus load.
1.3 Load models
A load model in this matter is a mathematical representation of the relationship

between power and voltage, where the power is either active or reactive and the
output from the model. The voltage (magnitude and/or frequency) is the input to the
model. The load model could be a static or dynamic load model or a combination of
both. Load models are used for analysing power system stability problems, such as
steady state stability, transient stability, long term stability and voltage control. It is
not said that the same load model is appropriate for different stability analysis. In
order to obtain a model which is as simple as possible, it is important to choose a
load model structure which is appropriate for the studied problem, for example if
tap changers and time dependence should be included. A rough guideline for
choosing a load model structure is presented in a CIGRÉ paper [2].
2
1.3.1 Static load models
A static load model expresses the active and reactive powers as a function of the
voltage (magnitude and/or frequency). The load model could be a stationary or
quasi-stationary representation of the load. The following models are commonly
used
Constant power
A load model, where the active and reactive powers are independent of variations
in the voltage magnitude:
U 0 U 0
------ =  ------- = 1 ------- =  ------- = 1
P Q
P0 U  Q0 U 
0 0
Constant current
A load model, where the active and reactive powers vary directly with the voltage
magnitude:
P U Q U
------ = ------- ------- = -------
P0 U0 Q0 U0
Constant impedance
A nonlinear load model, where the active and reactive powers vary with the square
of the voltage magnitude:
U 2 U 2
------ =  ------- ------- =  -------
P Q
P0 U  Q0 U 
0 0
Polynomial
A nonlinear load model, where the active and reactive power variations to voltage
magnitude are usually a combination of the three mentioned above:
U 2 U 2
------ = a 0 + a 1 ------- + a 2  ------- ------- = b 0 + b 1 ------- + b 2  -------
P U Q U
P0 U0 U  Q0 U0 U 
0 0
where a0, a1, a2 and b0, b1, b2 are constants and parameters of the load models. The
sum of the parameters equals one, i.e.:
a0 + a1 + a2 = 1 b0 + b1 + b2 = 1
as the parameters indicate how nominal power is divided into constant power,
constant current and constant impedance loads.
3
Exponential
A nonlinear load model which represents the power relationship to voltage as an

exponential equation:
np nq
------ =  ------- ------- =  -------
P U Q U
P0  U 0 Q0  U 0
where np and nq are constants and the parameters of the load models. Note that
constant power, constant current and constant impedance are special cases of the
exponential model.
Slope values
A load model, where the power-voltage dependence is linearised at nominal

voltage:
∆P ∆Q
-------- --------
∆U ∆U
Frequency dependent
A static load model which includes frequency dependence. This is usually

represented by multiplying either a polynomial or exponential load model by a
factor including the frequency deviation and the frequency sensitivity parameter.
The factor is usually in the following form:
[1 + af (f - f0)]
where f is the frequency of the bus voltage, f0 is the rated frequency, and af is the
frequency sensitivity parameter of the model. The total static model results for
example in:
n
------ =  ------- [ 1 + a f ( f – f 0 ) ]
P U p
P0 U 
0
4
1.3.2 Dynamic load models
The interest for dynamic load models has increased during the last decade. The
dynamic load model describes the time dependence as well as the voltage
dependence of the load. Listed below are the most commonly used dynamic load
models:
Induction motor model
A considerable part of the load consists of machines, especially induction motors.

Hence a model for an induction motor is commonly used. The model presented here
is the one often used [2].
R1 jX1 jX2
R′2
jXm
s
Figure 1.1
The inclusion of mechanical dynamics in the model transforms it from static to

dynamic. This is the most usual linearized form of the equation:
1
∆w = ---------- ( ∆T a – D∆w )
2Hs
where
∆w is the per unit speed change
∆Ta = Te - Tm, the accelerating torque
Te the electrical torque
Tm the mechanical torque
D the mechanical damping
H the motor and drive inertia
5
s = d/dt
δT e δT m
D = --------- + -----------
δw δw
where
δT e
--------- is the motor torque/speed relationship
δw
δT m
----------- is the load torque/speed relationship
δw
State space model
The standard equations in state space form are
ẋ = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
where x is the state vector, u the input vector and y the output vector. The model
may be of order n, but minimum order should be n = 2, to account for the dynamics
produced by the induction motor swing equation. The state vector x has no physical
meaning. The output vector y may be chosen as the active and reactive power PL
and QL, or as the active and reactive component of load current IR and II
respectively. The model could for instance look like that in ref. [3]:
ẋ 1 0 1 x1 UR
= + 10
ẋ 2 –a1 –a2 x 0 1 UI
2
IR c1 c2 x1 d d2 UR
= + 1
II c3 c4 x2 d3 d4 UI
6
Transfer function model
The power is represented as a transfer function of the general form
∆P U ( s )
------------------ = H U ( s ) (describes the load-voltage dependence) (1.1)
∆U ( s )
∆P F ( s )
----------------- = H F ( s ) (describes the load-frequency dependence)(1.2)
∆F ( s )
The total change in active power is given as
∆PT(t) = ∆PF(t) + ∆PU(t) (1.3)
where ∆PF(t) and ∆PU(t) are obtained by solving Equation (1.1) and Equation (1.2)
in the time domain. The reactive power is equally represented. The model and the
derivation of parameters are described in ref. [4] and ref. [5].
1.3.3 How to derive parameters
Once a model structure is chosen, see Section 1.3, there remains the difficult task of
deriving the model and its parameters. The characteristic of a bus load depends on
the load composition, which means that the aggregated load characteristics for the
bus load must be found. These load parameters can be derived with a so-called
component based method or by a field measurement based method. The first
method is based on the knowledge of the load class mix, the composition of each
class and the characteristics of each load component. Where the characteristics of
load components are not known, they may be derived either theoretically or by
laboratory measurements. The component based approach has been developed in a
computer programme, The Load Model Synthesis, LOADSYN by EPRI [6, 7]. The
second method is based on direct measurement at a bus, during system disturbances
or planned system disturbances, where voltage, frequency, active power and
reactive power are measured and then a method, such as the Least Square Method
is used to derive parameters to the aggregated load model.
Here is a brief comparison of the component based method with the field
measurement based method:
Component based method
+ Represents any arbitrary load composition, i.e. adaptable to different bus

loads and conditions (time of day, weather, season etc.)
– Relies heavily on the availability of a large number of data
7
Field measurement based method
+ Straightforward: simply measure and derive a model
– Unless the load composition is analysed in some detail and unless buses
having loads of fairly different compositions are measured there will be
no understanding of the results so that they can be extrapolated to
different conditions
– The model depends on the disturbance, that is the input, applied to the
load
– Spontaneous load variations are included in the load model, especially

during long term measurements
Presented below are some parameters for different load devices using the static
exponential load model [8]:
np nq
Incandescent lamp 1.6 0
Fluorescent lamp 1.2 3.0
Heating 2.0 0
Induction motor, half load 0.2 1.5
Induction motor, full load 0.1 2.8
8
1.4 References
[1] IEEE Task force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance, ‘Load
Representation for Dynamic Performance Analysis’ IEEE/PES 1992
Winter meeting, New York, January 26 - 30, 1992 (92 WM 126-3 PWRS)
[2] F. McDyer, F. Byrne, R. W. McGee, G. Rodgers, M. Hayashi, G. Testud,

N. Roelefs, ‘Load modelling and dynamics’, Electra n 130 May 1990 p.
122 - 141
[3] F. John Meyer, Kwang Y. Lee, ‘Improved Dynamic Load Model for Power
System Stability Studies’, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 9, September 1982, 3303 - 3309
[4] S.A.Y Sabir, D.C. Lee, ‘Dynamic load models derived from data aquired
during system transients’, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No 9 September 1982, 3365 - 3372
[5] D. Karlsson, T. Pehrsson, ‘A dynamic power system load model and

methods for load model parameter estimation’, Technical report No 22L
1985, Dep. of Electrical Power Systems, Chalmers University of
Technology, Sweden.
[6] W. W. Price, K. A. Wirgau, A. Murdoch, J. V. Mitsche, E. Vaahedi, M. A.

El-Kady, ‘Load modeling for power flow and transient stability computer
studies’, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.3, No. 1, February
1988, 180 - 187
[7] E. Vaahedi, H. M. Zein El-Din, W. W. Price, ‘Dynamic load modeling in

large scale stability studies’, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.3,
No. 3, August 1988, 1039 - 1045
[8] G. J. Berg, ‘Power-system load representation’ Proceedings IEE Vol. 120,

No 3, March 1973, 344 - 348
9
10
Chapter 2: Load composition
Chapter 2
Load composition
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, “An introduction to load modelling”, two ways of deriving a load

model and its parameters are described: the component based method and the field
measurement based method. Irrespective of the method used, it is essential to have
as good a knowledge as possible of the load composition, in order either to use the
knowledge when composing the model or to understand the results of
measurements taken to derive the model.
2.2 Identifying a composite load
There are of course differences in load composition depending on the area studied.
In a small area, and correspondingly a low voltage level, the load composition is
easier to identify but the composition is also more individual than when the area is
larger and on a higher voltage level, where it is more appropriate to assume a
general composition.
When identifying a composite load it is usual to divide the load into load classes or
load components and distribute the power need to the groups. Commonly used load
classes in Sweden are industrial-, commercial- and residential loads. Load
components are heating, lighting, motor load and fridge/freezer.
The easiest way of estimating the division of power between the various load
classes or load components, is to base it on the division of energy consumption. This
information can be obtained from the utilities or from SCB, Statistics Sweden,
which collects and compiles data from all energy utilities in Sweden. Table 2.1
shows the division of energy consumption on Gotland [1], in Stockholm [2] and in
the whole of Sweden - based on data obtained from SCB [3].
11
Table 2.1 Division of electrical energy consumption for different areas. In the study on
Gotland [1] electrical heating forms a special load class.
Area electrical residential commercial industrial

heating [%] [%] [%] [%]
Gotland 30 15 15 40
Stockholm 38 50 12
Sweden1 25 23 42
1. In this area the electrical energy consumption for railroad and electricity-, gas-, heating
and waterworks are not included.
By comparing this average consumption to the consumption in heavy and light load
conditions for the load classes it is possible to obtain a division of power for a
specific situation, e.g. in the way described in the Gotland study [1]. With statistics
concerning the composition of load components for each load class, the total power
divided among load components may be obtained. Several studies have been made
of the energy consumption in households, offices, industries etc. during the last
years, [4, 5, 6], and it is possible to use the results from these studies to calculate the
power division. Table 2.2 shows the division of power consumption for load
components on Gotland.
Table 2.2 The electrical power consumption on Gotland [1] in heavy and light load
conditions divided among load components.
Area electrical lighting motor fridge/freezer

heating [%] [%] [%] [%]
High-load 40 10 40 10
Light-load 20 10 60 10
In the Stockholm-study [2] climate, lighting, process and other were used as load
components. Electrical heating is included in the climate group, motor and
fridge/freezer in the process-group. Table 2.3 shows the division of energy in
Stockholm.
Table 2.3 Electrical energy consumption in Stockholm divided among load components.
Area climate [%] lighting process other

[%] [%] [%]
Stockholm 40 10 40 10
12
2.3 Load components
Here follow some statistics concerning the load components that have been tested
in laboratory measurements presented in Chapter 3.
2.3.1 Lighting
Lighting adds up to about ten per cent of total active power consumption. It consists
mainly of incandescent lamps and discharge lamps. But now also low-energy
lamps, introduced in the middle of the eighties, render an increasing interest.
According to manufacturers [7], today nearly 600 000 are sold annually with an
increase of about 25 to 30 per cent each year. Sales figures for low-energy lamps
are still well below those for incandescent lamps, which sells around 7 million per
year in Sweden.
Discharge lamps are mainly found in street-lighting. A preliminary inventory of

Göteborg´s street-lighting, by Göteborgs Energi AB, shows how different kinds of
discharge lamps and other lamps are distributed on a total load of 12.7 MW, Table
2.4. In Appendix D the size and power consumption of lamps in the Göteborg street-
lamp network is presented.
Table 2.4 The table shows how different kinds of discharge lamps and other lamps are
distributed on the total load in the street-lamp network in Göteborg.
Mercury lamp1 [%] 73

High pressure sodium lamp1 [%] 16
Low pressure sodium lamp [%] 8.5
Incandescent-, mixed colour-, metal halogen- 2.5
and fluorescent lamps [%]
1. At present, when electric fittings in new areas are installed, high pressure
sodium lamps are used instead of mercury lamps.
2.3.2 Electric heating
Households, one- or two-dwelling houses with electrical heating (both direct and
indirect electrical heating) account for about 15 per cent of the total electric energy
consumption in Sweden. About 40 per cent of these households have direct
electrical heating as the only means of heating [8]. In these households about 60 per
cent of the total electric energy is consumed by the electric heating equipment [5].
Most of the annual energy consumption for electrical heating is consumed during
October to April, with only about 11% in the period May to September.
13
About 50% of the households with direct electrical heating were built during the
seventies. For some years in this period, approximately 1 000 000 radiators were
sold annually in Sweden, most of them with a bimetallic thermostat, which was the
most common thermostat on market. Today about 40 000 radiators are sold each
year. A new type of thermostat, an electronic temperature regulator, has been
developed but still most of the radiators that are sold have the bimetallic thermostat,
which will continue to be the most common thermostat for years ahead [9].
2.3.3 Refrigerator/Freezer
In an electrically heated household about 20 per cent of the total electric energy
consumption is accounted for by refrigerator and freezer [5], with refrigerator and
freezer consuming equal amounts. Unlike heating equipment, the energy
consumption for refrigerators and freezers is equally distributed throughout the
year.
14
2.4 References
[1] T. Adielsson, ‘Analys av elleveranssäkerheten för Gotland Modellering av

den elektriska belastningen på Gotland’, Vattenfall Report ÖS-015 (Oct
1989), in Swedish
[2] Långtidsprognos El 1990 - 2010, Stockholm Energi (1990), in Swedish
[3] ‘Electric energy supply and district heating 1989’, Statistics Sweden,
Statistical Report E11:9101, 1991
[4] Belastningsberäkning med typkurvor, Svenska Elverksföreningen (1991),

in Swedish
[5] Mätning av hushållens elkonsumtion, uppdelad på de viktigaste

elapparaterna, Rapport 2, Rationell elanvändning, FUD Vattenfall (1987),
in Swedish
[6] Industrins energianvändning, Energikonsult, Ångpanneföreningen, at the

request of Dept. SM Vattenfall (1984), in Swedish
[7] Ny Teknik - TEKNISK TIDSKRIFT. 1990:14, page 5, in Swedish
[8] ‘Energy statistics for one- or two-dwelling houses in 1990’, Statistics

Sweden, Statistical Report E16:9102, 1991
[9] C. Norberg, ‘Direktverkande elradiatorers reglering och konstruktion’,

Vattenfall Utveckling AB, Rapport F-90:5 (1990), in Swedish
15
16
Chapter 3: Laboratory measurements on various loads
Chapter 3
Laboratory measurements on various loads
3.1 Introduction
In order to derive the voltage dependence of some individual load objects,

measurements were performed in the laboratory of The Department of Electrical
Power Systems at Chalmers University of Technology. In the laboratory
measurements both static and dynamic voltage tests were carried out on different
types of lamps, electrical radiators, and refrigerators. The static voltage tests were
performed in order to derive and compare three different static load models - the
exponential, the linear and the polynomial load model. The dynamic voltage tests
were performed on all test objects in order to ascertain if the static models were
applicable for these objects in the time range of seconds to minutes (not accounting
for fast transient behaviour), or if they had a longer dynamic performance, so that
the time constants could be identified.
3.2 Data acquisition system
In both the static and dynamic tests a data acquisition system, controlled by a
computer was used. Measurement test results were collected from two multimeters
which measure Urms and Irms respectively and a wattmeter which measures active
power P. The measurement results were saved on a mass storage device. The data
acquisition system was connected as per Figure 3.1 and the measurement
arrangement as in Figure 3.2.
17
Voltage Current Active power
Multimeter Multimeter Wattmeter
Computer
Printer
Figure 3.1 Data acquisition system.
G
Test
V object
Figure 3.2 Measurement arrangement.
18
3.3 The static measurements
In the static measurements the voltage was varied between 70% and 110% of
nominal voltage (230 V). In order to avoid systematic errors in the performance of
the measurement (i.e. in the way it is done), each static measurement comprised
three test series, the first test series was from nominal voltage down to 150 V, the
second from 155 V up to 255 V, and the third from 255 V down to 235 V. The test
series were performed in the following manner: Every tenth volt, five datums of
voltage, current and active power were recorded and the calculated average values
were saved on the mass storage device. Reactive power Q was calculated from the
voltage U, current I and active power P for each average value, using the equations:
S=U·I (3.1)
2 2
Q = S –P (3.2)
3.4 The dynamic measurements
In the dynamic measurements voltage changes were applied to the load, and the
voltage, current, active power and time were measured approximately every second
for about quarter of an hour or half an hour depending on the test object. The voltage
changes were created by quickly turning an adjustable transformer which resulted
in voltage steps of around ±10% or ±20% with a rise time of approximately 0.1–0.2
seconds. The reactive power was calculated in the same manner as for the static
measurements.
3.5 Accuracy analysis
The error in the measured values and in the calculated values of the reactive power
is dependent on the magnitude of measured values. Since it is the curve form, i.e.
the relationship between the measured values, which is of interest in the quasi-
stationary measurement, and since the measured values in the quasi-stationary
measurements vary over a wide range, it is of interest to see how the bias
(systematic error) of the recorded values varies over the range. The accuracy
analysis in Appendix B was carried out on the measurement devices and on the
measurement arrangement, and shows that the bias due to the measurement
arrangement is negligible. The maximum limit of the absolute error, due to the bias
in the measurement devices, is presented for the various loads in each section of the
laboratory measurements.
19
3.6 Laboratory measurements on lamps
This section deals with laboratory measurements on the three different main types
of lighting: incandescent lamps, low-energy lamps and discharge lamps (where
discharge lamp is a generic term for fluorescent lamps, mercury lamps, high
pressure sodium lamps and low pressure sodium lamps). Results from static and
dynamic voltage tests are presented, including derived static load models, observed
switch-off voltage and time-constants for each type of lamp. In the diagrams using
per-unit values presented in this section, P0, Q0 and U0 are used as base-values,
where P0 and Q0 are measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V).
The load models should be applicable in the time range of seconds to minutes, not
accounting for fast transient behaviour.
3.6.1 Test objects
Six types of lamps were tested:
1. Incandescent lamp
2. Fluorescent lamp
3. Mercury vapour discharge lamp (Mercury lamp)
4. High pressure sodium vapour lamp (High pressure sodium lamp)
5. Low pressure sodium vapour lamp (Low pressure sodium lamp)
6. Low-energy lamp (which is an electronically controlled fluorescent lamp)
New lamps, as well as old, with different power ratings were tested. With discharge
lamps (2–5), it is not the lamp as a single object that is of interest, but the whole
circuit consisting of lamp, reactor, capacitor and, for sodium lamps and fluorescent
lamps, the igniter too. Therefore, in the discharge lamp tests the test objects were
circuits, all connected according to the manufacturers. It should be noted that all
discharge lamps have a compensating capacitor connected in parallel, except the
low pressure sodium lamp, which has a capacitor in series with the lamp. See the
circuits (test objects) in Figure 3.3 for mercury lamp and low pressure sodium lamp.
20
Reactor Igniter
L
Lamp Lamp
Reactor
L
Capacitor
N N
Capacitor
Mercury lamp Low pressure sodium lamp
Figure 3.3 Two test objects: Mercury lamp with reactor and capacitor, and low pressure
sodium lamp with reactor, capacitor and igniter.
3.6.2 Results from static measurements
Figure 3.4 shows the quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power
consumed by an incandescent lamp. The rest of the results can be seen in Appendix
F where the recorded values are plotted in the same diagram as the static model
derived later on in Section 3.6.5.
Figure 3.4 The quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power of an
incandescent lamp.
Discharge lamps are very sensitive to sudden voltage changes, especially when the
voltage is low, so in order to obtain the switch-off voltage the adjustable transformer
21
was turned slowly. Table 3.1 shows both the recorded active power, just before the
lamp is switched off, and the switch-off voltages. After the switch-off the circuit of
the discharge lamp will act as a totally capacitive load due to the compensating
capacitor (provided the compensating capacitor is in parallel).
Table 3.1 The switch-off voltage and active power just before the switch-off.
Type Switch-off Active power

voltage before switch-off
Fluorescent lamp (2 x 36 W) ~ 160 V ~ 30 W
Mercury lamp (250 W) ~ 180 V ~ 165 W
High pressure sodium lamp (250 W) ~ 180 V ~ 180 W
Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W) ~ 80 V ~ 60 W
Low-energy lamp (11 W) ~ 40–80 V ~ 2.6 W
3.6.3 Results from dynamic measurements
The following figures (3.5 – 3.7) show consumed active and reactive power as a
function of time when a voltage step of magnitude –10% is applied to an
incandescent lamp, a mercury lamp and a high pressure sodium lamp. Note that an
incandescent lamp is totally resistive. The results for the other types of lamp can be
seen in Appendix C.
Figure 3.5 Consumed active power as a function of time when a voltage step of magnitude
–10% is applied to an incandescent lamp. As can be seen from the diagram, incandescent
lamps have no dynamic behaviour at all.
22
Figure 3.6 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step
of magnitude –10% is applied to a mercury lamp. As can be seen from the diagram, mercury
lamps have a slight dynamic voltage dependence in reactive power and no dynamic voltage
dependence in active power.
Figure 3.7 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step
of magnitude –10% is applied to a high pressure sodium lamp. As can be seen in the diagram,
high pressure sodium lamps have a clear dynamic voltage dependence in both active and
reactive power.
23
3.6.4 Accuracy analysis
As mentioned before, it is the bias in the measurement devices, which most

influences the absolute error. Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10 show the inaccuracy in
active power and voltage for a high pressure sodium lamp and a fluorescent lamp
respectively. The crosses show the maximum limits of the absolute error for the
active power and voltage according to:
Pm+E p
Pm
Pm–Ep
Um–E u Um+ Eu
Um
Figure 3.8 The maximum limit of the absolute error, where Pm and Um are measured
active power and voltage, and Ep, Eu respectively are the calculated maximum limits of the
absolute error.
Figure 3.9 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a high
pressure sodium lamp. The accuracy in active power is very high, practically no vertical lines
in the “crosses” can be seen. The dominating inaccuracy, which however is small, is in the
voltage (the horizontal lines in the “crosses”).
24
Figure 3.10 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a fluorescent
lamp. The accuracy in active power is very high, practically no vertical lines in the “crosses”
can be seen. The dominating inaccuracy, which however is small, is in the voltage (the
horizontal lines in the “crosses”).
There is a very small error in measured active power for discharge lamps and
incandescent lamps. This is due to the error in measured active power being
dependent on the power factor of the test object, i.e. the accuracy in measured active
power increases as the power factor increases1. Therefore, if the lamps are purely
resistive or the lamps are totally compensated, the inaccuracy in active power will
be minimal.
The accuracy in reactive power has an inverse reaction to the power factor - the
accuracy in the calculated reactive power increases as the power factor decreases1,
which results in an unacceptable accuracy in the calculated reactive power for low
pressure and high pressure sodium lamps, as they are almost totally compensated
over the entire voltage range (Figure 3.11). If, however, the error in reactive power
is compared to apparent power S instead of Q, the error will be less.
Mercury and fluorescent lamps have a strong voltage dependence in reactive power,
stronger voltage dependence than the active power, i.e. the power factor varies with
the voltage. The power factor approaches one at very low voltages, which gives a
poor accuracy in reactive power at lower voltages, but a better accuracy at higher
voltages where the power factor is less (Figure 3.12).
1. A well-known problem in measurements concerning active and reactive power.
25
Low-energy lamps show a slightly poorer accuracy in both active and reactive
power, due to a low current and a bad power factor. See Appendix D which shows
the accuracy-variations in active and reactive power for the six various types of
lamp.
Figure 3.11 The accuracy-variations in calculated reactive power and measured voltage of
a high pressure sodium lamp. The accuracy is unacceptable over the total voltage range.
a fluorescent lamp. The accuracy is unacceptable for low voltages. The “crosses” below
approximately 0.8 pu on the voltage axis are actually capacitive.
26
3.6.4.1 Harmonics generated by discharge lamps
The bias of the multimeters is only specified for sine waves, but discharge lighting
is highly nonlinear and gives rise to considerable odd-ordered harmonic currents.
The voltage across the tube itself illustrates clearly the non-linearity. The
waveforms in Figure 3.14 show voltage uL across and current iL through a mercury
lamp, where uL and iL are defined as follows:
i Reactor
+ iL +
u uL Lamp
Capacitor
– –
Figure 3.13 Measured voltage and current.

Amplitude
Time
Figure 3.14 The waveforms for the voltage uL across and the current iL to a mercury lamp
(recorded by a sampling Data Acquisition System, DAS).
27
As can be seen in Figure 3.14, the voltage waveform across the discharge lamp
resembles a square-wave having sharp leading and trailing edges, which occur
repeatedly at the same angles, respectively, in each cycle. The voltage wave form is
therefore very rich in odd-order harmonics over a wide frequency spectrum. The
current wave form is more sinusoidal and has predominantly low-frequency
components. However, when the measurements were carried out on discharge
lamps the circuit consisted of a lamp, reactor and capacitor (in some cases the
igniter too) and are represented in the wave forms shown in Figure 3.15 (u and i
defined as in Figure 3.13).
Amplitude
Time
Figure 3.15 The feeding voltage u and current i of the lamp circuit. The feeding voltage
contains harmonics of higher orders, which can be seen as a ripple on the current wave form,
as the capacitor has a lower reactance for harmonics of higher orders; compare the
expression: In = j ω n C Un; ω = 2 π f, f = fundamental frequency. (Recorded by a sampling
Data Acquisition System, DAS)
A spectrum analyser was used to obtain the frequency spectrum for both the feeding
voltage and current of a mercury lamp. The result can be seen in a plotted frequency
spectrum, Figure 3.16 and Figure 3.17 where the different harmonic components
are shown as per cent of the fundamental frequency.
28
%
100
Per cent of the fundamental frequency

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Harmonic order
Figure 3.16 The frequency spectrum of the feeding voltage of a mercury lamp.
%
100
12.5
Per cent of the fundamental frequency
10
7.5
2.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Harmonic order
Figure 3.17 The frequency spectrum of the feeding current of a mercury lamp.
29
3.6.4.2 The inaccuracy due to harmonics
As mentioned before, the accuracy for the multimeters is only specified for
sinewave inputs. The inaccuracy due to harmonics is determined by the crest factors
of the measurement devices, where the crest factor is defined as the peak value
divided by the rms-value of the quantity. For example the crest factor for a pure
sinewave equals 2 .
At full scale the allowable crest factor for the multimeters is 4. This will do for
measurements on discharge lamps, as the wave forms of the current to these lamps
have a crest factor lesser than four. However, the current to a low-energy lamp has
a crest factor which equals ≈4 (Figure 3.18). During a similar test between the
multimeter and a sampling DAS (the Data Acquisition System, which was used in
the field measurement) the displayed value on the multimeter for the current and the
calculated rms value from the instantaneous values showed a good resemblance. In
Figure 3.18 the waveforms for a low-energy lamp are shown and in Appendix E the
corresponding waveforms for fluorescent and sodium lamps can be found.
There is no specification for the crest factor for the wattmeter, or if the accuracy is
specified for only sinewaves. However, during tests with the sampling DAS, the
displayed values on the wattmeter and the calculated active power from the
instantaneous values concurred. This implies that the accuracy of the wattmeter will
suffice for measurements on discharge and low-energy lamps.
Amplitude
Time
Figure 3.18 The voltage u and current i waveforms for a low-energy lamp. The crest factor
of the current equals ≈4.
30
3.6.4.3 The definition of reactive power under non-sinusoidal conditions
As we have now seen, the harmonics influence on the measurement accuracy on

voltage, current and active power can be considered as minimal. But in calculating
reactive power under non-sinusoidal conditions a problem arises concerning the
definition. This is briefly discussed in the following.
The use of nonlinear loads has increased greatly, as has the interest for the definition
of reactive power under non-sinusoidal conditions. Two major models dominate
today´s approach to the definition and components of the reactive power: First is the
school of Budeanu, which is sanctioned in the ANSI/IEEE Standard 100–1977.
Second is the school of Fryze which influenced the International Electrical
Commission´s position. Articles in journals show the ongoing struggle to recognise
and produce a practical model acceptable to the electric utility [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. All
supporters of both the schools agree however, that none of the definitions are
complete. Here follows a short presentation of the two schools, which are often
referred to as the frequency-domain approach and the time-domain approach
respectively:
∞
Budeanu´s definition: Q = ∑ U n I n sinϕ n
n=1
Fryze´s definition: The source current is divided into two orthogonal components,
ia and ir, called “active current” and “reactive current” as
follows:
P
i = ia + ir ; i a = ------- u
2
U
where u = source voltage
And with the following relations between rms values

2 2 2
I = Ia + Ir
which yields
2 2 2 2 2
S = P + QF ; Q F = UI r = S –P
To give the problem a more practical approach, look at the voltage and current of a
low-energy lamp in Figure 3.18. What about the reactive power: is the lamp
inductive/capacitive or is it resistive? One can safely ascertain that the power factor,
which is universally defined as P/S, where P is the average power and
S = Irms · Urms, equals approximately 0.5.
31
In the absence of a clear definition of reactive power under non-sinusoidal

2 2
conditions, the well-known definition Q = S – P , was used in calculating the
reactive power.
It should be noted though, that when measurements were made without a

compensating capacitor and the compensated reactive power was calculated, the
reactive power, compared to a measured compensated and calculated reactive
power, differed. This might however also depend on the different inaccuracies in the
calculated reactive powers.
3.6.5 The static load models
The Least Square Method (LSM) was used to derive parameters for these three
models, described in Chapter 1:
1. Exponential:
np nq
------ =  ------- ------- =  -------
P U Q U
P0 U  Q0 U 
0 0
2. Linear:
P U Q U
------ = a 0 + a 1 ------- ------- = b 0 + b 1 -------
P0 U0 Q0 U0
3. Polynomial:
U 2 U 2
------ = a 0 + a 1 ------- + a 2  ------- ------- = b 0 + b 1 ------- + b 2  -------
P U Q U
P0 U0 U  Q0 U0 U 
0 0
The parameters are usually derived from the measured values, which lie between
90% and 110% of the nominal voltage. If it is possible (if the lamp has not switched
off), the third model is calculated from the datums which lie between 70% and
110% of the nominal voltage.
As mentioned in Section 3.6.4 about inaccuracy, lamps with a power factor close to
1.0, have a high accuracy in measured active power. The models for active power
for discharge lamps and incandescent lamps are therefore more or less accurate. As
the accuracy in calculated reactive power for the high- and low pressure sodium
lamps is unacceptable, it is rather needless to calculate models for the reactive
power for those two.
The models for active and reactive power for low-energy lamps may be uncertain,
since the inaccuracy in the measured and calculated values is slightly high.
32
Table 3.2 shows the calculated parameters np and nq for the exponential models.
Table 3.3 shows the calculated parameters a1 and b1 for the linear models, a0 and b0
are easily calculated as 1 – a1 and 1 – b1 respectively. Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 show
some calculated parameters for the polynomial load models. Since a0 + a1 + a2 = 1,
it is impossible to present the parameters in an interval as in Table 3.2 and Table
3.3. Instead Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 show some examples of the polynomial models.
Appendix F shows recorded quantities together with their models.
Table 3.2 The parameters for the exponential model.
Type np nq
Incandescent lamp 1.5–1.55 –
Fluorescent lamp 2.0–2.2 4.5–6.5
Mercury lamp 2.2–2.4 4.0–6.0
High pressure sodium lamp 2.1–2.5 –
Low pressure sodium lamp 0.3–0.5 –
Low-energy lamp 0.8–1.2 1.0–1.5
Table 3.3 The parameters for the linear model.
Type a1 b1
Incandescent lamp 1.5–1.55 –
Fluorescent lamp 1.9–2.1 4.5–6.5
Mercury lamp 2.2–2.4 4.0–6.0
High pressure sodium lamp 2.1–2.5 –
Low pressure sodium lamp 0.4–0.6 –
Low-energy lamp 0.8–1.2 1.0–1.5
33
Table 3.4 The parameters for the active power for the polynomial model.
Type a0 a1 a2
Incandescent lamp –0.098 0.669 0.429
–0.124 0.733 0.391
Fluorescent lamp –2.180 4.55 –1.37
–1.715 3.48 –0.765
Mercury lamp –1.28 2.23 0.05
–1.817 3.679 –0.862
High pressure sodium lamp –0.002 –0.437 1.439
–0.082 –0.273 1.355
Low pressure sodium lamp 0.98 –0.34 0.36
0.91 –0.19 0.28
Low-energy lamp 0.363 0.024 0.613
0.168 0.468 0.364
Table 3.5 The parameters for reactive power for the polynomial model.
Type b0 b1 b2
Fluorescent lamp 7.58 –19.34 12.76
7.56 –19.19 12.63
Mercury lamp 3.454 –9.964 7.51
2.78 –8.47 6.69
Low-energy lamp –0.009 0.654 0.355
–0.018 0.68 0.338
3.6.6 The dynamic behaviour
The following results were obtained from the dynamic measurement test results and
include, if the lamp is dynamic voltage dependent, power deviation (i.e. the
difference between the stationary value and the momentarily power response after
a voltage step), settling time and time constant (if a time constant is well defined):
Incandescent, low-energy and fluorescent lamps have no dynamic behaviour at all.
34
Mercury lamps have no dynamic voltage dependence in active power, but a voltage
dependence in reactive power, with a reactive power deviation of approximately 5%
after a voltage step, and a settling time of approximately 1–1.5 minutes.
Both types of sodium lamps have a dynamic voltage dependence in active and
reactive power. High pressure sodium lamps have an active power deviation of
approximately 5% after a voltage step with a settling time of approximately 30–60
seconds, and the reactive power has a time constant of approximately 1 minute and
a settling time of 2–3 minutes. Low pressure sodium lamps have approximately the
same settling time in active and reactive power ~5 minutes, and the active power
has a power deviation of approximately 5%. Due to the insufficient accuracy in
calculated reactive power for sodium lamps, it is not possible to determine the
reactive power deviation.
3.6.7 Discussion
Some conclusions can be drawn from the results concerning active power
consumption, reactive power consumption and the switch-off voltage:
Active power As can be seen in Table 3.2 to 3.5, discharge lamps have an
approximate quadratic voltage dependence, except low
pressure sodium lamp which acts as constant power load. The
incandescent lamps have a voltage dependence which is
between constant current and constant impedance load. Low-
energy lamps act as constant current load.
Reactive power Fluorescent lamps and mercury lamps have a strong voltage
dependence. The other lamps have a nearly linear voltage
dependence or nearly no voltage dependence at all.
Switch-off voltage The switch-off voltages for the mercury lamps and the high
pressure lamps are rather high, which means for example that
lamps at the end of a street lighting circuit may switch-off even
if the feeding voltage is fairly close to nominal value.
Göteborgs Energiverk experienced this, when they connected
a balancing transformer at the feeding point in order to depress
the voltage and save energy. This resulted in problems with
flickering lamps and unlit lamps at the end of the lines.
The lamps have no pronounced dynamic behaviour. No differences between old and
new lamps were observed. If there was a variation, it seemed to be due to the
variations in individual test objects.
35
3.7 Laboratory measurements on electric heating devices
Up to now electric heating devices have been considered as constant impedance

loads. However, the device comprises not only a heat generating component (a
resistance), but of a thermostat too. In order to investigate the influence of the
thermostat, laboratory measurements were performed as a part of masters degree
thesis at the Department of Electrical Power Systems, Chalmers [6, 7].
3.7.1 Test objects
The measurements for home heating appliances were taken using radiators with two
different types of thermostat.
1. Bimetallic regulated heating device
2. Electronic regulated heating device
Type 1 has a bimetallic thermostat and is, in Sweden, the most commonly used
temperature regulated radiator. In Figure 3.19 the bimetallic regulated radiator is
shown schematically.
Bimetallic
230 V switch ON
OFF
Compensating Accelerating Heating
element element component
Ceramic case
Figure 3.19 A schematic diagram of the bimetallic regulated radiator.
In the bimetallic thermostat there are, apart from the bimetallic switch, an
accelerating and a compensating element. The purpose of these elements is to give
a constant room temperature that does not change with the working-point of the
radiator, i.e. change with the mean power output. The principal of the thermostat is
as follows:
36
The accelerating element, which is a resistance, emits heat to the bimetallic switch
during the on-period in order to get an earlier switch-off, since the radiator
continues to emit the accumulated energy after the switch-off. This inhibits an
overshoot in room temperature that otherwise would take place, and results in
shorter on/off cycles (the time when the radiator is on, plus the time the radiator is
off) and a more steady room temperature.
The disadvantage with an accelerating element is that the bimetallic switch switches
off at different temperatures, depending on the working-point of the radiator. To
counteract this drift, a compensating element, which is a resistance with a ceramic
case, is connected to the feeding voltage during the switch-off period. Due to the
heat-accumulating ceramic case, the compensating element will emit heat
continuously during a whole on/off cycle. The compensating element reaches a
higher temperature and emits more heat the longer it is connected, i.e.the shorter the
radiator is switched on. The compensating element affects the cycle in an opposite
direction to the influence of the accelerating element, and the two components
together will give the bimetallic switch a constant over temperature. Bimetallic
regulated heating devices have a rather large variation in on/off cycles, from around
50 to 400 seconds.
Type 2 has an electronic thermostat and its main components are a thermal sensor,
a potentiometer and a control circuit together with a TRIAC power switch, see
Figure 3.20:
Control circuit 230 V

Preset
temperature R
Triac
–
+
Thermal Comparator Amplifier
R sensor
(NTC)
Heating
component
Figure 3.20 A schematic diagram of the electronic thermostat.
37
The voltage over the potentiometer - which depends on the preset temperature on
the radiator, and the voltage over the thermal sensor - which depends on the room
temperature, are compared in the control circuit. When the conditions for reaction
are reached, the control circuit gives an impulse to the TRIAC in order to switch
on/off the radiator.
The electronic thermostat has a constant on/off cycle. The two radiators with
electronic thermostats which were tested, had on/off cycles of 48 and 52 seconds
respectively.
3.7.2 The climate box
A large box was built in order both to control the thermal flow and to achieve
experimental reproducibility (not in order to represent an actual room) see Figure
3.21.
Canal ventilator temp 1 temp 2

1000
Test object, radiator
Perforated plate
2400
Figure 3.21 The climate box seen from above.
L · W · H: 2400 · 1000 · 1200 mm.

Framework: 12 mm thick plywood plates.
Insulation: 100 mm thick polystyrene.
Air flow distributor: Perforated plate with 9.5 mm quadratic holes, 52% air.
Fan: Canal ventilator.
The box was built of 12 mm thick plywood sheets and insulated on all six surfaces
with 100 mm thick polystyrene, which gives approximately - at a 5 degree deviation
between the inside and the outside temperature - an energy loss of 30 W, which may
be considered negligible.
38
Holes were made on both the short sides, in order to obtain an airflow through the
box. A canal ventilator was mounted over one of the holes whilst the other hole
served as the outflow. To prevent the outflow air from influencing the inflow, the
ventilated air was blown into an adjacent room. A perforated plate was placed inside
the box to distribute the air flow. Thermometers were placed at the inflow, the
outflow and inside the box.
3.7.3 Results
The results of the measurements are illustrated in two different graphs for each
radiator. One graph shows the on-and-off periods and the other shows the mean
power which is calculated as the average power during an on/off cycle according to:
P ⋅ t on
P mean = --------------------- (3.3)
t on + t off
In Figure 3.22 and Figure 3.23, a voltage step of magnitude –20% has been applied
to the bimetallic regulated radiator. The on-and-off periods for the radiator can be
seen in Figure 3.22 and the mean-power in Figure 3.23.
800 AOn, before a

voltage step
On, after a
voltage step
Off
600
Time (s )
400
AAAA
AAA
A A
200
0
AAA On-and-off periods
Figure 3.22 On-and-off periods for a radiator with a bimetallic thermostat. The disturbance
is a voltage-step of magnitude –20%.
39
500
voltage-step
Mean Power (W)
400
300
200
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time (s)
Figure 3.23 The mean-power for a radiator with a bimetallic thermostat. The disturbance is
a voltage-step of magnitude –20%.
Figure 3.24 and Figure 3.25 show the on-and-off periods and the mean-power,
respectively, after a voltage step of magnitude –20% has been applied to the
electronic regulated radiator.
A On, before a
voltage step
On, after a
voltage step
Off
40
AA
30
AA
Time (s )
20
10A
AA
A
0
AA On-and-off periods
Figure 3.24 The on-and-off periods for a radiator with an electronic thermostat. The
disturbance is a voltage-step of magnitude –20%.
40
500 voltage-step
Mean Power (W)
400
300
200
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time (s)
Figure 3.25 The mean-power for a radiator with an electronic thermostat. The disturbance
is a voltage-step of magnitude –20%.
3.7.4 Load model
A load model of the instantaneous value of the power consumption for one single
radiator is not useful as the radiator will go on and off in response to the thermostat.
It is more appropriate to study the mean power which gives a good indication of the
power consumption over a period of time. A group of radiators will have a mean
power curve that resembles the one for a single radiator, but due to the various on-
and-off times for radiators, the time constant will be different.
3.7.5 Discussion
If the radiator is within an on-period and a voltage change is applied to it, the
thermostat shows no tendency to switch off momentarily, and the radiator behaves
as a constant impedance load during a time period of tens of seconds regardless of
the type of thermostat.
After this period of time the radiators begin to act dynamically. The two regulated
radiators show a difference in dynamic behaviour:
The on/off cycles of the bimetallic regulated radiator are altered immediately after
the disturbance. The mean power is thus changed in an opposite direction to the
voltage, i.e. when the voltage step is negative the mean-power increases and vice
41
versa. The original mean power as it was prior to the disturbance is not regained.
This unexpected effect is caused by the accelerating and compensating elements, as
both react as a result of the voltage change.
The size of the deviation between the mean power before and after the voltage
change depends on the working-point of the radiator and the size of the voltage step:
For example, after an increase in voltage, the effect could be that the
bimetallic element will switch off the radiator and stay that way, as the
compensating element will emit too much heat to the bimetallic switch. The
inverse may be observed during a decrease in voltage, as the accelerating
element will emit too little heat to get a switch-off, and the radiator will stay
switched on. This was both observed in the laboratory and at complementary
tests at the home of one of the authors (the room temperature was changed
accordingly). On the contrary, if a decrease in voltage occurs for example on
a cold day during winter when the radiator has a high working-point (the
radiators are on during nearly the whole cycle), the reaction to a small
decrease in voltage could be that the mean power stays the same, and a larger
decrease in voltage, that the mean power decreases, instead of increases.
The on/off cycles of the electronic regulated device remain the same directly after
a disturbance, and due to the change in supply voltage, the mean power is changed
accordingly. Note that for this type of regulator, the time for an on/off cycle is
constant. The temperature regulator adjusts the on-and-off times within the constant
period and after a damped oscillation the mean power reaches approximately the
same value as before the disturbance. On cold winter days, the same applies for the
electronic regulator as for the bimetallic regulator, that the mean power may
decrease after a negative voltage step, if the working-point of the regulator is high
and the voltage step is large enough.
3.8 Laboratory measurements on refrigerators
This section deals with the laboratory measurements on refrigerators. Both static
and dynamic voltage tests are presented and parameters for different load models
for each refrigerator are also derived. In the per-unit diagrams presented in this
section, P0, Q0 and U0 are used as base-values, where P0 and Q0 are
measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V). The load models
should be applicable in the time range of minutes, not accounting for fast transient
behaviour. In addition to the static and dynamic tests a critical voltage was
observed.
42
3.8.1 Test objects
Two refrigerators were tested:
1. Refrigerator A 155 litres
2. Refrigerator B 154 litres
Both refrigerators were new, and refrigerator A was equipped with a small freezing
compartment.
As the on/off cycle is very long, more than one hour, the influence of the thermostat
was not taken into account. The thermostat was on maximum level so that the
compressor would be running during the measurements in each test. The
refrigerators were tested in a room with an ambient temperature of 24.5 ˚C.
3.8.2 Results from static measurements
Figure 3.26 shows the quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power
consumed by refrigerator A. The results for reactive power and for refrigerator B
are shown with the derived models in Section 3.8.5 and in Appendix F. The critical
voltage is observed in the results from the static measurements as the voltage for
minimum power (Figure 3.26). The results correspond to results from
measurements performed by A. Malmquist [8].
Figure 3.26 The quasi-stationary voltage dependence for the active power of refrigerator A.
43
3.8.3 Results from dynamic measurements
Figure 3.27 shows consumed active and reactive power and voltage as a function of
time when a voltage step of magnitude –20% is applied to refrigerator A. The rest
of the results are shown in Appendix C.
Figure 3.27 The dynamic voltage dependence for the active and reactive power of
refrigerator A. As can be seen from the diagram, refrigerators have no dynamic behaviour.
3.8.4 Accuracy analysis
As was previously mentioned, it is the bias in the measurement devices which

influences the maximum limit of the absolute error. Figure 3.28 shows the
inaccuracy in active power and voltage, and Figure 3.29 the inaccuracy in reactive
power and voltage. The crosses show the maximum limits of the absolute error for
the active power and voltage according to Figure 3.8 in Section 3.6.4. As can be
seen in the two figures for refrigerators, both the errors in active and reactive power
can be considered small.
44
Figure 3.28 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a

refrigerator. The accuracy in both active power and voltage is high.
a refrigerator. The accuracy in both reactive power and voltage is high.
3.8.5 The static load models
The active and reactive powers for the refrigerators show a static behaviour after a
voltage step. The quasi-stationary measurements are therefore a good
representation of the voltage dependence in a range of minutes, and only static
models have to be derived.
45
The same static load models are derived for the refrigerators as for the lamps:
1. Exponential:
np nq
------ =  ------- ------- =  -------
P U Q U
P0 U  Q0 U 
0 0
2. Linear:
P U Q U
------ = a 0 + a 1 ------- ------- = b 0 + b 1 -------
P0 U0 Q0 U0
3. Polynomial:
U 2 U 2
------ = a 0 + a 1 ------- + a 2  ------- ------- = b 0 + b 1 ------- + b 2  -------
P U Q U
P0 U0 U  Q0 U0 U 
0 0
The parameters for the exponential and linear load models are derived from the
measured values, which lie between 90% and 110% of the nominal voltage, and for
the polynomial model the parameters are derived from the datums which lie
between 70% and 110% of the nominal voltage.
Table 3.6 shows the calculated parameters to the exponential models p = unp and
q = unq, the calculated parameters to the linear models p = a0 + a1u and q = b0 + b1u
are shown in Table 3.7 (a0 = 1 – a1, b0 = 1 – b1). The calculated parameters for the
polynomial model are divided into two tables, Table 3.8 for the active power
p = a0 + a1u + a2u2 and Table 3.9 for the reactive power q = b0 + b1u + b2u2.
Appendix F shows recorded quantities together with their models.
Table 3.6 The parameters for the exponential model.
Type np nq
Refrigerator A 1.3 – 1.6 3.1 – 3.3
Refrigerator B 1.3 – 1.8 2.8 – 3.2
Table 3.7 The parameters for the linear model.
Type a1 b1
Refrigerator A 1.3 – 1.7 3.1 – 3.3
Refrigerator B 1.1 – 1.8 2.5 – 3.3
46
Table 3.8 The parameters for the active power for the polynomial model.
Type a0 a1 a2
Refrigerator A 2.190 –3.955 2.765
2.360 –4.330 2.970
Refrigerator B 2.453 –4.690 3.237
2.303 –4.318 3.015
Table 3.9 The parameters for reactive power for the polynomial model.
Type b0 b1 b2
Refrigerator A 2.190 –5.650 4.460
2.190 –5.640 4.450
Refrigerator B 2.023 –5.307 4.284
2.022 –5.288 4.266
3.8.6 Discussion
Some conclusions can be drawn from the results concerning active power
consumption, reactive consumption and the critical voltages:
Active power The refrigerators have a voltage dependence which is between

constant current and constant impedance.
Reactive power The refrigerators have a very low power factor and are
installed completely uncompensated. The voltage dependency
for the reactive power is rather high, nq ≈ 3.2 in the exponential
load model.
Critical voltage The critical voltage is observed in the figure for the quasi-
stationary voltage dependency for the active power, Figure
3.24, approximately 0.6 pu. If the voltage is lower, the power
demand increases because the compressor stops running while
the current is not broken [8]. If, however, the voltage is
increased from a level below the critical voltage the power
demand will increase even more until the current is broken.
There is a negligible difference between the results of the two refrigerators and they
have no dynamic voltage dependence.
47
3.9 References
[1] W. Shepherd, P. Zand, ‘Energy flow and power factor in nonsinusoidal

circuits’, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979
[2] N. L. Kusters, W. J. M. Moore, ‘On the definition of reactive power under

nonsinusoidal conditions’, IEEE Trans.Power Appl. Syst., vol PAS-99, pp.
1845 - 1854, Sept/Oct. 1980
[3] C. H. Page, ‘Reactive power in nonsinusoidal situations’, IEEE Trans.

Instrum. Meas., vol IM-29, pp. 420 - 423, Dec. 1980
[4] P. Filipski, ‘A new approach to reactive current and reactive power

measurement in nonsinusoidal systems’, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol
IM-29, pp. 423 - 426, Dec. 1980
[5] L. S. Czarnecki, ‘Additional discussion to ‘Reactive power under non-

sinusoidal conditions’, IEEE Trans.Power App. Syst., vol PAS-102, pp.
1023 - 1024, Apr. 1983
[6] J. Näslund. ‘The load-voltage dependence of home heating appliances’.

Diploma thesis 91-03, Dept. of Electrical Power Systems, Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden, 1991, in Swedish
[7] D. Karlsson, K. Lindén, I. Segerqvist, B. Stenborg, ‘Temporary load-

voltage characteristics for voltage stability studies - Field and laboratory
measurements’, CIGRÉ Report 38-204, Paris, Aug. 30 - Sept. 5 1992
[8] A. Malmquist, ‘Dynamics of load objects - laboratory tests’, 1985, Royal

Institute of Technology, Sweden
48
Chapter 4: Field measurements
Chapter 4
Field measurements
4.1 Introduction
It is desirable to compare the results of the laboratory measurements with results

from field measurements performed with a load similar to the ones tested in the
laboratory.
Carrying out tests in co-operation with El och Trafikteknik AB, the former
department of street lighting and traffic signals at Göteborg Energi AB, gave the
opportunity of doing field measurements on street-lamp networks. This chapter
presents the results of these field measurements.
Field measurements have been carried out in southern Sweden in order to derive
dynamic load models [1, 2]. In these measurements an essential part of the
composite load consisted of electrically heated households. This chapter also
presents a short discussion on how it is possible to identify the composite load in
these field measurements with the results from the laboratory measurements.
4.2 Field measurements on street-lamp networks
The field measurements on street-lamp networks were carried out in order to verify
the static and dynamic laboratory measurements on lighting. The behaviour of one
lamp, measured in the laboratory, would then be compared to the behaviour of a
group of lamps.
4.2.1 Test net
The street lamps are in separate networks and are fed from ordinary sub-stations.
The networks are radial but with the possibility of reconnecting in the case of fault.
49
The tests were performed in an area with mercury lamps. Two different groups were
tested, ~10 000 W and ~15 000 W rated power respectively. For comparison one
single mercury lamp was connected in parallel with the out-going group according
to Figure 4.2.
The street-lamp networks consist exclusively of underground cables. The networks

chosen for the field measurement were fed by a balancing transformer. The purpose
of this arrangement is to decrease the voltage feeding the lamps in order to save
energy. With the balancing transformer it was possible to decrease and increase the
voltage in two steps of together about 10%, with 0.3 seconds between the steps.
4.2.2 Data acquisition system
During the field measurements, a sampling data acquisition system (DAS) was used
controlled by a computer. The instantaneous phase-voltages and phase-currents
were measured simultaneously through a voltage divider and a current-to-voltage
converter respectively. The data acquisition system was connected according to
Figure 4.1 and the measurement arrangement as in Figure 4.2.
Current Voltage
Current-to-voltage Voltage divider

converter
Multiprogrammer including two A/D

converters and a high speed memory
Mass storage
Printer Computer
device
Figure 4.1 The data acquisition system.
50
To multiprogrammer
Current-to-voltage
converter
From single
balancing Voltage Street lamp
mercury
transformer divider network
lamp
Figure 4.2 Measurement arrangement.
4.2.3 Dynamic measurements
In the dynamic tests, the voltage was decreased in two steps to 90 per cent or in one
step to 98 per cent of nominal voltage, or was increased from this level back to
nominal voltage in one step. The instantaneous voltages and currents were
measured during 15 minutes, with 0.1 seconds measuring-time every second, and
with a sampling rate of 15.6 kHz. With the instantaneous values the rms values for
voltage and current were calculated according to the definition. The active power P
was calculated by integrating the instantaneous power u · i over every cycle of
voltage
T
1
P = --- ∫ u ⋅ i dt
T
0
The reactive power was calculated as
2 2
Q = S –P
where the apparent power S was calculated as Urms · Irms.
4.2.4 Accuracy
The inaccuracy in voltage and current for the measuring device is of the same size
as for the measuring device used in the laboratory measurement. In active and
reactive powers, error due to the integration is added to the error in the measuring
device.
51
4.2.5 Results
Figures 4.3 to 4.8 show some results from the field measurements. Figures 4.3 to
4.5 show results from the measurements on the first group (with a rated power of
~10 000 W). In Figure 4.3 to 4.5 the applied voltage step is of magnitude approx.
–10% (225 V down to 201 V). In this test, the voltage at the end of the line was
observed. While the voltage in the feeding station changed from 225 V to 201 V,
the voltage at the end of the line changed from 215 V down to 193 V. Just after the
voltage step one lamp at the end of the line went out and one started to flicker.
During the test it was also observed that one lamp in the middle of the line went out.
From the measurement test results it can be concluded that yet another lamp had
gone out. After 10 minutes all these lamps were on again.
Figure 4.3 Consumed active and reactive power in one phase as a function of time, when
a voltage step of magnitude approx. –10% (225 V down to 201 V) is applied to group one.
One lamp has gone out momentarily after the voltage step. After 5 minutes it comes on.
52
One lamp has gone out momentarily after the voltage step, and one after ~2.5 minutes. After
about 10 minutes both are on again.
3.5 minutes after the voltage step one lamp goes out and after 9 minutes it comes on.
Figure 4.6 shows when the voltage is increased from 90 per cent of nominal voltage
to nominal voltage level.
53
a voltage step of magnitude approx. +10% (201 V up to 227 V) is applied to group one.
Figures 4.7 and 4.8 show some results from the tests on the second group (with a
rated power of ~15 000 W). Figure 4.7 shows the voltage decrease and Figure 4.8
the voltage increase for one phase.
a voltage step of magnitude approx. –10% (228 V down to 204 V) is applied to group two.
54
a voltage step of magnitude approx. +10% (204 V up to 228 V) is applied to group two.
4.2.6 Discussion
The results in the field measurements are similar to the results in the laboratory
measurements. The dynamic behaviour of a group of lamps resembles the
behaviour of one lamp, exhibited in the laboratory measurements. There is a slight
dynamic voltage dependence in reactive power and none in active power (c.f.
Section 3.6.6). However, the fact that some lamps might go out due to a large
voltage step and after some minutes come on again, could be considered as a small
power recovery, with an overshoot in reactive power when a lamp comes on (Figure
4.4)
In addition, the parameters for the exponential load model, derived in the laboratory
measurements are compared to parameters derived from the tests in the field
measurements. The parameters derived in the field measurements have a higher
value (np = 2.9 – 3.2, and nq = 4 – 7), than those derived in the laboratory
measurements (np = 2.2 – 2.4, and nq = 4.0 – 6.0).
Both the power factor (~0.7) and the wave form of the current (not shown) indicate
that the lamps in group one are uncompensated.
55
4.3 Field measurements on composite load
Field measurements carried out in Southern Sweden [1, 2] show that the active
power recovers after a voltage step. Within five minutes, more than half of the initial
active power reduction has been recovered. This power recovery occurs in winter
measurements, while in summer measurements there is hardly any recovery at all.
The measurements were performed in two areas with different load-composition,

but in both areas an essential part of the load consists of electrically heated
households.
Out of the results of the field measurements it seems reasonable to assume that the
composite load consists mainly of two different parts, one static part - the
instantaneous power change, and one dynamic part - the power recovery [1].
The results from the laboratory measurements can be used to identify the composite
load (Chapter 2). Non regulated radiators together with lighting, refrigerators and
other non dynamic voltage-dependent loads will have an instantaneous power
change after a step in voltage. A group of thermostat regulated radiators with
bimetallic thermostats, will have an inverse reaction to voltage changes in sense of
power and due to various on-and-off time have a slow performance (Section 3.7).
These two behaviours, the instantaneous power-change and the slow inverse
reaction, could result in a power-recovery like the one measured in the performed
field measurements in southern Sweden.
In order to investigate the load behaviour tests similar to the field measurements
performed in Southern Sweden have been carried out by the CEGB [3, 4]. In these
tests, the only power recovery that is mentioned is that due to automatic tap
changers.
56
4.4 References
[1] D. Karlsson, K. Lindén, I. Segerqvist, B. Stenborg, ‘Temporary load-

voltage characteristics for voltage stability studies - Field and laboratory
measurements’, CIGRÉ Report 38-204, Paris, Aug. 30 - Sept. 5 1992
[2] D. Karlsson, ‘Voltage stability simulations using detailed models based on

field measurements’, Technical Report no. 230, Dep. of Electrical Power
Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
[3] G. Shackshaft, P. H. Ashmole, ‘The influence of load characteristics on

power system performance - A C.E.G.B viewpoint’, CIGRÉ Report 31-02,
Paris, Aug. 30 - Sept. 7 1978
[4] G. Shackshaft, C. Eng, O. C. Symons, J. G. Hadwick, ‘General-purpose

model of power-system loads’ PROC. IEE, Vol 124, No 8, August 1977
57
58
Chapter 5: Voltage stability with regard to system and load characteristics
Chapter 5
Voltage stability with regard to system and load characteristics
5.1 Introduction
Incidents causing system voltage instability have occurred with increasing

frequency throughout the world. This is due to the fact that the average transmission
line is more heavily loaded than ever before. When analysing the incidents, the
importance of load characteristics and system load level are emphasized [2, 3].
Curves that describe the relationship between the voltage and the transmitted active
and reactive power respectively (UP– and QU–curves) are widely used as tools for
voltage stability analysis, and are also used when planning a system [1, 4].
This part of the thesis will describe how the UP– and QU–curves together with the
load characteristics can be used to show if a system, due to an incident, approaches
a critical situation. The effects of two kinds of incidents are studied: an increase in
the load, and a decrease in the feeding voltage. The influence of a tap changer on
both the load characteristics and the UP– and QU–curves are also studied. These
studies are intended to elucidate the processes described rather than to recommend
any necessary action.
5.2 System characteristics
The UP– and QU–curves for a busbar in an electric power system can be calculated
with multiple load flow calculations or, if the system is simple enough, with power
flow equations. Figure 5.1 shows a small system of transmission lines and
transformers.
59
2 3
Figure 5.1 A small system. A load is connected to bus 3 and is of exponential type
according to the definitions in Chapter 1.
Simplify the system in Figure 5.1 by regarding bus 2 as an infinite bus. The system
is then a single line represented with an impedance ZL according to Figure 5.2.
E ψ2 ZL= RL+jX L U ψ3
P/Q
Figure 5.2 Model of a single line. E and U represent the absolute value of the voltages, and
ψ = ψ2 - ψ3 is the angle between the voltages. P and Q represent the transmitted active and
reactive power.
The power flow equations for the receiving end in this system can be expressed as
2
U EU
P = – ------- sin δ + -------- sin ( ψ + δ ) (5.1)
ZL ZL
2
U EU
Q = – ------- cos δ + -------- cos ( ψ + δ ) (5.2)
ZL ZL
RL
where the loss-angle δ = arctan -------
XL
If the variables in the power flow equations are changed to per unit values with E as
base-voltage and ZL as base-impedance giving E2/ZL as base-power, and then
rearranged (Appendix G) we get
2 2 2 2
p = u [ 1 – u – 2 ( p sin δ + q cos δ ) ] – q (5.3)
60
For simplification the resistance will be neglected, the loss angle δ is then zero,
which can be an acceptable approximation if the voltage level is 130 kV or higher.
Equation (5.3) then becomes
2 2 2 2
p = u – (u + q) (5.4)
The equations for the up– and qu–curves are achieved by isolating u and q,
respectively (Appendix G)
1 1 2
u = --- – q ± --- – q – p (5.5)
2 4
2 2 2
q = –u ± u –p (5.6)
In the equations for the up–curve (Equation (5.5)) and qu–curve (Equation (5.6)) the
active power p or the reactive power q respectively may be treated as a constant or
as an expression of the other. A constant p or q gives the opportunity to study
control issues. If for instance the reactive power q is drawn as a function of the
voltage u with the active power p as a constant it is possible to study how to control
the voltage by regulating the reactive power. When studying stability issues it is
perhaps more appropriate to have p or q as a function of the other. What is then
interesting to study is the transmission possibilities at different load situations. With
the up– or qu–curve in hand it is possible to observe if a working-point, i.e. a
solution of a power flow calculation, is voltage stable [1].
The up–curves show the relationship between voltage and active power for a given
reactive power or with the reactive power q as a function of the active power p,
q = f(p). The most commonly used function is q = p · tanϕ with a given tanϕ. Figure
5.3 shows three up–curves for given tanϕ, tanϕ = 0.5, 0 and –0.5. In these curves a
working-point is considered to be voltage stable if it is located on the part of the up–
curve that is above the curve that gives maximum transmitted power [1].
Note that in this context, maximum transmitted power does not imply that the angle
between the voltages, ψ, is 90°. The dashed curve in Figure 5.3 shows p = u, the
transferred power at ψ = 90°. As seen in Figure 5.3 there could be a solution of a
power flow that is unstable in terms of voltage but at a steady state angle less than
90 degrees [1].
61
u
dp
1.2 =0
1.2 –0.5 du
1.0
1 0
ψ = 90˚
0.8
0.8 0.5
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
p
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 5.3 The figure shows the up–curves for tanϕ = 0.5, 0.0 and –0.5. The dotted curve
connects the points for maximum transmitted power pmax, where dp/du = 0. The dashed
curve shows p = u, i.e. ψ = 90°.
The qu–curves show the relationship between the reactive power and voltage for
given active power or with the active power p as a function of the reactive power q,
p = f(q), where the former alternative is the most commonly used. Figure 5.4 shows
three qu–curves with p as a constant, p = 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75, and Figure 5.5 shows
the qu–curve with p = q/tanϕ, tanϕ = 0.5 and –0.5. In the qu–curve a working-point
is considered voltage stable if it is on the right part of the curve, to the right of the
minimum-value when p is constant (Figure 5.4) and to the right of the maximum-
and the minimum-point when p = q/tanϕ (Figure 5.5).
ψ = 90˚ dq
q =0
du
0.75
0.5
–0.8
0.8 0.25
–0.6
0.6
–0.4
0.4
–0.2
0.2
0 u
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
0.2
-0.2
Figure 5.4 The figure shows the qu–curves for p = 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75. The dotted curve
connects the points where dq/du = 0. The dashed curve shows q when ψ = 90°. Note that the
q–axis is negative.
62
q dq
ψ = 90˚ =0
du
–0.4
0.4
–0.2
0.2
tanϕ = –0.5
00 u
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
tanϕ = 0.5
Figure 5.5 The figure shows the qu–curve for tanϕ = 0.5 and –0.5. The dashed curve
shows q when ψ = 90°. The dotted curve connects the points where dq/du = 0. Note that the
q–axis is negative.
5.3 Load characteristics
To study the impact of various load characteristics on voltage stability, the load
characteristics are drawn together with the up- and qu–curve. The intersection of the
up- or qu–curve and the load characteristic will be the working-point of the system,
the solution of a power flow calculation. The power demand is described by an
exponential load model (see Chapter 1), according to Equation (5.7) and Equation
(5.8)
np
p = p 0  -----
u
(5.7)
u 
0
nq
q = q 0  -----
u
(5.8)
u 
0
where np and nq is the sensibility to voltage, u is the actual voltage feeding the load
and p0 and q0 is the rated power at nominal voltage u0, here defined as the voltage
at the initial working-point. Note that u, u0, p, p0, q, q0 are in per unit with the same
base-values as for the power flow equations. With various np and nq different load
characteristics are obtained.
63
5.4 Tap changer influence on load characteristics
The power demand, Equations (5.7) and (5.8), is a function of the voltage feeding
the load. It is therefore of interest to study different load characteristics together
with the action of a tap changer that regulates the voltage feeding the load. To do
this, the system in Figure 5.2 is increased at the receiving end with an ideal
transformer equipped with an on-load tap changer (Figure 5.6).
e ψ2 u ψ3 (1+∆):1 u′ ψ3
zL
p/q
Figure 5.6 An ideal transformer with a tap changer, marked here with an unfilled arrow,
added to the small system.
In this study the voltage u will be referred to as the voltage at the feeding side of the
transformer and u′ as the voltage at the load side. The power demand as a function
of the voltage u at the feeding side of the transformer and the tap changer position,
is expressed as
u n
 ------------- p p0
1+∆ np
p = p 0  ------------- = ------- ----------------------u
1
(5.9)
 u  np np
 0  u0 ( 1 + ∆ )
u n
 ------------- q q0
1+∆ nq
q = q 0  ------------- = ------- ----------------------u
1
(5.10)
 u  nq nq
 0  u0 ( 1 + ∆ )
Two kinds of incidents are observed. An increase in load and a decrease in feeding
voltage. For both disturbances the influence of a tap changer is studied as the tap
changer automatically works to keep the voltage u´ at a specified value, here the
voltage at the initial working-point.
5.4.1 Increase in load
The increase in load is achieved by increasing the rated power p0 and q0 in

Equations (5.9) and (5.10). This could illustrate an increase in the amount of
connected load devices.
64
Use Equation (5.5) to draw the up–curve. If tanϕ is assumed constant, i.e.
q = p · tanϕ, Equation (5.5) is changed to
1 1 2
u = --- – p tan ϕ ± --- – p tan ϕ – p (5.11)
2 4
Figure 5.7 shows the up–curve (Equation (5.11)) and three different load
characteristics (Equation (5.9)) with np = 0, 1 and 2, together with a 40% increase
in load for the different load characteristics.
np=0 np=1 np=2

u
0.8
tanϕ = 0.5
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.7 The up–curve for tanϕ = 0.5 is shown together with the three load
characteristics, np = 0, 1 and 2, before and after a 40% increase in load. The continuous load
characteristics show the situation before the increase in load and the dotted load
characteristics show the situation after the increase in load but before any tap changer action.
In this instance, after the increase in load there will be three different working-
points with positions dependent on the load characteristics (Figure 5.7). A constant
load characteristic will give the highest power demand, and the higher voltage
dependency the lower power demand.
As the voltage in the receiving end of the system decreases due to the increase in
load, the tap changer will act to restore the voltage on the load-side of the
transformer. The action results in a new ∆ in Equation (5.9), where ∆ is decided by
the tap changer position. On condition that there is a continuous tap changer the
voltage at the load-side of the transformer is restored to the specified value. Figure
5.8 shows how the action of the tap changer increases the load when restoring the
voltage on the load-side of the transformer.
65
np = 2
u
0.8
tanϕ = 0.5
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.8 The figure shows how the tap changer increases the load with np = 2 seen from
the feeding side of the transformer when restoring the voltage at the load side. The continuous
load characteristic show the initial stage and the dotted curves show when the load is
increased and how it is increased even more by the tap changer action.
However a tap changer is not continuous, the voltage is regulated in discrete steps.
A normal step-size is 1.67% and the number of possible steps is usually 9 in each
direction from nominal position.
The above study can also be made in a qu–curve. Equation (5.6) with p = q/tanϕ and
tanϕ as a constant, i.e. Equation (5.12), is the expression for the qu–curve with
constant tanϕ
2 4 2 4
u u u –u
q = – ----------------------- ± ------------------------------- + ----------------------- (5.12)
1
1 + -------------- 1  2 1 + -------------
 1 + ------------- 1
-
-
tan ϕ
2  2  2
ϕ
tan ϕ tan
However, drawing the qu–curve with the active power p as a function of the reactive
power q might seem a little strange. It implies that the reactive power can be
changed and that the active power will follow according to the function, when in
practice it is often the other way round. It might, however, be of interest to study
how the reactive power q varies when the active power changes. Showing this in a
qu–curve with p as a constant together with the load characteristics results in a new
qu–curve as well as a new load characteristic every time the tap changer acts. In
Figure 5.9 the qu–curve with tanϕ = 0.5 is drawn together with three load
characteristics, nq = 0, 1 and 2 in Equation (5.10), and a 40% increase in load for
the different load characteristics. As tanϕ is constant, q0 in Equation (5.10) is equal
to p0 · tanϕ. Henceforth the studies are concentrated upon up–curves but some qu–
curves will be presented for the sake of completeness.
66
u
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.05
-0.05
nq=0
nq=1
nq=2
0.1
-0.1
0.15
-0.15 tanϕ = 0.5
q
Figure 5.9 QU-curve, tanϕ = 0.5, together with three load characteristics, nq = 0, 1, and 2,
with a 40% increase in load. Note that the q–axis is negative.
5.4.2 Decrease in feeding voltage
When changing the feeding voltage E to a new value Enew the equations for the UP–
and QU–curves change (Appendix G) and, in the case of constant tanϕ, Equations
(5.11) and (5.12) change according to Equations (5.13) and (5.14).
1 2 1 4 2 2
u = --- e new – p tan ϕ ± --- e new – e new p tan ϕ – p (5.13)
2 4
2 4 2 2 4
u u u e new – u
q = – ----------------------- ± ------------------------------- + ----------------------------- (5.14)
1
1 + -------------- 1 2
 1 + ------------- 1
1 + --------------
-
tan ϕ
2  2 
tan ϕ
2
tan ϕ
The decrease in feeding voltage results in a new up- or qu–curve (Figure 5.10 and
Figure 5.11) and together with the load characteristics there is a new working-point.
67
np = 0 1 2
u
0.8 enew = 1
enew = 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.10 A decrease in feeding voltage results in a new up–curve. The figure shows the
original up–curve and the up–curve for a reduced feeding voltage, both with constant tanϕ,
together with three load characteristics, np = 0, 1 and 2 in Equation (5.9).
enew = 1
–0.4
0.4
enew = 0.8
–0.2
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

00 u
nq = 0
1
2
Figure 5.11 The decrease in feeding voltage illustrated with two qu–curves together with
three load characteristics, nq = 0, 1 and 2 in Equation (5.10).
As the feeding voltage is reduced, so is the load voltage. The tap changer will then
operate to restore the voltage on the load side of the transformer as in the case with
increase in load. Figure 5.12 shows a decrease in feeding-voltage together with the
load characteristics for np = 2 in Equation (5.9). With a continuous and infinite tap
changer the voltage on the load side of the transformer will be restored to the
specified value.
68
np = 2
u
→ → →
1
0.8 enew = 1
enew = 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.12 Two up–curves describing a 20% decrease in feeding voltage together with
load characteristics, np = 2. The tap changer increases the load seen from the line-side as it
restores the voltage-level on the load side of the transformer.
5.4.3 Discussion
5.4.3.1 Increase in load
The use of UP– and QU–curves, together with load characteristics, show that if a
load is voltage-dependent a tap changer connected as per Figure 5.6 will increase
the power demand when restoring the voltage feeding the load. In the cases
previously outlined, where the increase in load could be described as an increase in
the amount of connected load devices or rather an increase in rated power, the tap
changer tends to give a voltage-dependent load a characteristic of a “constant
power” -load.
If instead the increase in load is described as an increase in actual power demand,

i.e. from a given working-point with an arbitrary load characteristic the load-
demand is increased to a new working-point with a load characteristic that is not
necessarily the same as the one in the first working-point (Figure 5.13). Then the
tap changer action will increase the power demand in the case of a voltage-
dependent load when restoring the voltage feeding the load, resulting in a higher
power demand than if the load characteristic had been “constant power” (Figure
5.14). In Figure 5.13 the up–curve for tanϕ = 0.5 is drawn with different load
characteristics. The actual power demand is increased by 40% and the load
characteristics show the state before any tap changer action. Figure 5.14 shows the
up–curve and the load characteristics when the tap changer has restored the voltage
69
on the load-side of the transformer. A high voltage dependency tends to move the
operation-point towards a critical situation.
np=0 np=1 np=2 np=3

u
0.8
tanϕ = 0.5
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.13 UP–curve for tanϕ = 0.5 together with four load characteristics and a 40%
increase in actual power demand.
np=0 np=1
np=2
u
np=3
1
0.8
tanϕ = 0.5
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.14 UP–curve for tanϕ = 0.5 with three load characteristics when the tap changer
has restored the load-voltage after an increase in load.
The above results are all valid when tanϕ is positive, or if tanϕ is negative - the
working-point is on the upper half and to the right of maximum voltage on the up–
curve (Figure 5.15). These are the normal working conditions.
70
1.2
tanϕ = –0.5
1
0.8 tanϕ = 0.5

0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 5.15 The up–curves for tanϕ = 0.5 and –0.5. Note that when tanϕ is negative the
maximum voltage is not equal to the voltage for the system in no-load running.
A moderate increase in load however requires a high-load situation for the system
to turn into a voltage collapse.
5.4.3.2 Decrease in feeding voltage
When there is a decrease in feeding voltage it is of course an advantage if the load

is voltage dependent, the more so the better, as a voltage dependent load will
decrease as the voltage decreases. The action of a tap changer to restore the load-
voltage will however increase a voltage dependent load, and if the decrease in
voltage is not greater than the control-range of the tap changer, the voltage on the
load side of the transformer will be restored to its original value and the load could
be considered constant (Figure 5.16).
np=0 1 2
u
0.8 enew = 1
0.6 enew = 0.9
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.16 A 10% decrease in feeding voltage. In seven steps the tap changer has restored
the voltage on the load side of the transformer, and the working-point of the two voltage-
dependent load characteristics are moved to the one of the constant-power characteristic.
71
5.5 Tap changer influence on system characteristic
The single line dealt with earlier in this chapter is in reality a part of a large system
with the possibilities of regulating system voltages. Recall the system in Figure 5.1,
and represent the part to the left of bus 2 by an equivalent “infinite” voltage behind
an impedance and an ideal transformer regulating the voltage feeding the line
according to Figure 5.17.
E′i (1+∆i):1 E U
Z′i ZL
P/Q
1 2 3
Figure 5.17 A system with an equivalent voltage Ei behind an impedance Zi both reduced
over the nominal ratio of the transformer, and a tap changer regulating the voltage E.
The tap changer is assumed to regulate voltage E to a value equal to the open circuit
voltage for the system, with the tap changer in position n = 1:1, here called the initial
voltage. Two incidents are studied: an increase in load and a decrease in feeding
voltage Ei′. In this study only the tap changer regulating the voltage E is taken into
consideration, the voltage U is not regulated. The studies in Section 5.4 (regulating
voltage U) might, however, just as well be applied to the more general system in this
section as to the single-line system in Section 5.4. The load connected to the system
is of the exponential model presented in Equation (5.7).
The equation for the up–curve for the system in Figure 5.17, with Ei′ as base-voltage
and ZL as base-impedance, can be written as (Appendix H)
1 1 2
----- – 2zA  ----2- – 2zA
ni
2 n 
i 2 2 2
u = ---------------------- ± ------------------------------ – z ( p + q ) (5.15)
2 4
where n i = 1 + ∆ i and A = psinδ + qcosδ
Z
and z = ------ , is the total impedance of the system in per unit, i.e.
ZL
Zi
Z = ---------------------- + Z L (5.16)
2
( 1 + ∆i )
Note that δ is the loss-angle for the entire system.
72
As voltage E is regulated to the open circuit value of the system, it is possible to

draw the up–curves for both the entire system and for the single line to the right of
bus 2 in the same chart (Figure 5.18).
Henceforth the resistance will be ignored. If the reactance Xi is written as α · XL

where α is a constant, the total impedance of the system is written as
α
X = X L ---------------------- + 1 (5.17)
2
( 1 + ∆i )
Assume q = p · tanϕ, where tanϕ is constant. The equation for the up–curve for the
right part of the system, the single line, is equal to Equation (5.11), and for the entire
system the equation is equal to
1 α 
----- – 2  ----- + 1 ptanϕ
2  n2 
ni i 1 1α  α 2 2
u = -------------------------------------------------- ± --------- – -----  ----- + 1 ptanϕ –  ----- + 1 p
2 4 2 2  n2
4n i n i  n i 
i

(5.18)
where n i = 1 + ∆ i
Equations (5.11) and (5.18) are graphically presented in Figure 5.18 with tanϕ = 0.5,
α = 1 and ∆i = 0.
0.8
0.6 (5.18) (5.11)
0.4
0.2
p
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Figure 5.18 The continuous curve in the figure is the up–curve for the entire system. The
dotted curve is the up–curve for the single line to the right of bus two.
73
5.5.1 Increase in load
Assume that a load with a constant power characteristic is connected to the system
at bus three and that there will be an increase in load. The various up–curves in
Figure 5.19 show how the up–curve for the entire system changes in accordance
with the tap changer position.
np = 0
u
4
1 3 a b c d
2
0.8 1
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.19 The figure shows an increase in load and how the up–curve for the entire
system changes as the tap changer restores the voltage at bus two to the initial value. The
dotted up–curve is the up–curve for the single line in the right part of the system in Figure
5.17. The dotted up–curve is only valid when the voltage E at bus two is at the initial value.
When the load is connected, working-point 1 is the intersection of the load

characteristic and up–curve a (up–curve for the entire system before any tap
changer action, Figure 5.19). The tap changer restores the voltage at bus 2 to its
initial value and up–curve d (the up–curve for the single line when the voltage E is
at the initial value) is valid. As the tap changer action results in a new ∆i there will
be a new up–curve for the entire system (up–curve b) and working-point 2 (the
intersection of the load characteristic, up–curve b and up–curve d) becomes valid.
After the increase in load, the new working-point is at the intersection of the current
up–curve for the entire system, up–curve b, and the new load characteristic, i.e.
working-point 3. If the tap changer is able to restore the voltage at bus 2 to its initial
value, the up–curve for the entire system is up–curve c. Also up–curve d is valid for
the single line and the final working-point will be number 4 in Figure 5.19.
Note that it is the voltage at bus 3 that is shown in the up–curves in Figure 5.19.
74
The scenario described above, but now with a load characteristic of type “constant
current” for the connected load, is shown in Figure 5.20. The working-points are
numbered in order of appearance.
4
1 3 a b c d
2
0.8
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.20 The same scenario as that shown in Figure 5.19 but here with a connected load
of “constant current” -type.
5.5.2 Decrease in feeding voltage
When changing the feeding voltage E′i to a new value E′i(new) Equation (5.18)
changes according to Equation (5.19) (Appendix H)
2
 e′ i(new)
 ----------------- – 2A 4 2
 ni  1  e′ i(new)  e′ i(new) α 2 2
u = --------------------------------------- ± ---  ----------------- –  ----------------- A –  ----- + 1 p
2 4  ni   ni   n2 
i
(5.19)
α 
where n i = 1 + ∆ i and A =  ----- + 1 ptanϕ
 n2 
i
Assume a load with a characteristic of type “constant power” connected to the

system at bus three and that there will be a decrease in feeding voltage. Figure 5.21
shows the up–curves for the different stages in the scenario.
The initial stage, when the load is connected but before any tap changer action, is
shown by up–curve a, and the intersection of this curve and the load characteristic
is the current working-point, (number 1 in Figure 5.21). The tap changer restores
the voltage at bus 2 and changes the up–curve from curve a to curve b. Moreover,
75
at this stage also up–curve d (the up–curve for the single line) is valid since the
voltage at bus 2 is at the initial value, and the working-point is at the intersection of
the load characteristic and up–curves b and d (i.e. working-point number 2). When
the feeding voltage decreases the up–curve for the entire system changes according
to Equation (5.19) from up–curve b to up–curve c. The working-point at this stage
is working-point number 3. If the tap changer is able to restore the voltage at bus 2,
up–curve e and d are valid and the system is back to working-point 2. However,
observe the differences in pmax for up–curve b and e.
np = 0
u
1 a b c d e
0.8 2
1
3
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.21 The figure shows the way in which the up–curve changes for a system
according to Figure 5.17. This results after a decrease in feeding voltage when the tap changer
action restores the voltage at bus 2 to the open circuit value.
5.5.3 Discussion
The changes of the up–curve due to the tap changer action may be summarized in
the equation for pmax, pmax = f(E′i(new),Z,ϕ,∆i) (see Appendix H)
2
 e′ i(new) 1 cosϕ
p max =  ----------------- --- ------------------------------------------ (5.20)
 1 + ∆ i  z 2 [ sin ( ϕ + δ ) + 1 ]
In other words, apart from the load-factor and possibly a change in feeding voltage,
pmax is a function of the tap changer position.
76
Observe that δ is the loss-angle for the entire system. If the resistance is ignored and
the impedance for the system is written according to Equation (5.17), Equation
(5.20) may be simplified to
2 1 cosϕ
p max = ( e′ i(new) ) -------------------------------- ---------------------------- (5.21)
2 2 ( sinϕ + 1 )
α + ( 1 + ∆i )
5.6 Reflections on some simplification
When drawing the UP– and QU–curves in the previous part, as well as the reduction
of the system to a single line, two major simplifications have been made, viz the
neglection of resistance and the assumption of constant tanϕ (i.e. the active and
reactive power have the same voltage dependence). The influence of these
simplifications are discussed in the following.
5.6.1 Resistance
In theoretical studies of the kind presented in this chapter most authors neglect the
resistance, especially if the systems studied are regarded as transmission systems
(EHV). However the up– and qu–curves are valid at any voltage level and it could
therefore be of interest to get an overview of the effect the resistance has on the up–
curves.
The size of the resistance per unit of length for a line in a power system is
determined by the area of the phase conductors which are roughly determined by
the transmitted power, i.e. a function of the voltage level, whereas the reactance per
unit of length has almost the same value on every voltage level. Therefore it is
possible to estimate an approximate ratio between the resistance and reactance for
each voltage levels according to Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 The approximated ratio between the resistance and the reactance for a
transmission line at different voltage levels, and the loss angle δ.
U, [kV] RL/XL ~δ = arctan(RL/XL), [˚]

10 2.5 68
20 1.7 59
40 0.8 39
50 0.5 27
70 0.4 22
130 0.1 6
400 0.07–0.05 4–3
77
To derive the equation for the up–curve when δ is not equal to zero, Equation (5.3)
with q = p · tanϕ is solved for u (Appendix G), and the expression for the voltage u
will be according to
1 1 2 2 2 2 2
u = --- – pB ± --- + p B – pB – p ( 1 + tan ϕ ) (5.22)
2 4
where B = sinδ + tanϕcosδ
Figure 5.22 shows the up–curves for four different δ with corresponding
RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05 and 0.0, and with q = p · tanϕ, tanϕ = 0.5.
u
0.8 0.4 0.05 0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.22 The up–curves for four different d with corresponding RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05
and 0.0, and with q = p · tanϕ, tanϕ = 0.5.
With increasing RL/XL maximum transmittable power, pmax, decreases until it hits
a limit and then increases. The maximum transmittable power, pmax, as a function
of ϕ and δ, pmax = f(ϕ,δ), is expressed according to Equation (5.23) (Appendix G)
cosϕ
p max = ------------------------------------------ (5.23)
2 ( sin ( ϕ + δ ) + 1 )
For a given ϕ, or tanϕ, minimum pmax is obtained for maximum denominator in

Equation (5.23) i.e. δ = 90 – ϕ, which gives the limit for the different up–curves with
a given tanϕ but various RL/XL ratio (Figure 5.22).
The influence of increasing RL/XL ratio can also be described by drawing the curve
connecting the points with pmax (where dp/du = 0 in the up–curve) for different tanϕ
78
but a given RL/XL ratio. The equations in question in this case are (Appendix G) for
the lossless line, RL/XL = 0, according to
2 1
u ( p=p = p max + --- (5.24)
max ) 4
and for RL/XL ratios not equal to zero
1 – 2p max sinδ 1 1 p max 1

u ( p=p = ---------------------------------- ± ---------- ---------------- – ----------- + p max sinδ – ---
max ) 2 sinδ 4sin 2 δ sinδ 4
2sin δ
(5.25)
The equations are graphically presented in Figure 5.23, where four curves with
given δ, corresponding to RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05, and 0.0, (c.f the dotted curve in
Figure 5.3).
0.05
u 0
0.4
1.5
0.8
0.5
p
0.5 1 1.5
Figure 5.23 Curves connecting the points with pmax for various tanϕ and given δ with
corresponding RL/XL = 0.8, 0.4, 0.05, and 0.0.
When looking at the curves in Figure 5.23 it is important to have in mind that a
working-point at a voltage u greater than one per-unit needs a negative tanϕ, if the
loss-angle δ is large, then tanϕ need to be much less than –1 which is hardly the fact
under normal conditions.
79
5.6.2 Relation between the active and the reactive power.
The most common function describing the relationship between the active power p
and the reactive power q is, q = p · tanϕ, with tanϕ as a constant. This implies that
q has the same voltage-dependency as p. With the exponential load-model used in
this chapter it is possible to derive an expression for p as a function of q and vice
versa with various np and nq (Appendix I) under the conditions that the nominal
voltages u0p and u0q are equal and that the rated powers p0 and q0 are known. For
the reactive power q the expression will be according to
nq
-----
q = q 0  -----
p  np
(5.26)
p 
0
Insert the expression in Equation (5.12) to draw the up–curve. Figure 5.24 shows
three up–curves for a loss-less line with np = 2 and nq = 1.3, 2, and 2.7.
1 nq = 1.3
nq = 2
nq = 2.7
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
p
0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 5.24 Three up–curves with np = 2 and nq = 1.3, 2, and 2.7. q0 = p0 tanϕ where
tanϕ = 0.5.
80
5.7 References
[1] J. Falck Christensen et al, ‘Planning Against Voltage Collapse’ CIGRE

Report SC 38-01 TF03 (Oct 1986)
[2] K. Walve, ‘Modelling of power system components at severe

disturbances’ CIGRE Report 38-18 (1986)
[3] A. Kurita, T. Sakurai, ‘The Power System Failure on July 23, 1987 in
Tokyo’, Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Decision and Control,
Austin, Texas, December 1988, pp.2093-2097
[4] K. Clark Harrison, ‘New Challenge: Voltage Stability’, IEEE Power

Engineering Review, (April 1990)
81
82
Chapter 6: Future work
Chapter 6
Future work
Investigations on load model structures are essential, i.e. what the load model
should include in different stability analysis, for example if tap changer action, time
dependence, nonlinearities etc. are to be included. Important parts are the various
time constants of the load objects and the time range of the studied problem.
A part of this investigation could include, for example, a further study of electrical
heating in different time ranges. The electric heating viewed as an energy problem
(mean power) in transient stability studies and a maximum power problem in
voltage stability studies (statistical approach).
83
Chapter 6: Future work
84
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1988, 894 - 899
Hill, D. J., ‘Nonlinear Dynamic Load Models with Recovery for Voltage Stability
Studies’, IEEE/PES 1992 Winter Meeting, New York, January 26-30, 1992
86
Appendix A
Appendix A
Street Lighting
Here is a compilation of a preliminary inventory of the street lighting in Göteborg

made by “Göteborg Energi AB”. Total rated load is 12.7 MW.
Table A.1 Incandescent lamp. Total rated power of incandescent lamps: 36 480 W.
Rated power [W] Number Total rated power [W]

60 23 1 380
75 34 2 550
100 81 8 100
150 23 3 450
500 20 10 000
1 000 11 11 000
Table A.2 Fluorescent lamp. Total rated power of fluorescent lamps: 77.3 kW.

20 41 820
30 16 480
32 27 864
40 1 542 61 680
65 207 13 455
87
Appendix A
Table A.3 Mercury lamp. Total rated power of mercury lamps: 9.3 MW.

40 272 10 880
50 465 23 250
80 3 885 310 800
125 46 494 5 811 750
250 12 082 3 020 500
400 82 32 800
700 3 2 100
1000 76 76 000
Table A.4 Low pressure sodium lamp. Total rated power of low pressure sodium lamps:
1 076 kW.

55 656 36 080
90 3 958 356 220
91 5 477 498 407
135 1 000 135 000
180 281 50 580
Table A.5 High pressure sodium lamp. Total rated power of high pressure sodium lamps:
2 MW.

50 158 7 900
70 2 226 155 820
100 596 59 600
150 3 057 458 550
215 82 17 630
250 3 013 753 250
400 1 369 547 600
88
Appendix A
Table A.6 Mixed colour lamp. Total rated power of mixed colour lamps: 180 380 W.

160 918 146 880
250 134 33 500
Table A.7 Metal halogen lamp. Total rated power of metal halogen lamps: 2 kW.

400 5 2 000
89
Appendix A
90
Appendix B
Appendix B
Inaccuracy due to measurement devices and measurement arrangement
B.1 The bias in voltage and current
The absolute error in the displayed values of the multimeters is dependent on

measuring range and measured value. According to the manufacturer, the maximum
limit of the absolute error of the multimeters for sinewave inputs equals:
0.5
E u = --------- ⋅ U m + 0.102 (300V-range)
100
1.5
E i = --------- ⋅ I m + 0.00163 (3A-range)
100
0.81
E i = ---------- ⋅ U m + 0.000163 (300 mA-range)
100
where Um and Im are measured quantities.
U = Um ± Eu [V]
I = Im ± Ei [A]
B.2 The bias in active power
The absolute error in the displayed value of the wattmeter is dependent on

measuring range and power factor, but not on measured value. According to the
manufacturer, the maximum limit of the absolute error of the wattmeter is:
2 ⋅ 0.1
--------------- ⋅ A u A i
100
E p1.0 = --------------------------------- at cos ϕ = 1.0
2
91
Appendix B
2 ⋅ 0.15
------------------ ⋅ A u A i + 0.2
100
E p0.7 = -------------------------------------------------- at cos ϕ = 0.7
2
2 ⋅ 0.2
--------------- ⋅ A u A i + 0.2
100
E p0.5 = ----------------------------------------------- at cos ϕ = 0.5
2
2 ⋅ 0.5
--------------- ⋅ A u A i + 0.2
100
E p0.1 = ----------------------------------------------- at cos ϕ = 0.1
2
where Au and Ai are the voltage and current range of the wattmeter respectively.
P = Pm ± Ep [W]
B.3 The bias in reactive power
The reactive power is calculated from measured values of voltage Um, current Im
and active power Pm
2 2
Qc = ( Um Im ) – Pm
To derive the maximum limit of the absolute error, the following formula was used
E q = dQ
------- E u + dQ
------- E i + dQ
------- E
dU max dI max dP max p
which results in
( P + E p )E p
IE u + UE i + ---------------------------------------- – 2E i E u
( U – Eu ) ( I – Ei )
E q = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
( P + Ep )
1 – ---------------------------------------------
2 2
( U – Eu ) ( I – Ei )
Q = Qc ± Eq
92
Appendix B
B.4 The inaccuracy due to measurement arrangement
The inaccuracy due to the measurement arrangement is dependent on the resistance

in the cords, the input resistance of the different measurement devices and the
location of the measuring devices within the circuit. To obtain some idea of how the
measurement arrangement affects the relative error in the measured values, an
accuracy analysis was performed with a totally resistive load connected to the
circuit. The measurement devices were connected according to Figure B.1.
G
Test
V object
Figure B.1 The measurement arrangement.
The input resistance for the voltage and current input terminals of the multimeters
are 1.0 MΩ and 0.3 Ω respectively, and the input resistance for the voltage and
current input terminals of the wattmeter are 660 kΩ and 0.01 Ω.
If the resistance in the cords are included, this will result in the equivalent circuit
shown in Figure B.2.
Where
Ri ≈ 1.0 Ω
Ruw ≈ 660 kΩ // 660 kΩ coupled for double resolution
Riw ≈ 1 Ω
Ru ≈ 1.0 MΩ
93
Appendix B
PL
Ri Riw
Im IL
+ +
Pm Resistive
Ruw Ru Um UL
load
– –
Figure B.2 An equivalent circuit for the measurement arrangement.
For a purely resistive load, the quantities UL, IL and PL equal:
 R uw 
I L =  -------------------------- I m –  -------------------------- + ------ U m ≈ I m –  ---------- + ------ U m
1 1 1 1
R
 uw + R  R + R R   R R 
iw uw iw u uw u
UL = Um
 R uw 
P L = U L I L =  -------------------------- U L I m –  -------------------------- + ------ U L
1 1 2
⇒
 R uw + R iw  R uw + R iw R u 
P L ≈ U m I m –  ---------- + ------ U m
1 1 2
R 
uw R u
which give the relative error
–6
Im – IL 4.03 ⋅ 10 U m
----------------- = -----------------------------------------------
IL –6
I m – 4.03 ⋅ 10 U m
–6 2
Pm – PL P m – U m I m + 4.03 ⋅ 10 U m
-------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
PL –6 2
U m I m – 4.03 ⋅ 10 U m
These errors can be considered as negligible. No calculation has been carried out for
an inductive/capacitive load.
94
Appendix C
Appendix C
Dynamic voltage tests
This appendix comprises figures that show the consumed active and reactive power
as a function of time when voltage steps of a magnitude of approximately –10% and
+10% are applied to a test object.
Contents:
Figure C.1 Mercury lamp (400 W): voltage step of approx. –10%
Figure C.2 Mercury lamp (400 W): voltage step of approx. +15%
Figure C.3 High pressure sodium lamp (250 W): voltage step of approx. –15%
Figure C.4 High pressure sodium lamp (250 W): voltage step of approx. +10%
Figure C.5 Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): voltage step of approx. –20%
Figure C.6 Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): voltage step of approx. +20%
Figure C.7 Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): voltage step of approx. –15%
Figure C.8 Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): voltage step of approx. +10%
Figure C.9 Low-energy lamp (20 W): voltage step of approx. –10%
Figure C.10 Low-energy lamp (20 W): voltage step of approx. +15%
Figure C.11 Incandescent lamp (60 W): voltage step of approx. –10%
Figure C.12 Incandescent lamp (60 W): voltage step of approx. +10%
Figure C.13 Refrigerator: voltage step of approx. –20%
Figure C.14 Refrigerator: voltage step of approx. +20%
95
Appendix C
Figure C.1 Consumed active and reactive power as a function of time when a voltage step
of the magnitude of approx. –10% (230 V down to 210 V) is applied to a mercury lamp.
of the magnitude of approx. +15% (200 V up to 233 V) is applied to a mercury lamp.
96
Appendix C
of the magnitude of approx. –15% (230 V down to 200 V) is applied to a high pressure sodium
lamp.
of the magnitude of approx. +10% (205 V up to 230 V) is applied to a high pressure sodium
lamp.
97
Appendix C
of the magnitude of approx. –20% (230 V down to 190 V) is applied to a low pressure sodium
lamp.
of the magnitude of approx. +20% (190 V up to 225 V) is applied to a low pressure sodium
lamp.
98
Appendix C
of the magnitude of approx. –15% (230 V down to 200 V) is applied to a fluorescent lamp.
of the magnitude of approx. +10% (200 V up to 220 V) is applied to a fluorescent lamp.
99
Appendix C
of the magnitude of approx. –10% (230 V down to 208 V) is applied to a low-energy lamp.
of the magnitude of approx. +15% (208 V up to 235 V) is applied to a low-energy lamp.
100
Appendix C
Figure C.11 Consumed active power as a function of time when a voltage step of the
magnitude of approx. –10% (230 V down to 203 V) is applied to an incandescent lamp.
Figure C.12 Consumed active power as a function of time when a voltage step of the
magnitude of approx. +10% (203 V up to 228 V) is applied to an incandescent lamp.
101
Appendix C
of the magnitude of approx. –20% (230 V down to 183 V) is applied to a refrigerator.
of the magnitude of approx. +20% (183 V up to 227 V) is applied to a refrigerator.
102
Appendix D
Appendix D
Accuracy analysis
This appendix comprises figures that show the accuracy-variations in measured

active power, reactive power and voltage. The crosses in the figures show maximum
limits of the absolute error for active power and voltage, and reactive power and
voltage, respectively, according to Figure D.1. The diagrams are presented in per-
unit values. The base-values are P0, Q0 and U0, where P0 and Q0 are
measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V).
Contents:
Figure D.1 The absolute error cross
Figure D.2 Mercury lamp (250 W): accuracy-variations in measured active

power and voltage
Figure D.3 Mercury lamp (250 W): accuracy-variations in measured reactive

power and voltage
Figure D.4 High pressure sodium lamp (400 W): accuracy-variations in

measured active power and voltage
Figure D.5 High pressure sodium lamp (400 W): accuracy-variations in

measured reactive power and voltage
Figure D.6 Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): accuracy-variations in measured
active power and voltage
Figure D.7 Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): accuracy-variations in measured
reactive power and voltage
Figure D.8 Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): accuracy-variations in measured active

power and voltage
Figure D.9 Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): accuracy-variations in measured

reactive power and voltage
103
Appendix D
Figure D.10 Low-energy lamp (11 W): accuracy-variations in measured active

power and voltage
Figure D.11 Low-energy lamp (11 W): accuracy-variations in measured reactive

power and voltage
Figure D.12 Incandescent lamp (60 W): accuracy-variations in measured active

power and voltage
Figure D.13 Refrigerator: accuracy-variations in measured active power and

voltage
Figure D.14 Refrigerator: accuracy-variations in measured active power and

voltage
Pm+E p
Pm
Pm–Ep
Um–E u Um+ Eu
Um
Figure D.1 The maximum limit of the absolute error, where Pm and Um are measured
active power and voltage, and Ep, Eu respectively are the calculated maximum limits of the
absolute error.
Figure D.2 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a mercury
lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 307 W.
104
Appendix D
Figure D.3 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a mercury
lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 147 var.
Figure D.4 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a high
pressure sodium lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 510 W.
105
Appendix D
Figure D.5 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a high
pressure sodium lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 170 var.
Figure D.6 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a low
pressure sodium lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 121 W.
106
Appendix D
Figure D.7 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a low
pressure lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 60 var.
Figure D.8 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a fluorescent
lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 100 W.
107
Appendix D
Figure D.9 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a

fluorescent lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 55 var.
Figure D.10 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a low-energy
lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 11 W.
108
Appendix D
Figure D.11 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of a low-
energy lamp. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 22 var.
Figure D.12 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of incandescent
lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 60 W.
109
Appendix D
Figure D.13 The accuracy-variations in measured active power and voltage of a refrigerator
lamp. U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
Figure D.14 The accuracy-variations in measured reactive power and voltage of

refrigerator. U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148 var.
110
Appendix E
Appendix E
Wave forms
This appendix comprises figures that show the wave forms of applied voltage and
current to a test object.
Contents:
Figure E.1 Mercury lamp
Figure E.2 High pressure sodium lamp
Figure E.3 Low pressure sodium lamp
Figure E.4 Fluorescent lamp
Figure E.5 Low-energy lamp
Figure E.6 Refrigerator
111
Appendix E
Amplitude
Time
Figure E.1 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a mercury lamp.
Amplitude
Time
Figure E.2 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a high pressure sodium
lamp.
112
Appendix E
Amplitude
Time
Figure E.3 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a low pressure sodium
lamp.
Amplitude
Time
Figure E.4 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a fluorescent lamp.
113
Appendix E
Amplitude
Time
Figure E.5 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a low-energy lamp.
Amplitude
Time
Figure E.6 The wave form of the applied voltage and current to a refrigerator.
114
Appendix F
Appendix F
Derived static load models
In this appendix the results from the static measurements are presented with the
derived static load models.
Each figure shows the results from one static measurement and one derived load
model. For mercury lamps and refrigerators all models in Section 3.6.5 are
presented, (exponential, linear, and polynomial load model) while for the other
lamps only the exponential load model is presented. Note that for high- and low
pressure sodium lamps the measurements for reactive power are not presented due
to the poor accuracy.
In the diagrams the datums are presented with a star “*” if it was taken into account
when deriving the model, if not it is presented with a cross “+”. The diagrams are
presented in per-unit values. The base-values are P0, Q0 and U0, where P0 and Q0
are measured/calculated powers at nominal voltage U0 (~230 V).
Contents:
Figure F.1 Mercury lamp (250 W): active power and exponential load model
Figure F.2 Mercury lamp (250 W): active power and linear load model
Figure F.3 Mercury lamp (250 W): active power and polynomial load model
Figure F.4 Mercury lamp (250 W): reactive power and exponential load model
Figure F.5 Mercury lamp (250 W): reactive power and linear load model
Figure F.6 Mercury lamp (250 W): reactive power and polynomial load model
Figure F.7 High pressure sodium lamp (400 W): active power and exponential
load model
115
Appendix F
Figure F.8 Low pressure sodium lamp (91 W): active power and exponential
load model
Figure F.9 Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): active power and exponential load
model
Figure F.10 Fluorescent lamp (2x36 W): reactive power and exponential load
model
Figure F.11 Low-energy lamp (11 W): active power and exponential load model
Figure F.12 Low-energy lamp (11 W): reactive power and exponential load
model
Figure F.13 Incandescent lamp (60 W): active power and exponential load model
Figure F.14 Refrigerator, active power and exponential load model
Figure F.15 Refrigerator, active power and linear load model
Figure F.16 Refrigerator lamp: active power and polynomial load model
Figure F.17 Refrigerator: reactive power and exponential load model
Figure F.18 Refrigerator: reactive power and linear load model
Figure F.19 Refrigerator, reactive power and polynomial load model
116
Appendix F
Figure F.1 Recorded active power for a mercury lamp and the derived exponential model,
np = 2.297. Least square error = 5.9 · 10–3, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 307 W.
Figure F.2 Recorded active power for a mercury lamp and the derived linear model,
a0 = –1.327, a1 = 2.327. Least square error = 1.6 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 307 W.
117
Appendix F
Figure F.3 Recorded active power for a mercury lamp and the derived polynomial model,
a0 = 0.1260, a1 = –0.5480, a2 = 1.422. Least square error = 5.9 · 10–3, U0 = 230 V,
P0 = 307 W.
Figure F.4 Recorded reactive power for a mercury lamp and the derived exponential
model, nq = 5.577. Least square error = 4.1 · 10–3, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 147 var.
118
Appendix F
Figure F.5 Recorded reactive power for a mercury lamp and the derived linear model, b0 =
–4.015, b1 = 5.915. Least square error = 1.1 · 10–1, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 147 var.
Figure F.6 Recorded reactive power for a mercury lamp and the derived polynomial
model, b0 = 5.470, b1 = –14.59, b2 = 10.12. Least square error = 2.2 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V,
Q0 = 147 var.
119
Appendix F
Figure F.7 Recorded active power for a high pressure sodium lamp and the derived
exponential model, np = 2.262. Least square error = 1.5 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 510 W.
Figure F.8 Recorded active power for a low pressure sodium lamp and the derived
exponential model, np = 0.41. Least square error = 1.5 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 121 W.
120
Appendix F
Figure F.9 Recorded active power for a fluorescent lamp and the derived exponential
model, np = 2.034. Least square error = 8.7 · 10–3, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 100 W.
Figure F.10 Recorded reactive power for a fluorescent lamp and the derived exponential
121
Appendix F
Figure F.11 Recorded active power for a low-energy lamp and the derived exponential
Figure F.12 Recorded reactive power for a fluorescent lamp and the derived exponential
122
Appendix F
Figure F.13 Recorded active power for an incandescent lamp and the derived exponential
Figure F.14 Recorded active power for a refrigerator and the derived exponential model,
np = 1.583. Least square error = 4.8 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
123
Appendix F
Figure F.15 Recorded active power for a refrigerator and the derived linear model,
a0 = –0.62, a1 = 1.62. Least square error = 5.3 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
Figure F.16 Recorded active power for a refrigerator and the derived polynomial model,
a0 = 2.190, a1 = –3.955, a2 = 2.765. Least square error = 2.8 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, P0 = 85 W.
124
Appendix F
Figure F.17 Recorded reactive power for a refrigerator and the derived exponential model,
nq = 3.255. Least square error = 3.6 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148 var.
Figure F.18 Recorded reactive power for a refrigerator and the derived linear model,
b0 = –2.370, b1 = 3.370. Least square error = 8.2 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148 var.
125
Appendix F
Figure F.19 Recorded reactive power for a refrigerator and the derived polynomial model,
b0 = 2.190, b1 = –5.650, b2 = 4.460. Least square error = 4.2 · 10–2, U0 = 230 V, Q0 = 148
var.
126
Appendix G
Appendix G
Evaluation of the equations for up-curves and qu-curves
Assume the system of one power line represented according to Figure G.1.
E ψ2 ZL= RL+jX L U ψ3
P/Q
Figure G.1 A single line system.
P and Q are the transmitted power on the line, expressed by the following equations
2
U EU
P = – ------- sinδ + -------- sin ( ψ + δ ) (G.1)
ZL ZL
2
U EU
Q = – ------- cosδ + -------- cos ( ψ + δ ) (G.2)
ZL ZL
RL
where the loss-angle δ = arctan -------
XL
Solving sin2(ψ + δ) + cos2(ψ + δ) = 1 gives
2 2 4 2
2 2 E U U U
P + Q = ------------- – ------- – 2 ------- ( Psinδ + Qcosδ ) (G.3)
ZL
2
ZL
2 ZL
127
Appendix G
with E as base-voltage and ZL as base impedance giving E2/ZL as base-power,

Equation (G.3) with per-unit values is
p2 + q2 = u2 [1 – u2 – 2(p sinδ + q cosδ)] (G.4)
rearranged
p2 = u2 [1 – u2 – 2(p sinδ + q cosδ)] – q2 (G.5)
If the line is considered lossless, i.e. R = 0 giving δ = 0, Equation (G.5) turns to
p2 = u2 – (u2 + q)2 (G.6)
G.1 UP-curve
Solve Equation (G.3) for U
2 2 2
E – 2Z L A ( E + 2Z L A ) 2 2 2
U = --------------------------- ± ----------------------------------- – Z L ( P + Q ) (G.7)
2 4
where A = Psinδ + Qcosδ
with per-unit values
1 1 2 2 2
u = --- – A ± --- + A – A – ( p + q ) (G.8)
2 4
A = psinδ + qcosδ
and for the lossless line
1 1 2
u = --- – q ± --- – q – p (G.9)
2 4
In Equations (G.7), (G.8) and (G.9) the reactive power can be expressed as a
constant power or as a function of p, q = f(p), e.g. q = p · tanϕ where tanϕ is
128
Appendix G
constant. With q = p · tanϕ and the possibility of changing the feeding voltage E to
a new value Enew Equations (G.8) and (G.9) become
2 4
e new e new 2 2 2 2 2
u = ----------- – pA ± ----------- + p A – e new pA – p ( 1 + tan ϕ ) (G.10)
2 4
where A = sinδ + tanϕcosδ
and
2 4
e new e new 2 2
u = ----------- – ptanϕ ± ----------- – e new ptanϕ – p (G.11)
2 4
To find the curve connecting the points with pmax, return to Equation (G.4), but add
the possibilities of changing E and q = f(p), i.e.
2 2 2 2 2 
p + f ( p ) = u  e new – u – 2 [ psinδ + f ( p )cosδ ]  (G.12)
 
by implicit differentiation
2 3
dp 2ue new – 4u – 4upsinδ – 4uf ( p )cosδ
------ = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (G.13)
du df ( p ) 2 2 df ( p )
2p + 2f ( p ) ------------- + 2u sinδ + 2u -------------cosδ
dp dp
At pmax dp/du = 0 and therefore
2 2
2u ( e new – 2u – 2p max sinδ – 2f ( p )cosδ ) = 0 (G.14)
and
2 2
e new – 2u – 2p max sinδ
f ( p ) = ---------------------------------------------------------- (G.15)
2cosδ
129
Appendix G
Inserted in Equation (G.12) this gives
2 2 2
2 ( e new – 2u – 2p max sinδ ) 4
p max + ----------------------------------------------------------------- = u (G.16)
2
4cos δ
4
4 2 2 2 e new 2
u ( 1 – cos δ ) – u ( e new – 2p max sinδ ) + ----------- – e new p max sinδ+
4
2 2 2
+p max ( sin δ + cos δ ) = 0 (G.17)
For the lossless line, R = 0, Equation (G.17) is reduced to
4
2 2 e new 2
– u e new + ----------- + p max = 0 (G.18)
4
and
2 2
p max e new
up = p = ----------- + ----------- (G.19)
max 2 4
e new
or if Enew = E
2 1
up = p = p max + --- (G.20)
max 4
When R ≠ 0, solve Equation (G.17) for u
4
2 2 e new 2
2 2 e new A – ----------- – p max
e new – 2A ( e new – 2A ) 4
up = p = ------------------------------- ± ---------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------
2 2 2 2
max
2 ( 1 – cos δ ) 4 ( 1 – cos δ ) 1 – cos δ
(G.21)
where A = p max sinδ
2 2 2 2
e new – 2A e new e new p max e new
up = p = ------------------------ ± ----------- ---------------- – ----------- + A – ----------- (G.22)
max
2sin δ
2 sinδ 4sin 2 δ sinδ 4
where A = p max sinδ
130
Appendix G
or if Enew = E
1 – 2p max sinδ 1 1 p max 1

up = p = ---------------------------------- ± ---------- ---------------- – ----------- + p max sinδ – ---
max
2sin δ
2 sinδ 4sin δ
2 sinδ 4
(G.23)
If q or q = f(p) is known, pmax can be expressed. Assume q = p · tanϕ and isolate u

in Equation (G.14)
2
2 e new
u = ----------- – p max ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ ) (G.24)
2
Insert Equation (G.24) in Equation (G.12) together with f(p) = p · tanϕ
2 2 2 2
2 2  e new  2  e new   e new 
p max ( 1 + tan ϕ ) =  ----------- – A e new –  ----------- – A – 2  ----------- – A A =
 2   2   2 
4
e new 2 2
= ----------- – e new A + A = {for a positive power according to referencesin
4
2 2 2
 e new  p max
Chapter 5} =  ----------- – A = --------------
 2  2
cos ϕ
where A = p max ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ )
2
p max e new
----------- = ----------- – p max ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ ) (G.25)
cosϕ 2
2
e new
----------- = p max  sinδ + tanϕcosδ + -----------
1
(G.26)
2  cosϕ
2 2
e new cosϕ e new cosϕ
p max = --------------------------------------------------------------------- = ------------------------------------------ (G.27)
2 ( cosϕsinδ + sinϕcosδ + 1 ) 2 [ sin ( ϕ + δ ) + 1 ]
131
Appendix G
G.2 QU-curves
Solve Equation (G.3) for Q
4 2 2
U E 
2
U cosδ U 2 2
Q = – ------------------ ± ------- ( cos δ – 1 ) + -------  ------ – 2Psinδ – P (G.28)
ZL 2 ZL  ZL 
ZL
with per-unit values
2 4 2 2 2
q = – u cosδ ± u ( cos δ – 1 ) + u ( 1 – 2psinδ ) – p (G.29)
and for a lossless line
2 2 2
q = –u ± u –p (G.30)
Henceforth only the lossless line will be dealt with concerning qu-curves.
In Equation (G.30) the active power can be expressed as a constant power or as a

function of the reactive power, p = f(q), e.g. p = q/tanϕ where tanϕ is constant.
With p = q/tanϕ and the possibility of changing the feeding voltage E to Enew
Equation (G.30) becomes
2 4 2 2 4
u u u e new – u
q = – ----------------------- ± ------------------------------- + ----------------------------- (G.31)
2 2 2 2
1 + tan ϕ ( 1 + tan ϕ ) 1 + tan ϕ
132
Appendix H
Appendix H
Evaluation of the equations for the impact of tap changer on system
characteristics
Recall Figure 5.17 in Chapter 5
E′i (1+∆i):1 E U
Z′i ZL
P/Q
1 2 3
Figure H.1 A system with an equivalent voltage Ei′ behind a reactance Zi′, both reduced
over the nominal ratio of the transformer, and a tap changer regulating the voltage E.
Ei′ and Zi′ are reduced to the voltage level of the single line to the right of bus two.
To write the power flow equations, reduce the voltage Ei′ and the reactance Zi′ over
the tap changer ratio according to Figure H.2.
E'i Z'i
(1+∆) (1+∆i)2 E ZL U
P/Q
1 2 3
Figure H.2 The system in Figure H.1 but with Ei′ and Zi′ reduced over the tap changer
ratio.
133
Appendix H
and the power flow equations will be
2 E′ i U
U
P = – ------- sinδ + ----------------------- sin ( ψ + δ ) (H.1)
Z ( 1 + ∆ i )Z
2 E′ i U
U
Q = – ------- cosδ + ----------------------- cos ( ψ + δ ) (H.2)
Z ( 1 + ∆ i )Z
where
Z′ i
Z = ---------------------- + Z L (H.3)
2
( 1 + ∆i )
and δ is the loss-angle for the total system.
Solving sin2(ψ + δ) + cos2(ψ + δ) = 1 and writing the equation with per unit values
(Ei′ as base-voltage and ZL as base-reactance giving (Ei′)2/ZL as base-power) and
with the possibility of changing the feeding voltage Ei′ to a new value Ei′(new) gives
2 1 2 4
( e′ i(new) ) ---------------------- u – u
2
2 2 ( 1 + ∆i ) 2u ( psinδ + qcosδ )
p + q = ------------------------------------------------------------------ – ---------------------------------------------- (H.4)
2 z
z
Z
where z = ------ is not constant when ∆i varies.
ZL
Isolate u to get the equation for the up-curve
2 2
( e′ i(new) )
2 ( e′ i(new) )
------------------------- – 2zA ------------------------- – 2zA
2
( 1 + ∆i )
2 ( 1 + ∆i )
2 2 2
u = ------------------------------------------ ± -------------------------------------------------- – z ( p + q ) (H.5)
2 4
where A = psinδ + pcosδ
For the sake of simplicity the resistance is neglected and the impedance Xi′ is
written as αXL giving
α
X = X L ---------------------- + 1 (H.6)
2
( 1 + ∆i )
134
Appendix H
together with the assumption that q = p · tanϕ, and Equation (H.5) becomes
1 α 
----- – 2  ----- + 1 ptanϕ
2 n 2 
ni i 1 1α  α 2 2
u = --------------------------------------------------- ± --------- – -----  ----- + 1 ptanϕ –  ----- + 1 p
2 4 2 2  n2
4n i n i  n i 
i

(H.7)
2 2
where n i = ( 1 + ∆ i )
To find the expression for pmax, recall Equation (H.4) and add q = p · tanϕ. By
implicit differentiation
2 1 2
( e′ i(new) ) ---------------------- – 2u
2
2u ( 1 + ∆i )
- – 2p ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ )
------ --------------------------------------------------------------
z z
dp
------ = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (H.8)
du 2
2 2u
2p ( 1 + tan δ ) + --------- ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ )
z
at pmax dp/du = 0 and therefore
2 1 2
( e′ i(new) ) ---------------------- – 2u
2
( 1 + ∆i )
--------------------------------------------------------------- – 2p max ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ ) = 0 (H.9)
z
Isolate u2/z
2
u 1 2 1
----- = ------ ( e′ i(new) ) ---------------------- – p max ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ ) (H.10)
z 2z 2
(1 + ∆ ) i
Insert Equation (H.10) in Equation (H.4) with q = p · tanϕ
2
2 2 p max
p max ( 1 + tan ϕ ) = -------------- =
2
cos ϕ
4 2
1 ( e ′ i(new) ) 1 ( e ′ i(new) ) 2 2
= -------- ------------------------- – --- ------------------------- p max A + p max A ⇒
2 4 z ( 1 + ∆ )2
4z ( 1 + ∆ i ) i
135
Appendix H
2 2 2
p max 1 ( e′ i(new) )
-------------- = ------ ------------------------- – p max A (H.11)
cos ϕ
2 2z ( 1 + ∆ ) 2
i
Where A = sinδ + tanϕcosδ
p max 1 2 1
----------- = ------ ( e′ i(new) ) ---------------------- – p max ( sinδ + tanϕcosδ ) (H.12)
cosϕ 2z 2
(1 + ∆ ) i
2
 e′ i(new) 1 cosϕ
p max =  ----------------- --- ------------------------------------------ (H.13)
 1 + ∆ i  z 2 [ sin ( ϕ + δ ) + 1 ]
If the resistance is neglected and the total impedance is written according to

Equation (H.6) then pmax can be written as
2 1 cosϕ
p max = ( e′ i(new) ) ----------------------------- ---------------------------- (H.14)
α + ( 1 + ∆ i ) 2 ( sinϕ + 1 )
136
Appendix I
Appendix I
Exponential load model
In Chapter 5 an exponential load model is used. The load characteristics for active
and reactive power are then
np
p = p 0  -----
u
(I.1)
u 
0
nq
q = q 0  -----
u
(I.2)
u 
0
where np and nq are the sensibility to voltage, and u is the voltage feeding the load.
For nominal voltage u0, the rated power p0 and q0 are given respectively.
If np and nq are not equal the relationship between p and q may be derived on
condition that p0 and q0 are known, p/p0 > 0 and q/q0 > 0, and given at the same
nominal voltage u0. Then
1 1
----- -----
np nq
----- =  ----- =  -----
u p q
(I.3)
u0  p 0 q 
0
and
np
-----
nq
p = p 0  -----
q
(I.4)
q 
0
nq
-----
np
q = q 0  -----
p
(I.5)
p 
0
137
Appendix I
138

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Modelling of Load Devices

Technical Report No. 131L

Technical Report No. 131L

Modelling of Load Devices

Kerstin Lindén and Inger Segerqvist

Submitted to the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

Department of Electrical Power Systems

The laboratory measurements were carried out on various types of lighting,

Everyone at the Department of Electrical Power System and the Department of

We would like to express our gratitude to Vattenfall, Transmission, and to Svenska

Finally, we thank El och Trafikteknik AB and Göteborg Energi AB for letting us

Chapter 1 gives a presentation of the load modelling definitions recommended by

Chapter 3 presents laboratory measurements on different types of lighting, radiators

1 An introduction to load modelling1

3 Laboratory measurements on various loads17

K Lind n & I Segerqvist Modelling of Load Devices and Studying

An introduction to load modelling

Following definitions described in ref. [1] are used in this thesis.

Load The term “load” is a wide conception:

1. A device, connected to a power system, that consumes

2. The total power (active and/or reactive) consumed by all

3. A portion of the system that is not explicitly represented

4. The power output of a generator or generating plant. To

Load component A load component is the aggregate equivalent of all devices

Load class A load class is a category of load, such as residential,

Load composition A load composition is the fractional composition of the load

Load characteristic Load characteristic is determined by a set of parameters that

1.3 Load models

A load model in this matter is a mathematical representation of the relationship

1.3.1 Static load models

A nonlinear load model which represents the power relationship to voltage as an

A load model, where the power-voltage dependence is linearised at nominal

A static load model which includes frequency dependence. This is usually

1.3.2 Dynamic load models

Induction motor model

A considerable part of the load consists of machines, especially induction motors.

The inclusion of mechanical dynamics in the model transforms it from static to

∆w is the per unit speed change

∆Ta = Te - Tm, the accelerating torque

Te the electrical torque

Tm the mechanical torque

D the mechanical damping

H the motor and drive inertia

State space model

The standard equations in state space form are

Transfer function model

The power is represented as a transfer function of the general form

The total change in active power is given as

∆PT(t) = ∆PF(t) + ∆PU(t) (1.3)

1.3.3 How to derive parameters

Component based method

+ Represents any arbitrary load composition, i.e. adaptable to different bus

– Relies heavily on the availability of a large number of data

Field measurement based method

+ Straightforward: simply measure and derive a model

– Spontaneous load variations are included in the load model, especially

[2] F. McDyer, F. Byrne, R. W. McGee, G. Rodgers, M. Hayashi, G. Testud,

[5] D. Karlsson, T. Pehrsson, ‘A dynamic power system load model and

[6] W. W. Price, K. A. Wirgau, A. Murdoch, J. V. Mitsche, E. Vaahedi, M. A.

[7] E. Vaahedi, H. M. Zein El-Din, W. W. Price, ‘Dynamic load modeling in

[8] G. J. Berg, ‘Power-system load representation’ Proceedings IEE Vol. 120,

In Chapter 1, “An introduction to load modelling”, two ways of deriving a load

2.2 Identifying a composite load