Introducción a la Radiogoniometríag

Sergio Castillos, Ingeniero electrónico

What is direction finding?

► Direction finding refers to the use of specialized instruments,

antennas, and methodologies to determine the physical location
of a source of RF energy
► Accuracy requirements vary
► Targets are usually non-cooperative, but not always (e.g. search
and rescue)

2 Introduction to Direction Finding

A word about terminology

► Power of arrival measures level at a given location

 Creates a “heat map”
 Not really direction finding
► Angle of arrival determines a signal’s bearing (azimuth) at a given location
 True “direction” finding

3 Introduction to Direction Finding

Principle of direction finding

► Use variations in amplitude, frequency, and/or phase

to determine the direction (bearing, azimuth) towards
the source
► Most DF methodologies use a single type of variation
(amplitude, frequency, or phase/time)

4 Introduction to Direction Finding

Two ways of using bearings

► A single bearing can be used when

homing towards a target
► Multiple bearings taken from different
locations can be used to compute the
most probable location of a target (i.e.
triangulation)

5 Introduction to Direction Finding

Methods of obtaining bearings

► Manual – the operator manually moves an antenna until

the strongest signal level is observed
► Automatic – the system automatically computes the
bearing based on a DF methodology (Doppler, Watson-
Watt, Correlative Interferometry, etc.)

6 Introduction to Direction Finding

A word about multipath

► Multipath: receiving a signal from

different directions simultaneously
► Caused by single or multiple reflections,
most commonly in an urban environment
► Multipath is the single biggest challenge
in direction finding

7 Introduction to Direction Finding

Manual Angle of Arrival

8 Introduction to Direction Finding

About manual angle of arrival

► Amplitude comparison methodology

► A directional antenna is physically moved / rotated until
direction of maximum receive strength (bearing) is obtained
► Directional antenna can be hand-held or mounted
► Angle is usually determined using a compass

9 Introduction to Direction Finding

Manual AoA: considerations

► Low-cost and portable

► Effectiveness depends strongly on the skill
level of the operator
► Accuracy poor for distant targets
► Antenna must have appropriate directivity
► Difficulty dealing with short duration signals

10 Introduction to Direction Finding

Doppler

11 Introduction to Direction Finding

Doppler shift refresher

► Doppler shift is a type of frequency modulation

 Relative motion of objects towards each other causes the
observed frequency to increase
 Relative motion away from each other causes observed
frequency to decrease
► In the radio frequency domain, Doppler shift can be used for
direction finding

Christian Doppler (1803-1853)

12 Introduction to Direction Finding

Using Doppler for DF

► As we move towards a signal source, the received frequency will shift upwards (or vice-versa)
 This shift can be used to determine if we are moving towards (or away from) the source
► We want to move the DF receiver relative to the transmitter and measure the Doppler shift
 Could we do this if the DF receiver is not in motion?
 (And could we even move the receiver fast enough?)

13 Introduction to Direction Finding

Rotating antenna principle

Doppler shift
D
D

C A

B C A

14 Introduction to Direction Finding

Implementing a Doppler antenna

► An antenna on a rotating disk is not practical

 Required rotational speed is far too high
► To simulate a rotating disk, Doppler DF switches
sequentially between a set of (usually) 4 antennas
► Each antenna generates a series of Doppler pulses
and the system uses them to synthesize the
Doppler sine wave
► Switching between the antennas must be very fast

15 Introduction to Direction Finding

Doppler antenna examples

16 Introduction to Direction Finding

Number of Doppler antenna elements

► Most Doppler arrays contain four antennas

► Larger numbers of antennas improves
results but only if the diameter of the array
is increased
► Some Doppler systems have multiple sets
of elements for different frequency ranges
(4 for VHF, 4 for UHF, etc.)

17 Introduction to Direction Finding

Doppler example: Lojack

► Lojack stolen vehicle tracking systems are based on Doppler

18 Introduction to Direction Finding

Doppler: practical considerations

► Low cost compared to other DF systems

► May use either commercial, off-the-shelf receivers (hobbyist
level) or specialized DF receivers (commercial systems)
► Require a constant (CW) type signal. Not suitable for
intermittent signals or broadband noise
► Antenna-based factors impact useful range:
 Normally works best on VHF/UHF frequencies (< 1 GHz)
 Doesn’t work well for horizontally polarized signals
(Doppler antennas usually vertically polarized)

19 Introduction to Direction Finding

Watson-Watt

20 Introduction to Direction Finding

Overview of Watson-Watt

► Amplitude comparison DF system

► Developed shortly after World War I
► Named after Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt, one of the
inventors of radar
► Uses Adcock (or crossed loop) antennas to compare the
level of the signal received at each antenna

Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt

(1892-1973)

21 Introduction to Direction Finding

Adcock antenna basics

► Four equally-spaced vertical elements arranged in pairs

► Creates two figure-eight shaped lobes
 Maximum sensitivity along the axis
 Nulls perpendicular to the axis
► Antenna pattern yields a unique set of magnitudes for
every direction
 An omnidirectional sense antenna is used to resolve
180º ambiguities

22 Introduction to Direction Finding

Watson-Watt principle

East-West-Axis

North-South-Axis

23 Introduction to Direction Finding

Implementation of Adcock antennas

► Typically monopoles (when ground plane is present) or

dipoles (for pole/tower mounted applications)
► Also implemented as crossed loops
► Spacing between elements is a compromise between
accuracy (closer together is better) and sensitivity
(farther apart is better)

24 Introduction to Direction Finding

Common Adcock implementations

Crossed loops Crossed ferrite Crossed dipole Crossed monopole

loops elements elements

25 Introduction to Direction Finding

Adcock antenna examples

Crossed loops Crossed monopole Crossed dipole

26 Introduction to Direction Finding

Watson-Watt: practical considerations

► Method of choice for HF direction finding due to ease

of implementing small antennas at these frequencies
► Fast response time – minimal “calculations” required
to obtain bearings
► Accuracy and sensitivity are usually both very good
 Accuracy depends on the circularity of the antenna
pattern
► No measurement of elevation possible, and
decreasing azimuth accuracy as transmitter
elevation increases / decreases

27 Introduction to Direction Finding

Watson-Watt example: Rescue 21

► The US Coast Guard system Rescue 21 system uses over 225 Watson-Watt based DF sites to
radiolocate stations across over 40,000 miles of coastline
 Speed and accuracy are critical
► Watson-Watt ideal for the common maritime HF / VHF frequencies

28 Introduction to Direction Finding

Correlative Interferometry

29 Introduction to Direction Finding

About correlative interferometry (CI)

► First used in radio astronomy 1

► Calculates bearings based on phase
9 2
differences at multiple co-located
antenna elements α
► Odd number of antennas arranged in a
circular pattern 8 3

7 4

6 5

30 Introduction to Direction Finding

How correlative interferometry works

1 Phase offsets

45 46 47
45°
12 23 36
5 2
56 81 01
… 87 76 69 …
22 11 01
05 12 28
4 3

31 Introduction to Direction Finding

Measuring and calculating correlation

05

01

19

67 C(α)
88

02 03 05 08 10 11

86 89 02 06 08 10
… 15 17 19 20 21 22 …
70 69 66 66 64 63

82 85 88 02 04 05

α° α°
127°
32 Introduction to Direction Finding
CI and bearing quality

C(α) C(α)

α° α°
127° 127°

33 Introduction to Direction Finding

Implementation of CI antennas

► Typical CI antennas have 5-9 elements enclosed in

a radome
► Arrays can cover large frequency ranges (> 1 GHz)
► The larger the diameter of the CI antenna, the better
immunity to reflections / multipath
► Design and manufacturing tolerances are very tight

34 Introduction to Direction Finding

CI: practical considerations

► Very high accuracy: less than 1º typical

► Provides both a bearing and a quality (strength of
correlation) for the bearing
► Higher immunity to multipath compared to other DF
methodologies
► Cross-polarization does not decrease accuracy, only
sensitivity

35 Introduction to Direction Finding

Time Difference of Arrival

36 Introduction to Direction Finding

Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA)

► Three or more receivers at different locations

receive a signal
► The paths between transmitter and each
receiver are usually of different length, so
there are differences in the time of arrival at
the different receiver locations
► Time differences can be represented as
hyperbolae which cross at the transmitter
location

37 Introduction to Direction Finding

Drawing hyperbolae

Time Delta = 0 Time Delta = Δt

Receiver 1 Receiver 1
c
a c a
b b a - x = Δt
b - y = Δt
b x z c - z = Δt
y
a c

Receiver 2 Receiver 2

38 Introduction to Direction Finding

How TDOA works

Receiver 3

Receiver 1

Receiver 2

39 Introduction to Direction Finding

Implementation of TDOA

► Digitized IF (IQ data) from all receive stations is transferred over data links to a master station
 Data must be precisely timestamped using a shared clock
► Master station computes cross-correlation function for all stations
► This calculation yields the time difference, which is then used to generate the hyperbolae

40 Introduction to Direction Finding

TDOA correlogram

Correlogram

 0.8

0.6
2
0.4

3 0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
4 

41 Introduction to Direction Finding

TDOA correlogram – narrowband or CW signals

Correlogram

 0.8

0.6
2
0.4

3 0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4
4 

42 Introduction to Direction Finding

TDOA sensors

► Normally purpose-built devices (sensors)

 Non-directional antenna and receiver
► Can be fixed (more common) or movable
► Sensors require network, power and GPS
► Good accuracy over a larger area requires large
number of TDOA sensors
 Therefore, TDOA sensors tend to be inexpensive
(lower RF performance)

43 Introduction to Direction Finding

Location coverage and accuracy

► TDOA results typically are accurate to Receiver 3

within several hundred meters
► Outside the area surrounded by the
TDOA receive stations the location
accuracy can be poor
Receiver 1

Receiver 2

44 Introduction to Direction Finding

TDOA: practical considerations

► Good location results within receiver coverage area

► Better results for wideband than narrowband signals
► Accuracy increases with number of receivers
 But at some point, there is no additional
improvement (and calculation time increases
dramatically)
► Reception of weak signals with nearby sensors
(proximity gain)
► TDOA algorithms can process out some multipath
effects

45 Introduction to Direction Finding

TDOA example: location of mobile phones

► Mobiles are usually covered by multiple

base stations
► Uplink signals are measured and
processed
► However, localization of mobiles often
involves (pseudo-) cooperative
techniques (e.g. mobile’s GPS / Wi-Fi
receivers and applications)

46 Introduction to Direction Finding

Hybrid methodologies

► Automatic DF, then manual DF

 General location via automatic DF,
final location manually
► Combing automatic DF methodologies
 Angle of arrival (AOA) plus time
difference of arrival (TDOA)

47 Introduction to Direction Finding

Angle of arrival – multiple locations

AOA DF

AOA DF
AOA DF

48 Introduction to Direction Finding

Time difference of arrival – multiple locations

TDOA DF

TDOA DF
TDOA DF

49 Introduction to Direction Finding

Hybrid scenario – separate AoA and TDOA

TDOA DF

TDOA DF
AOA DF

50 Introduction to Direction Finding

Hybrid scenario – combined AoA and TDOA

AOA / TDOA DF

AOA / TDOA DF
AOA / TDOA DF

51 Introduction to Direction Finding

Summary

► Most commonly used DF methodologies

 Manual angle of arrival (AOA)
 Doppler
 Watson-Watt
 Correlative Interferometry
 Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA)
 Hybrid methodologies

52 Introduction to Direction Finding