Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10

www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint

Comparison of injuries caused by the pistols Tokarev, Makarov

and Glock 19 at firing distances of 25, 50, 75 and 100 cm
Delia Lepik a,*, Vitaly Vasiliev a, Hardi Reisenbuk b, Ülo Põldsam b
a
Department of Pathological Anatomy and Forensic Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
b
Forensic Service Centre of the Estonian Police, Pärnu mnt 328, 11611 Tallinn, Estonia
Received 5 March 2007; received in revised form 15 August 2007; accepted 23 September 2007
Available online 19 November 2007

Abstract
Firings in the horizontal direction at cloth targets and at human skin from autopsy material were performed using the pistols 7.62 mm Tokarev
(TT), 9 mm Makarov (PM) and 9 mm  19 mm Glock 19 with common ammunition.
On cloth targets, soot was more visible in the case of the TT up to firing distance of 50 cm and there were faint soot flecks on some synthetic
cloths even at a distance of 75 cm. In the case of the PM and the Glock, the soot was seen on some synthetic cloths at a distance of 50 cm. The
gunpowder particles were dispersed over the targets (TT and PM) or concentrated mostly around the bullet entrance hole (Glock 19). Up to a
distance of 75 cm, the Glock 19 left the greatest and the PM the smallest number of gunpowder particles. At a distance of 100 cm, there were only
some gunpowder particles on the cloths.
On skin targets, starting from a distance of 25 cm (Glock 19) and 50 cm (TT and PM), no more soot was macroscopically visible. Histological
examination revealed few dotted deposits of soot (TT and PM) and finer soot particles (PM) on the skin surface up to 50 cm. At a distance of 25 cm,
the gunpowder particles were found in the epidermis and deeper in the dermis (TT and Glock 19), and a distance of 50 cm they were on and in the
stratum corneum. Starting from a distance of 50 cm, in the case of the PM we detected many partially burnt gunpowder grains not connected with
the skin surface. At a distance of 75 cm, the gunpowder particles were on the skin surface, except one or two of them found in the stratum corneum
(TT and PM), and at a distance of 100 cm, the particles were only on the skin surface.
# 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Gunshot wounds; Firing distance; Cloth and skin injuries

1. Introduction a distance of 25 cm with the same make and lot of ammunition

In the case of close-range and medium-range shots, deposits
of firearm discharge residues can be found on clothes or skin.
The intensity and distribution of these deposits is related to the
firing distance and other factors influencing the residue
patterns, such as the barrel length, the type of ammunition,
the calibre of the weapon, the angle of the muzzle to target, the
target material, the type of the weapon, and the form of the
rifling [1,2].
This article is a continuation to our previous study about
injuries caused by the pistols Tokarev and Makarov (four lands
and grooves) and the Glock 19 (hexagonal rifling) at firing
distances of 10, 15 and 25 cm [3]. We repeated the test firings at
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +372 737 4293; fax: +372 737 4292.
E-mail address: delia.lepik@ut.ee (D. Lepik).
(Test 2). The purpose of the study was to find out the differences
between bullet entrance injuries caused by the pistols Tokarev
and Makarov and the Glock 19 at firing distances of 50, 75 and
100 cm and to compare the firings made at a distance of 25 cm
with previous results (Test 1). The above-mentioned pistols are
the most common pistols in Estonia and for firings we used the
most common makes of ammunition in Estonia.
2. Materials and methods
For test firings, we used the pistols 7.62 mm Tokarev (TT), 9 mm Makarov
(PM) and 9 mm  19 mm Glock 19. The ammunition were following: TT –
7.62 mm  25 mm, bullet mass 5.5 g (manufacturer 21 RPR 63, Romania); PM
– 9 mm  18 mm, 6.1 g (9  18 TPZ – Tulskiy patronnyy zavod, Russia); and
Glock – 9 mm  19 mm, 7.45 g/115 grs (9 mm Luger, Fiocchi, Italy). In Fig. 1
are shown the examples of gunpowder grains from the cartridges used for firings
on 0.5 cm grids. All bullets were full metal-jacketed. Throughout the firings
with the same pistol, we used the same make and lot of ammunition. Before

0379-0738/$ – see front matter # 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.09.016
2 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10
Fig. 1. Examples of gunpowder grains taken from the cartridges used for test
firings on 0.5 cm grids.
shooting at targets, we measured muzzle velocities of 10 bullets fired from these
pistols by an Oehler ballistic chronograph Model 35P. Average velocities were
TT – 430 m/s, PM – 301 m/s and Glock – 328 m/s.
At the distances of 50, 75 and 100 cm we made five shots from each pistol at
white cotton (thickness of fibres 0.25 mm) and synthetic (polyester, thickness
of fibres 0.4 mm) cloths and three shots at human skin (autopsy material). At a
distance of 25 cm for the Test 2 we made three shots at cloth and two shots at
skin targets. The size of cloth targets were 20 cm  30 cm and skin targets
6 cm  10 cm, 5 cm  15 cm or 6 cm  15 cm. The pieces of skin derived
from the thigh region (regio femoralis) and the stratum corneum was 20–50 mm
thick. For using pieces of human skin, a vote from the Ethics Committee of
Estonia has been obtained. The shots were performed in the horizontal direction
at a right angle to the targets. During the firing, the pieces of cloth and skin were
fixed to a rest. We photographed (Olympus C-2000 digital camera) all targets
with injuries and these photographs were analysed by using the computer
program AnalySIS Pro 3.0. Then we examined the soot, the gunpowder and
other particles and injuries on the cloth under a stereomicroscope Nikon
SMZ800. The skin targets we photographed after 1–2 h or immediately (Test
2) after shooting. The skin samples were fixed in a 4% formaldehyde solution,
and after embedding in paraffin, 3–4 mm sections were made. Then we
examined the haematoxylin and eosin stained slides under a microscope
Olympus BX60. We examined both the cloth and the skin targets by
1 cm  1 cm areas from the right-hand and left-hand side of the bullet entrance
hole (starting from 1 cm from the centre of the entrance hole).
3. Results
3.1. Soot deposit pattern on cloth targets
At a firing distance of 25 cm, in the soot deposit pattern three
zones were distinguishable: central (the most intensive grey),
intermediate (light zone without soot or little soot) and
peripheral (light grey – TT and PM or light brown – Glock) as it
was in Test 1 [3]. The soot deposit was more visible in the case
of the TT: on the cotton and synthetic cloths, the entrance hole
was surrounded by a darker central zone 6.0 cm in diameter and
rings of soot of diminishing intensity. The average diameter of
the soot deposit was 17.0 cm. The PM: the central zone was 5.0
and 5.3 cm in diameter accordingly on the cotton and synthetic
cloths and the bullet wipe was better visible. The zones were
difficult to distinguish. The average diameter of the deposition
was 13.7 and 14.6 cm accordingly on the cotton and synthetic
cloths. The Glock 19: the diameter of the central zone was 5.0
and 5.5 cm and the diameter of the total area of the deposition
was 14.0 and 12.5 cm accordingly on the cotton and on
synthetic cloths. The soot deposit was less intensive and
beginning to fade. The intermediate zone was polygonal and the
peripheral zone resembled concentric arcs (Fig. 2).
At a firing distance of 50 cm, clearly distinguishable zones
of the deposition of soot were no more visible. The TT: the soot
deposited in the round-shaped central zone 6.0 cm in diameter
and peripherally the deposition looked like fragmentary rings or
concentric arcs. The average diameter of the soot deposit on
cotton cloths was 18.3 cm and on synthetic cloths 18.6 cm. The
entrance hole was surrounded by a bullet wipe, which was
better seen on cotton cloths. When we used the PM and the
Glock, the soot was seen on some synthetic cloth targets. For
PM, on four out of five synthetic cloths there was a slight soot
deposit around the entrance hole surrounded by fragmentary
concentric arcs over the target area 18.6 cm on average in
diameter. On one synthetic cloth, a slight soot deposit was only
on the peripheral area of the target. The bullet wipe has four
narrow and four wide sections or was blossom-like on some
targets. In the case of the Glock, on three out of five synthetic
cloth targets the soot was deposited as fragmentary rings or
 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10
Fig. 2. Macroscopic pattern of soot and gunpowder residue particle distribution on cotton and synthetic cloths at a firing distance of 25 cm.
concentric arcs. The average diameter of the soot deposit was
20.3 cm. The bullet wipe was more clearly visible on synthetic
cloths and on some targets in the shape of a hexagonal or a
polygonal or looked like a petal.
At a firing distance of 75 cm, in the case of the TT there were
faint soot flecks on two out of five synthetic cloths. The bullet
wipe was better visible on cotton cloths and it was fragmentary
on synthetic cloths. In the case of the PM and the Glock, the
soot was not detected.
At a firing distance of 100 cm, only around the entrance hole
the bullet wipe remained visible (Figs. 3 and 4).
3.2. Deposition of gunpowder residue particles on cloth
targets
To determine the distribution and density of the
gunpowder residue particles, we counted the particles of
the size of at least half of the width of the cotton cloth fibre
and at least one third of the synthetic cloth fibre. In addition,
3
we found finer residue particles in the case of the TT and the
PM, especially on synthetic cloths. We counted also the
marks left by these particles after the impact or penetration
through the fibres.
At a distance of 25 cm, the TT left many gunpowder
particles covered with soot. The maximum diameter of the
deposited area was 12.5 and 14.5 cm accordingly on the cotton
and synthetic cloths. No fibre defects (absence of some part of
the fibre) were found around the entrance hole as the case had
been with firings from the TT at a distance of 25 cm in Test 1
[3]. The PM left only a few gunpowder grains on the targets in
the area of 12.0 and 13.0 cm in diameter. The defect of the
material at the bullet entrance hole was 0.1 cm in diameter in
the cotton cloth in the case of the PM (in two out of three
targets) and 0.1–0.2 cm in a synthetic cloth target in the case of
the TT, which was similar to Test 1. The Glock 19: the
gunpowder particles and their marks were located in the area of
17.0 and 15.5 cm in diameter, but more densely in the nearest
area around the entrance hole as it had been in Test 1. Fig. 5
4 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10

Fig. 3. Macroscopic pattern of soot and gunpowder residue particle distribution on cotton cloths at firing distances of 50, 75 and 100 cm.

shows the results found on three targets of the same material on
the left-hand and right-hand side of the bullet entrance hole.
At a firing distance of 50 cm, in the case of the TT the
number of gunpowder particles decreased gradually from
the centre of the bullet entrance hole to the peripheral part of the
target. The maximum diameter of the deposited area was 19.5
and 17.0 cm accordingly on the cotton and synthetic cloths. In
the case of the PM, only a few particles were detected on the
target on the area of 9.0 and 13.0 cm in diameter. The Glock 19
left the greatest number of gunpowder particles and they were
 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10 5

Fig. 4. Macroscopic pattern of soot and gunpowder residue particle distribution on synthetic cloths at firing distances of 50, 75 and 100 cm.

more densely deposited around the bullet entrance hole as it had
been in the case of firings at a distance of 25 cm. The maximum
diameter of the deposited area was 17.0 and 17.5 cm.
At a distance of 75 cm, the gunpowder particles were
dispersed over the targets. The maximum diameters of the
deposited areas accordingly on the cotton and synthetic cloth
were as follows: 6.5 and 14.5 cm (TT), 8.5 and 9.0 cm (PM),
13.0 and 16.5 cm (Glock). Up to that distance, the Glock 19 left
the greatest and the PM the smallest number of gunpowder
particles.
6 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10

Fig. 5. Number of gunpowder particles and marks caused by the particles on the cotton (c) and synthetic (s) cloth at a firing distance of 25 cm.

At a distance of 100 cm, there were only some gunpowder
particles on the targets. Figs. 6–8 present the results found on
five targets of the same material on the left-hand and right-hand
side of the bullet entrance hole.
3.3. Macroscopic findings of the skin
On the skin targets at a distance of 25 cm, in the case of the
TT the central zone of the soot deposit pattern was seen. Many
gunpowder residue particles and marks left by gunpowder
grains covered the target surface (the pieces of skin were
6 cm  10 cm). The PM: some gunpowder residue particles of
different size and around the entrance hole faint soot without
clear pattern of deposition were seen. The Glock left the
greatest number of greenish-yellow gunpowder grains and
more densely around the entrance hole. Starting from a distance
of 25 cm (Glock 19) and 50 cm (TT and PM), no more soot was
macroscopically visible.
At a distance of 50 cm in the case of the TT, in comparison
with the distance of 25 cm, less gunpowder particles were
found and they were more dispersed all over the targets (the
pieces of skin were 6 cm  10 cm). In the case of the PM, some
fine and bigger gunpowder particles were on the target (the
pieces of skin were 6 cm  10 cm or 6 cm  15 cm). In the
case of the Glock 19, many gunpowder particles and their
marks were dispersed all over the target (the pieces of skin were
5 cm  15 cm or 6 cm  15 cm). On one skin target out of
three targets, the gunpowder particles deposited around the
entrance hole and the powder marks on the peripheral part of
the target.
At a distance of 75 cm, the TT left some marks and a few
particles mainly around the entrance hole on one target. The
PM left fine particles and some bigger ones over the target. In
the case of the Glock 19, in comparison with the distance of
50 cm, the particles and their marks were less and they were
mainly deposited on the central part of the target.
At a distance of 100 cm, the TT left only some particles on
the targets. After firing from the PM and the Glock, some
particles were seen on two targets out of three. In the case of the
TT, the particles were bigger and in the case of the PM, they
were finer.
3.4. Microscopic changes of the skin
At a distance of 25 cm, some dotted deposits of the soot were
on the skin surface and deeper in combination with gunpowder

Fig. 6. Number of gunpowder particles and marks caused by the particles on the cotton (c) and synthetic (s) cloth from the 7.62 mm Tokarev.
 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10 7

Fig. 7. Number of gunpowder particles and marks caused by the particles on the cotton (c) and synthetic (s) cloth from the 9 mm Makarov.

Fig. 8. Number of gunpowder particles and marks caused by the particles on the cotton (c) and synthetic (s) cloth from the 9 mm  19 mm Glock 19.

particles. The TT: the gunpowder residue particles were present
on the histological preparations, which originated from 1 to
4 cm from the centre of the bullet entrance hole, and they had
penetrated into the epidermis and deeper into the stratum
papillare and the stratum reticulare of the dermis. The PM: fine
soot particles 1–4 cm from the centre of the bullet entrance hole
and they were deposited on and in the stratum corneum. The
Glock: 1–2 cm from the centre of the bullet entrance hole, the
gunpowder particles had penetrated into the epidermis and they
were in the stratum papillare of the dermis. More peripherally
they were found only on the skin surface.
At a distance of 50 cm, the TT and the PM left a few dotted
deposits of soot on the skin surface and in addition, the PM
left some finer soot particles not connected with the skin
surface. In the case of the Glock, soot was not detected. The
gunpowder residue particles were present on histological
preparations, which were taken from 1 to 4 cm from the
centre of the bullet entrance hole. In the case of the TT, the
gunpowder particles were on and in the stratum corneum. For
PM, starting at a distance of 50 cm, many partially burnt
gunpowder grains not connected with the skin surface were
found. The PM and the Glock 19: 1–2 cm from the centre of
the bullet entrance hole, the gunpowder particles were on and
in the stratum corneum. More peripherally, they were only on
the skin surface (Fig. 9).
At a distance of 75 cm, in the case of the TT and the PM the
gunpowder particles were 1–4 cm from the centre of the bullet
entrance hole. In the case of the TT, in comparison with the
distance of 50 cm, the gunpowder particles were less and mainly
on the skin surface, but one or two of them were found in the
stratum corneum. On one target, the particles were only 1–2 cm
from the centre of the bullet entrance hole on the skin surface.
After firing from the PM, we detected many partially burnt
gunpowder grains not connected with the skin surface. Only on
one skin target, 1–2 cm from the centre of the bullet entrance
hole, one gunpowder particle was seen in the stratum corneum.
At a distance of 100 cm, the TT left a few gunpowder
particles on the skin surface. These particles were on the
histological preparations, which originated from 1 to 3 cm from
the centre of the bullet entrance hole. In the case of the PM, 1–
4 cm from the centre of the bullet entrance hole, we detected
many partially burnt gunpowder grains not connected with the
skin surface.
The Glock 19: at the distances of 75 and 100 cm, a few
gunpowder particles were deposited and they were in the
nearest area to the bullet entrance hole on the skin surface.
8 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10
Fig. 9. Soot and gunpowder residues on the surface of the skin and in its layers at firing distances of 25 and 50 cm: (A), 7.62 mm Tokarev; (B) 9 mm Makarov; (C),
9 mm  19 mm Glock 19.
4. Discussion
Barnes and Helson [1] defined at least five variable
characteristics of gunpowder that influence the residue pattern
imprint: the powder type, grain geometry, chemistry, the charge
weight and the burning rate. They found that the character of
the residue pattern could be altered at any given distance by
changing the brand of the ammunition, which may change the
powder type or configuration.
Throughout the firings with the same pistol, we used the
same make and lot of ammunition and chose the most
commonly used makes of ammunition in Estonia.
The maximum distance out to which powder soot deposition
occurs for most handguns is 20–30 cm [2]. According to Popov
et al. [4], the soot is seen up to 30–40 cm on white targets. At
those distances, the soot is hardly visible on the skin and not
visible at all on black targets. The soot not only deposits on the
skin surface, but also is penetrating into the skin in different
depth depending on the firing distance. In the case of the TT,
different data about the maximum distance of soot deposit were
published: soot occurs up to 15–30 cm, and by the other
author’s data up to 45 cm. In the case of using the PM, soot can
be found up to 30–40 cm [4].
In our experiments, the soot on the skin began to disappear
macroscopically at a firing distance of 25 cm and on cloths at a
distance of 50 cm, but it remained more visible after firing from
the TT. In the case of using the PM and the Glock, the soot was
only on some synthetic cloths at 50 cm, but the TT left faint
soot flecks even at 75 cm on the synthetic cloth targets. On the
histological preparations of skin, in the case of the TT and the
PM soot was visible at a distance of 50 cm.
The experiments proved that the shape of individual powder
grain has a significant influence on the maximum range at
which powder tattooing occurs. Due to a better aerodynamic
form, ball powder can travel further at a greater velocity,
enabling deposits on the skin at a greater range [5]. To
 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10
determine the firing distance by the size and the density of the
gunpowder residue pattern and also the maximum distance at
which the powder residue pattern is left on the target surface or
powder tattooing of the skin takes place, it is very important to
consider the physical form of the propellant [1,5,6].
In our study, but we observed the following: the ammunition
of the TT and the PM produced more soot than the Glock. The
Glock 19 left the greatest number of gunpowder particles (up to a
distance of 75 cm) and they were deposited more densely around
the bullet entrance hole. In the case of the PM, many partially
burnt gunpowder grains were detected on the histological
preparations. At a distance of 25 cm, differently from Test 1, no
tears and recesses were detected in the epidermis as it had been in
the case of the TT and the Glock 19, and gunpowder particles
were not found in the stratum reticulare in the case of the Glock
19. These results can be explained with a weaker tearing
influence of combustion gases of the propellant and also with
weaker penetration capability due to the loss of velocity of
gunpowder grains approximately at that distance. In Test 1, we
observed gunpowder marks affected by drying of the skin surface
before examining the skin targets.
Barz [7] found that in addition, a variation in the speed of
bullets and the material of the targets, the firing direction
influences the number of particles on the target. For series of
shots in the vertical direction from above downwards, about
three times more particles were recorded than for respective
series in the horizontal direction.
Lisitsin et al. [8] supposed that the flying range of
gunpowder particles depends on the decrease of velocity and
the burning rate. Interaction of these factors varies depending
on the type of the gunpowder and the firearm, the target
material, humidity of the air and other characteristics.
Therefore, the test firings from two Makarov pistols with
different makes of ammunition gave rather different results.
Lisitsin et al. found that with increasing the firing distance from
50 to 150 cm, the number of gunpowder particles on the
moistened photographic paper decreased almost similarly both
in the case of vertical and horizontal firing directions due to
their burning in the air. The maximum distance at which the
particles were seen was 250–300 cm (one or two particles in the
case of the horizontal firing direction). Using another Makarov
pistol with different ammunition, the number of gunpowder
particles increased distinctly in the vertical firing direction
(from above downwards), especially at distances of 200–
250 cm. Even in the case of firing at targets from a dry
pasteboard, the number of gunpowder particles was large.
According to Popov et al. [4], in the case of the Makarov
pistol, many gunpowder and metallic particles are seen up to a
distance of 30–40 cm and only a few particles can be found up
to 100–150 cm on the vertically disposed targets. Around the
bullet entrance hole mainly gunpowder and metallic particles
flying along a linear trajectory are deposited, but the particles
can be found beneath the level of the bullet entrance hole or on
the horizontal surface. The flight of particles along a curved
trajectory reaches out to a distance of 2–6 m.
We performed the firings in the horizontal direction at a right
angle to the targets. The TT and the Glock 19 left many
9
gunpowder particles up to 50 cm and a fewer gunpowder particles
were dispersed over the cloth targets at 75 cm. On the skin, the
gunpowder particles were deposited mainly around the entrance
hole (TT and Glock 19). At a distance of 100 cm, the particles
were found only on some cloth and skin targets. The PM left only
a few gunpowder particles at all those distances and the number of
the particles diminished with increasing the firing distance.
Examining the depth of penetration of the gunpowder particles
into the skin revealed that the particles were on and in the stratum
corneum up to a distance of 75 cm (TTand PM) or up to a distance
of 50 cm in the nearest area around the bullet entrance hole
(Glock 19). The Glock 19 left the gunpowder particles only on the
skin surface in more peripheral parts of the skin target at a distance
of 50 cm and at distances of 75 and 100 cm.
To prove the data about the findings of depositions of
gunpowder and other gunshot residues at distant ranges, Popov
and Isakov performed firings at vertically disposed targets
(20 cm  30 cm) from three different Makarov pistols with
common ammunition at distances of 3–50 m and this revealed
deposition of metal-containing microscopic particles, too. But
these particles differ by their smaller size (mostly up to
0.1 mm  0.5 mm) and an uneven pattern of deposition (most
of the deposition at 2–4 cm from the centre of the bullet
entrance hole) in comparison with close-range and medium-
range shots [4,9,10].
Analysing the differences between the measurements of the
powder tattoo pattern on animal bodies and on a blotter paper
Di Maio et al. [5] found that they had measured the main
powder pattern and ignored the ‘‘flyers,’’ while the criminalists
had measured the entire pattern, including the flyers.
On cloth and skin targets, we compared the areas located on the
right and on the left of the bullet entrance hole. Above and below
the entrance hole may be slight differences in the number of
gunpowder particles on cloth targets of the size of 20 cm 
30 cm. Irrespective of the actual size of the skin target, we
compared the areas on histological preparations, which origi-
nated from 1 to 4 cm from the centre of the bullet entrance hole.
The findings about gunpowder residues on a cloth and on skin
are similar but there are some exceptions: starting from a distance
of 25 cm (Glock) and 50 cm (TTand PM), no more soot occurred
macroscopically on the skin and it was visible only on the
histological preparations. The examination of the histological
preparations of the skin after firings from the PM revealed many
partially burnt gunpowder grains. These particles were perhaps
not visible on the cloths due to their microscopic size.
5. Conclusion
Comparing the bullet entrance injuries produced by the
pistols Tokarev, Makarov and Glock 19 with common
ammunition at distances of 25, 50, 75 and 100 cm we observed
the following differences:
(1) in the diameter of the soot deposit pattern and in the
maximum distance out to which the soot was visible;
(2) in the distribution and the density of the gunpowder residue
particles on the cloth targets;
10 D. Lepik et al. / Forensic Science International 177 (2008) 1–10
(3) in the distribution and the depth of penetration of the
gunpowder particles on the skin targets.
The results were similar on the cloth and on the skin targets.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to Tõnu Adrik, the former firearm
expert of the Forensic Service Centre of the Estonian Police for
helping to perform the test firings.
References
[1] F.C. Barnes, R.A. Helson, An empirical study of gunpowder residue
patterns, J. Forensic Sci. 19 (3) (1974) 448–462.
[2] V.J.M. Di Maio, Gunshot wounds. Practical Aspects of Firearms, Ballis-
tics, and Forensic Techniques, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton/London/
New York/Washington, DC, 1999, pp. 71–75, 136–144.
[3] D. Lepik, V. Vasiliev, Comparison of injuries caused by the pistols
Tokarev, Makarov and Glock 19 at firing distances of 10, 15 and
25 cm, Forensic Sci. Int. 151 (2005) 1–10.
[4] V.L. Popov, V.B. Shigeev, L.E. Kuznetsov, Sudebno-Meditsinskaia Bal-
listika, Gippokrat, Sankt-Peterburg, 2002, pp. 195–200.
[5] V.J.M. Di Maio, C.S. Petty, I.C. Stone, An experimental study of powder
tattooing of the skin, J. Forensic Sci. 21 (2) (1976) 367–372.
[6] L.C. Haag, Physical forms of contemporary small-arms propellants
and their forensic value, Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 26 (1) (2005)
5–10.
[7] J. Barz, Die Bestimmung der Schubentfernung aus unverbrannten
Pulverteilchen, Beitrage zur gerichtlichen Medizin 29 (1972) 327–
334.
[8] A.F. Lisitsin, V.N. Chubuchny, T.T. Sardinov, Gunpowder particles as a
factor of close shot, Sud. Med. Ekspert. 1 (1990) 10–13.
[9] V.L. Popov, V.D. Isakov, Medicolegal characteristics of deposition of
additional shot factors beyond the limits of close-range shot, Sud. Med.
Ekspert. 4 (1986) 6–11.
[10] V.L. Popov, V.D. Isakov, Mechanism of transfer and deposit of metal-
coated particles on the surface of obstacle in case of shot from a long
distance, Sud. Med. Ekspert. 2 (1988) 16–20.