Unit-2: Introduction-Magnetic Circuit- Terms and definitions (Flux, Magnetic flux

density, Magnetic field Intensity, MMF, reluctance), Electric circuit Vs Magnetic Circuit

Leakage flux and Fringing effects, Numerical problems solved for finding flux,
reluctance,Permeance and MMF for a simple magnetic Solenoid and Toroidal coil
magnetic circuit.
Faraday's laws, self, mutual and dynamically induced emfs, inductances
Coefficient of coupling- numerical problem in emf and inductance
Construction and working principle of DC Machines, DC generators types-
Characteristics
Types of DC motors, Characteristics
Armature reaction, DC motor applications, Need of Starters in DC motors.
Transformer-construction-ideal and practical transformer -EMF equations, Regulation,
Efficiency
Three phase induction machine-construction (Squirrel cage and Slip ring types)-working
principle (illustrate the Rotating Magnetic Field).
Single phase Induction machine-working-applications
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Introduction
A substance, which when suspended freely, points in the direction of north and
south is called a MAGNET. Magnet attracts iron fillings. It is also called as
permanent magnet. A current passing though a conductor (or a coil) also can
produce magnetic effect and it is called as Electromagnet.

A permanent magnet has one north pole and one south pole. The imaginary lines
which travel from north pole to south pole outside the magnet are called
magnetic lines of force. They are drawn by plotting successive directions pointed
out by a small compass needle in the magnetic field. Magnetic lines of forces are
shown in Fig. 1 and they pass through the magnet.

S N

Fig. 1 Magnetic lines of forces

Flux, Magneto Motive Force and Reluctance

The magnetic lines of force in the magnetic field is called Flux. Its unit is
Weber(Wb). 1 Wb = 108 magnetic lines. Flux is denoted by φ .

Magnetic flux per unit cross sectional area is called Flux density and it is
expressed in Weber / metre2. Flux density is denoted by B.

Magneto Motive Force (mmf) is the source of producing flux in the magnetic
circuit. It can be explained through Electromagnet. When a current of I ampere is
passed through a coil of N turns, results in a mmf of N I . This N I ampere turns is
called the mmf and its unit is ampere turns (AT).
Reluctance is the property of magnetic circuit that opposes the setting of flux.

Reluctance, S = mmf
flux

Its unit is ampere turns / weber.

The following table shows the similarities between magnetic and electric circuits.

Sl.
Magnetic circuit
No.
1 Magnetic flux, φ webers
2 Magneto motive force, AT
3 Reluctance, S AT / Wb
Electric circuit
Electric current, I ampere
EMF, E volts
Resistance, R ohm

φ= mmf emf
4 Current =
reluctance resistance
Leakage flux and Fringing effect

Usually we assume that all the flux lines take path of the magnetic medium. But,
practically, some flux lines do not confine to the specified medium. It is because,
to prevent the leakage flux, there is no perfect magnetic insulator. Some flux lines
can pass through air also.

The flux which do not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit is known as
leakage flux.

All the magnetic flux which complete the desired magnetic circuit are the useful
flux.

To account for the leakage flux, leakage coefficient is introduced. Leakage

coefficient, denoted by λ is defined as follows.

total flux useful flux leakageflux φ  φ

Leakage coefficient, λ =  
useful flux useful flux φ

Leakage coefficient will be greater than ONE.

An air gap is often introduced in the magnetic circuit out of necessity. When
crossing an air gap, the magnetic lines of force have a tendency to bulge out. This
is because the magnetic lines of force repel each other when they are passing
through non-magnetic material. This phenomenon is known as fringing. It is
shown in Fig. 2

S
Area at

iron path

Area at

air-gap path

Fig. 2 Fringing effect

Fringing effect increases the effective area of cross section of the air-gap and as
a result the flux density in the air-gap is reduced.
Problems involving simple magnetic circuits

Before doing problems involving magnetic circuits it is necessary to know some

more terms associated with the magnetic circuit.

Magnetic field intensity, (also called as Magnetizing force) denoted as H, is the

mmf per unit length of magnetic flux path. Thus,

NI
H=


Flux density is proportional to magnetic field intensity. Thus B  H. The constant

of proportionality is called permeability, µ. Thus B = µ H or

µ=B/H

Permeability of vacuum or free space is denoted as µ0. Its value is

4 π x 10-7. Permeability of any other medium is given by

µ = µ0 µr

where µr is called the relative permeability of the medium.

An expression for Reluctance, S can be obtained as follows.

NI NI NI NI 
S   ; Since H weget S 
φ Ba μ 0 μr H a  a μ 0 μr

Permeance, P is the reciprocal of Reluctance. I I

An iron core coil with a small air gap is shown in Fig. 3.

Coil has N turns.

Current through coil = I

Mean radius of magnetic path = Rm RR

m
m
Cross section of core is circular with diameter d

Length of air gap = ℓ g

Fig. 3 Iron core coil
Note that

1. Tolal reluctance of magnetic path = reluctance of iron path + reluctance of air gap path.

2.Total source mmf = mmf required to establish flux in iron path + mmf required to
establish flux in air gap.

3. mmf = reluctance x flux OR mmf = H x length of magnetic path

Example 1
A toroidal air core coil with 2000 turns has a mean radius of 25 cm. The diameter
of each turn is 6 cm. If the current in the coil is 10 A, find (a) MMF (b) flux and (c)
flux density. (Toroidal coil consists of copper wire wrapped around a cylindrical
core)

Solution

Given Air core coil N = 2000 turns;

I
Rm = 25 cm; d = 6 cm.
I
(a) MMF = N I = 2000 x 10 = 20000 AT
(b) Flux = MMF / Reluctance


Reluctance, S = ; Since it is air core = µr = 1
a μ 0 μr

ℓ = 2 π x 0.25 = 1.5708 m; a = π r2 = π x 0.032 = 0.002827 m2

1.5708
Reluctance, S = 7
 4.4217x10 8 AT / Wb
0.002827x 4 π x10

20000
Flux, φ = 8
= 4.5231 x 10-5 Wb
4.4217x10
5
φ 4.5231x10
(c) Flux density, B =  = 0.016 Wb / m 2
a 0.002827
Example 2
The flux produced in the air gap between two magnetic poles is 0.05 Wb. If the
cross sectional area of the air gap is 0.2 m2, find (a) flux density, (b) magnetic
field intensity, (c) reluctance and (d) permeance of the air gap. Find also the mmf
dropped in the air gap, given the length of air gap to be 1.2 cm.

Solution

Given Flux, φ = 0.05 Wb; a = 0.2 m2; ℓ g = 0.012 m

(a) Flux density, B = 0.05  0.25 Wb/ m 2

0.2
(b) Depending on the data H can be calculated either from H = NI or

B B 0.25
H = ; Magnetic field intensity, H =  7
 1.9894 x 105 AT / m
μ μ 4 π x10
 0.012
(c) Reluctance, S =  7
 4.7746 x 10 4 AT / Wb
a μ0 0.2 x 4 π x10
1 1
(d) Permeance, P =  4
 2.0944 x 10 -5 Wb/ AT
S 4.7746 x 10

MMF = H x ℓ g = 1.9894 x 105 x 0.012 = 2.3873 x 103 AT OR

MMF = Flux x Relectance = 0.05 x 4.7746 x 104 = 2.3873 x 103 AT

Example 3
A ring has mean diameter of 15 cm, a cross section of 1.7 cm2 and has a radial
gap of 0.5 mm cut in it. It is uniformly wound with 1500 turns of insulated wire and
a current of 1 A produces a flux of 0.1 mWb across the gap. Calculate the relative
permeability of iron on the assumption that there is no magnetic leakage.

Solution

Given Dm = 15 cm; a = 1.7 cm2; ℓ g = 0.5 mm; N = 1500 turns; I = 1 A;

φ = 0.1 mWb
Dm = 15 cm; a = 1.7 cm2; ℓ g = 0.5 mm;
N = 1500 turns; I = 1 A; φ = 0.1 mWb

MMF produced = 1500 x 1 = 1500 AT

Total reluctance = MMF / Flux = 1500 / 0.0001 = 1500 x 104 AT / Wb

Total reluctance = Reluctance of iron path + Reluctance of air gap

 0.0005
Reluctance of air gap =   2.3405 x 10 6
AT / Wb
a μ 0 1.7 x10 4 x 4 π x10 7

Reluctance of iron path = 15 x 106 – 2.3405 x 106 = 12.6595 x 106 AT / Wb

Length of iron path = π x 15 x 10-2 – 0.05 x 10-2 = 47.0739 x 10-2 m

2 6
 47.0739x10 
2203.5423x10
Thus 12.6595 x 10 6 = 
aμ μ 1.7 x10 4 x 4 π x10 7 xμ μr
0 r r

Thus µr = 2203.5423 / 12.6595 = 174.0623

Example 4

A series magnetic circuit has an iron path of length 50 cm and an air gap of 1mm.
The cross section of the iron is 6.66 cm2 and the exciting coil has 400 turns.
Determine the current required to produce a flux of 0.9 mWb in the circuit. The
following points are taken from the magnetization curve for the iron.

Flux density (Wb / m2): 1.2 1.35 1.45 1.55

Magnetizing force (AT / m): 500 1000 2000 4000

Solution

Given ℓi = 0.5 m; ℓg= 1 x 10-3 m; a = 6.66 x 10-4 m2; N = 400; Flux = 0.9 mWb

 1 x 10-3
Reluctance of air gap =   1.1949 x 10 6AT / Wb
4 7
a μ0 6.66x10 x 4 π x10

Required air gap mmf = 0.9 x 10-3 x 1.1949 x 106 = 1075.4 AT

Flux density in the iron path = 0.9x 10-3 / (6.66 x 10-4) = 1.3514 Wb / m2

From the given data, for a flux density of 1.3514 Wb / m2

corresponding value of H = 1000 + (1000 x 0.0014 / 0.1) = 1014 AT / m

Required iron path mmf = 1014 x 0.5 = 507 AT

Total mmf required = 1075.4 + 507 = 1582.4 AT

Current required = 1582.4 / 400 = 3.956 A
Example 5
An iron rod of 1 cm radius is bent to a ring of mean diameter 30 cm and wound
with 250 turns of wire. Assume the relative permeability of iron as 800. An air gap
of 0.1 cm is cut across the bent ring. Calculate the current required to produce a
useful flux of 20000 lines if (a) leakage is neglected and (b) leakage factor is 1.1.

Solution
Given r = 1 cm; Dm= 0.3 m; N = 250; µr = 800;
ℓg = 0.001 m; Flux φ = 20000 / (108) = 0.2 mWb

Leakage is neglected Flux in iron path = flux in air gap

Area of cross section, a = π x 10-4 = 0.0003142 m2

 0.001
Reluctance of air gap =   2.5327 x 10 6
AT / Wb
a μ 0 0.0003142x 4 π x10 7

Required air gap mmf = 0.0002 x 2.5327 x 106 = 506.54 AT

Length of iron path = (π x 0.3) – 0.001 = 0.9415 m
Reluctance of iron path =

 0.9415
  2.9807 x 106 AT / Wb
7
a μ 0 μr 0.0003142x 4 π x10 x 800

Required iron path mmf = 0.0002 x 2.9807 x 106 = 596.14 AT

Total mmf required = 506.54 + 596.14 = 1102.68 AT
Current required = 1102.68 / 250 = 4.4107 A
Leakage factor is 1.1

As in previous case, required air gap mmf = 0.0002 x 2.5327 x 106 = 506.54 AT
To maintain useful flux of 0.2 mWb in the air gap,

flux required in the iron path = 1.1 x 0.2 = 0.22 mWb

Required iron path mmf = 0.00022 x 2.9807 x 106 = 655.754 AT
Total mmf required = 506.54 + 655.754 = 1162.294 AT

Current required = 1162.294 / 250 = 4.6492 A

Example 6
The magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 4 has the following dimensions: ℓ1 = 10 cm,

ℓ2 = ℓ3 = 18 cm, cross sectional area of ℓ1 path = 6.25 x 10 -4

m2, cross sectional
area of ℓ2 and ℓ3 paths = 3 x 10 -4
m2, length of air gap = 1 mm. Taking the relative
permeability of the material as 800, find the current in the 600 turn exciting coil to
establish a flux of 100 x 10 - 6 Wb in the air gap, neglecting leakage and fringing.

ℓ2 ℓ1 ℓ3

Fig. 4 - Example 6
Solution

Given ℓ1 = 10 cm; ℓ2 = ℓ3 = 18 cm; a1 = 6.25 x 10- 4 m2; a2 = a3 = 3 x 10=4 m2

-6
ℓg = 1mm; µr = 800; N = 600; φ1 = 100 x 10 Wb

Reluctance of path 1:

 1 x 10 -3
Reluctance of air gap =   1.2732 x 10 6
AT /Wb
a μ0 6.25 x10 4 x 4 π x10 7

Length of iron path = 10 – 0.1 = 9.9 cm

  0.099
Reluctance of iron path = a μ 0 μr 6.25 x104 x 4 π x107 x 800
 0.1576 x 106 AT / Wb

Thus R1 = (1.2732 + 0.1576) x 106 = 1.4308 x 106 AT / Wb

MMF1 = 100 x 10- 6 x 1.4308 x 106 = 143.08 AT
Reluctance of path 2:

 0.18

Reluctance of iron path = a μ 0 μr 3 x 10 4 x 4 π x 10 7 x 800
 0.5968 x 10 6 AT / Wb

Flux in path 1 will divide equally; Thus flux = 50 x 10-6 Wb

MMF2 = 50 x 10-6 x 0.5968 x 106 = 29.84 AT

Since path 2 and path 3 are in parallel, it is required to consider mmf for only one
of them. Thus, Total MMF = 143.08 + 29.84 = 172.92 AT

Exciting current required = 172.92 / 600 = 0.2882 A

Electrical equivalent of the magnetic circuit considered is shown below.

0.1576 x 106 AT/Wb 50 x 10-6 Wb

-6
50 x 10 Wb

0.5968x 106 AT/Wb

172.92 AT 0.5968x 106 AT/Wb

100 x 10-6 Wb
1.2732 x 106 AT/Wb ((air gap)
Hysteresis loss
B M
Hmax, Bmax
N

P
H
O S

R
- Hmax, - Bmax
Q

Fig. 6 – Circuit for B-H curve Fig. 7 – Hysteresis loop

Consider an iron bar which can be magnetized as shown in Fig. 6. Magnetizing

force, H can be varied by controlling the current through the coil. Corresponding
values of flux density B can be noted. First the B-H curve will follow OM shown if
Fig. 7. Now if H is decreased gradually, B will not decrease along MO. Instead it
will decrease along MN. Even when H is zero, B has a definite value ON. This
implies that even on removing the magnetizing force, H, the iron bar is not
getting demagnetized completely. The value of ON measures the retentivity of the
material.
To demagnetize the iron bar, the magnetizing force has to be applied in the
reverse direction. Flux density, B becomes zero at P. The value of H as measured
by OP is known as coercive force. If H is further increased, the curve will follow
the path PQ. By taking H back from – Hmax, a similar curve QRSM is obtained. It is
seen that B always lags behind H. This lagging character of B with respect to H is
called hysteresis and the complete loop is called hysteresis loop. Different
magnetic material will have different hysteresis loop. Fig. 8 shows the hysteresis
loop of cast steel and alloyed steel.
M

- Hmax P O
S Hmax

Fig. 8 – Hysteresis loop of cast steel and alloyed steel

Area of hysteresis loop gives the hysteresis loss per unit volume of the material.
About 4% addition of Slican to steel give rise to reduction in hysteresis loop area
and hence hysteresis loss.
Eddy current loss

Whenever a conducting material cuts the magnetic flux (armature core in the
case of rotating machines) an emf is induced in the core. This emf sets up
current through the solid mass. Such current is known as eddy current. Flow of
eddy current results in eddy current loss.

The eddy current loss is proportional to square of the thickness of the material.
This loss can be minimized by using a laminated core, which offers high
resistance for the flow of eddy current.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
When a current flows in a conductor, magnetic field is produced. The reverse
phenomenon, whereby an Electro Motive Force (EMF) and hence current is
produced in an electric circuit by some action on magnetic field. This is called
electromagnetic induction. Consider the setup shown in Fig. 9.

G
A B

Fig. 9 – Static induced emf

When the switch, K is closed from the open position, there will be induced
voltage and hence current in coil B as indicated by the galvanometer G. When the
key is opened from the closed position, the current flow will be in the opposite
direction. This illustrates the production of static induced emf.
Consider the setup shown in Fig. 10.

S N
A
Fig. 10 – Dynamic induced emf

When the conductor AB is moved from the top position in the downward
direction, it cuts the magnetic field at right angle. An emf is induced in the
conductor resulting current flow as indicated by the galvanometer. When the
conductor is moved from the bottom position in the upward direction, there will
be current flow in the opposite direction. This illustrates the production of
dynamic induced emf.
The results of the above two experiments can be summed up into two laws,
known as Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

First Law: Whenever the flux linking with a coil changes, a static emf is induced
in it and as such the emf lasts only for the time the change is taking place.

OR

When a moving conductor cuts the magnetic field, an emf induced in it which is
called as dynamic emf.

Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of
flux linkage. Flux linkage = Flux x Number ot turns having units as Wb. turns.
Induced emf

An emf is induced in a coil or conductor whenever there is a change in flux

linkages. The change in flux linkages can occur in two ways.

(i) The coil is stationary and the magnetic field is changing. Resulting
induced emf is known as static induced emf. Transformer works on this
principle.
(ii) The conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such a way
that there is change in flux linkage. Resulting induced emf is known as
dynamic induced emf. Generator works on this principle.

Static induced emf

In this case, the coil is held stationary and the magnetic field is varied. The
induced emf may be self induced or mutually induced.
 A

G
A B

Fig. 9 – Static induced emf

Two coils are wound over a magnetic specimen. Coil A is energized using a
battery. If switch K is initially closed, then a steady current of I ampere will flow
through the coil A. It produces a flux of φ Wb. Let us assume that the entire flux
links coils A and B. When the switch is suddenly opened, the current reduces to
zero and the flux linking both the coils becomes zero. As per Faraday’s law, emf is
induced in both the coils A and B. Such emfs are known as static induced emfs.
Static induced emf can be classified into two categories, namely self induced emf
and mutually induced emf.
Self induced emf

If a single coil carries a current, flux will be set up in it. If the current changes,
the flux will change. This change in flux will induce an emf in the coil. This kind of
emf is known as self induced emf. In other words, self induced emf is the emf
induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux linking it changes because of the
current changes in the same circuit.

dφ dψ
The magnitude of this self induced emf e = N 
dt dt

Mutually induced emf

Mutually induced emf is the emf induced in one circuit due to change of flux
linking it, the flux being produced by the current in another circuit.

Referring to Fig. 9, when a change in current though coil A occurs, we find the
flux linking coil B changes. Hence, an emf is induced in coil B and it is called as
mutually induced emf.
Dynamic induced emf

S N
A
Fig. 10 – Dynamic induced emf

Consider the experimental setup shown in Fig. 10.The magnetic poles, produce a
stationary flux density of B Wb. / m2. Let the conductor length be ℓ meters. The
conductor is moved at right angle to the field. Let the distance moved in dt
second be dx meters.

Area swept by the conductor in dt sec. = ℓ dx m2

Magnetic flux cut by the conductor = B ℓ dx Wb.

Taking the conductor has one turn, corresponding

flux linkage, ψ = B ℓ dx Wb Turn

dx
Rate of change of flux linkage = B ℓ
dt

According to Faraday’s Law, this is the induced emf, e in the conductor.

Thus induced emf, e = B ℓ v volts

dx
where v = linear velocity =
dt

Let the conductor be moved with velocity v m / sec. in an inclined direction,

making an angle ө to the direction of field. Then

Induced emf, e = B ℓ v sin ө volts

This is the basic principle of working of a generator.

Force on current carrying conductor

I F
B

S N
A
Fig. 11 – Force on current carrying conductor

Consider the setup shown in Fig. 11. When a current of I ampere flows in the
conductor from A to B, it will experience a force, F given by

F = B ℓ I Newton

This relation is true if the conductor is at right angle to the magnetic field. In case
if the conductor is an inclined direction, making an angle ө to the direction of
field, then

F = B ℓ I sin ө Newton

This is the basic principle of working of a motor.

Self inductance, L

Self inductance of a coil, L is the rate of change of flux linkages with respect to
the current in it. Its unit is Henry. Thus

dψ = N dφ
L= Henry
dI dI

Equation for self inductance

Consider a magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 12.

Fig. 12 Self inductance

With usual notations

NI
Magnetizing force, H = AT / m


NI
Flux density, B = µ0 µr H = µ0 µr ( ) Wb. / m2 I


NI
Magnetic flux, φ = µ0 µr ( ) a Wb.


N2 I
Flux linkage = N φ = µ0 µr ( ) a Wb. Turns


dφ φ μ 0 μr N 2 a N2
Self inductance, L = N =N = =
dI I  (  / a μ0 μr )

N2
=
Reluctance

dψ dφ N2
Thus self inductance L = = N =
dI dI Reluctance
Expression for self induced emf in terms of self inductance

dφ
The magnitude of self induced emf, e = N
dt

dφ dI
Thus self induced emf, e = N x
dI dt

dI
=L
dt

The self induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current in the same circuit.
Mutual inductance
Mutual inductance between two circuits is defined as the flux linkages of one
circuit per unit current in the other circuit.

I1 Coil 1 Coil 2

Reluctance of the magnetic circuit = S

N1 I 1 N I
Flux in coil 1 φ1 =  1 1
Reluctance S

Assuming that all the flux φ1 links the entire coil 2,

N1 N 2 I 1
flux linkage of circuit 2 due to current in circuit 1 ψ21 = S

ψ21  N1 N2
Mutual inductance M =
I1 S
Consider two air core coils having self inductances L1 and L2 that are closer to
each other as shown in Fig. 12. When current passes through coil 1, flux φ is
11

produced in coil 1. Only a part of this flux links with coil 1 and the remaining flux
links both the coils 1 and 2. Generally, the flux linking both the coils is useful and
it is called mutual flux and represented by φ . The other part of the flux is called
21

leakage flux represented by φ . When the coil 2 carries current, flux produced in
ℓ1

it is φ and leakage flux is φ and the mutual flux is φ . Fluxes φ , φ , φ

22 ℓ2 12 ℓ1 21 ℓ2

and φ 12 are shown in Fig. 13.

φ 12

I1 I2

φ  1 φ 2

φ 21

Fig. 13 Two coils in proximity

The operation of many useful devises which utilizes mutual inductance
phenomenon depends upon how close the coils are coupled to each other. A
fraction of total flux produced by a coil links both the coils and this coefficient
represented by k. The coefficient of coupling depends on the relative position of
φ φ
coils 1 and 2. Thus, coefficient of coupling, k = 21
 . It is to be noted that
12

φ11 φ 2 2
coefficient of coupling is always ≤ 1. If both the coils are far apart, then k = 0. On
the other hand if both the coils are wound over the same core, then k = 1. Similar
to the definition of self inductance, mutual inductances can be written as

dφ 12 dφ 21
M12 = N 1 and M21 = N 2
dI 2 dI 1

Using energy criteria, it can be proved that M12 = M21 =M

dφ 12 dφ 21 dφ 2 2 dφ 11
Then M2 = N N1 2 = N1 N2 k k
dI 2 dI 1 dI 2 dI 1

dφ11 dφ 2 2
= k2 N 1 N2 = k2 L L1 2
dI 1 dI 2

Thus M = k L1 L 2
 Certain formulae
Static induced emf:

dφ dI
e=N volts e=L volts
dt dt

Dynamic induced emf:

e = B ℓ v sin ө volts

Force on a current carrying conductor:

F = B ℓ I sin ө Newton

Self inductance:

dφ N2
L=N Henry L= Henry
dI Reluctance

Mutual Inductance:

N1 N2
M= M= k L1L 2
S
Example 7
A coil of resistance 150 Ω is placed in a magnetic flux of 0.1 m Wb. It has 500
turns and a galvanometer of 450 Ω resistance is connected in series with it. The
coil is moved from the given field to another field of 0.3 m Wb. In 0.1 sec. Find the
average induced emf and the average current through the coil.

Solution

Given Rc = 150 Ω; φ = 0.1x 10-3 Wb.; N = 500 turns; Rg = 450 Ω; φ = 0.3x 10-3 Wb.;
1 2

t = 0.1 sec.

dφ (0.3 x10 3  0.1x103 )

Induced emf, e = N = 500 x = 500 x 2 x 10-3 = 1.0 Volt
dt 0.1

Current, I = induced emf / total resistance = 1.0 / (150 + 450) = 0.001667 A

Example 8
A conductor of length 100 cm moves at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of
flux density 1.5 Wb. / m2 with a velocity of 30 m / sec. Calculate the emf induced
in it.

Find also the value of induced emf when the conductor moves at an angle of 600
to the direction of the magnetic field.

Solution

Given ℓ = 1.0 m; ө = 900 ; B = 1.5 Wb. / m2; v = 30 m / sec.; ө = 600

Induced emf, e = B ℓ v = 1.5 x 1.0 x 30 = 45 V

With ө = 600. Induced emf, e = B ℓ v sin ө = 45 x sin 600 = 38.9711 V

Example 9
A conductor of 10 cm long lies perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength 1000
AT / m., Find the force acting on it when it carries a current of 60 A.

Solution

Given ℓ = 0.1 m; ө = 900 ; H = 1000 AT / m; I = 60 A

Flux density, B = µ0 H = 4 π x 10-7 x 1000 = 0.001257 Wb. / m2

Force, F = B ℓ I = 0.001257 x 0.1 x 60 = 0.00754 Newton

Example 10
An air cored toroidal coil has 480 turns, a mean length of 30 cm and a cross-
sectional area of 5 cm2. Calculate (a) the inductance of the coil and (b) the
average induced emf, if a current of 4 A is reversed in 60 m sec.

Solution

Given N = 480 turns; ℓ = 0.3 m; a = 5 x 10-4 m2; dI = 8 A; dt = 60 x 10-3 sec.

Inductance, L = N2 / Reluctance

0.3
Reluctance, S = ℓ / ( a µ0) =  0.4775x10 9
AT/Wb
5 x10 4 x 4 π x10 7

4802
Inductance, L = 9
 0.4825x10 3  0.4825mH
0.4775 x 10

dI 8
Induced emf, e = L  0.4825x10 3 x  0.06433V
dt 60 x10 3
Example 11
A current of 5 A when flowing through a coil of 1000 turns establishes a flux of

0.3 m Wb. Determine the self inductance if the coil.

Solution

Given I = 5 A; N = 1000 turns; φ = 0.3x 10-3 Wb.;

dφ 0.3 x103
Self inductance, L = N  1000 x  0.06H
dI 5
Example 12

A coil has a self inductance of 30 mH. Calculate the emf in the coil when the
current in the coil (a) increases at the rate of 300 A / sec. (b) raises from 0 to 10 A
in 0.06 sec.

Solution

Given L = 30 x 10-3 H;

dI
(a) Induced emf, e = L  30 x10 3 x 300  9 V
dt

dI 10
(b) Induced emf, e = L  30 x10 3 x  5V
dt 0.06
Example 13

The number of turns in a coil is 250. When a current of 2 A flows in this coil, the
flux in the coil is 0.3 m Wb. When this current is reduced to zero in 2 m sec., the
voltage induced in another coil is 63.75 V. If the coefficient of coupling between
the two coils is 0.75, find the self inductances of the two coils, mutual inductance
and the number of turns in the second coil.

Solution

Given N1 = 250; I1 = 2 A; φ = 0.3x 10-3 Wb.; dI1 = 2 A ; dt1 = 2 m sec; e2 = 63.75 V;

1

k = 0.75
 -3 ’
N1 = 250; I1 = 2 A; φ1 = 0.3x 10 Wb.; I1 = 0 ; dt = 2 m sec; e2 = 63.75 V; k = 0.75

dφ 1 0.3 x10 3
Self inductance, L1 = N1  250 x  0.0375H
dI 1 2

dI 1 2
Induced emf in coil 2, e2 = M  Mx  63.75
dt 0.002
N1 = 250
Thus mutual inductance, M = 63.75 mH k = 0.75

Since M = k L1 L 2

2 2
I1 = 2 A; I 1’ = 0
0.06375 = 0.75 x 0.0375 x L 2 φ1 = 0.3 m Wb φ2 = 0.225 m Wb
’
φ1 = 0; φ2’ = 0;
Thus self inductance of coil 2, L2 = 0.1927H dt = 2 m sec.

-3 -3 ' '
Flux φ 2  k φ 1 = 0.75 x 0.3x 10 Wb = 0.225 x 10 Wb; φ 2  kφ 1 0

dφ 2 0.225x10 3
Also, e2 = N2 x  N 2x  63.75
dt 2x10 3

Thus N2 = 567
Construction Working
principle of DC
machine
 Electrical
Machines

Static Rotating

Transformer DC Machines AC Machines

Generators Motors Generators Motors

Induction Synchronous Induction Synchronous

 • MOTORS –
• Generators – which convert electrical
which convert mechanical energy into mechanical
energy into electrical energy
energy
Generators
 This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf.
Construction of a DC Machine:
The Dc Generators and Dc Motors have the Same General Construction.

In fact, when the machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a Dc
Generator or Motor.

Any Dc Generator can be run as a Dc Motor and vice-versa.

•A DC machine consists two basic parts:Yoke:
–Stator The outer frame of a dc machine is called as

–Rotor yoke.
Constructional Parts It is made up of cast iron or steel.
1. Yoke It not only provides mechanical strength to
2. Poles and pole shoes the whole assembly but also carries the
3. Field winding magnetic flux produced by the field winding
4. Armature core
5. Armature winding
6. Commutator and brushes
Poles and pole shoes:
Poles are joined to the yoke with the
help of bolts or welding.
They carry field winding and pole
shoes are fastened to them.
Pole shoes serve two purposes;
(i) They support field coils (ii) Spread
out the flux in air gap uniformly
Field winding:
They are usually made of copper.
Field coils are former wound and placed on
each pole and are connected in series.
They are wound in such a way that, when
energized, they form alternate North and South
poles
Armature core: •It may be provided with air
Armature core is the rotor of the
ducts for the axial air flow for
machine.
It is cylindrical in shape with slots to cooling purposes. Armature is
carry armature winding. keyed to the shaft
The armature is built up of thin
•Practical D.C machines have
(about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick)
laminated circular steel disks for air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm
reducing eddy current losses. to 1.5 mm.
Armature Core
Armature winding:
lap winding
It is usually a former wound copper
(OR)
coil which rests in armature slots.
wave winding.
The armature conductors are insulated
Double layer lap or wave windings are
from each other and also from the
generally used.
armature core.
A double layer winding means that each
Armature winding can be wound by
armature slot will carry two different coils.
one of the two methods;
Armature Winding in a DC Machine
Lap Winding
Used in high current low voltage circuits
Number of parallel paths equals number of
brushes or poles
Wave Winding
Used in high voltage low current circuits
Number of parallel paths always equals 2
•Commutator and brushes:
–Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-brush
arrangement.
–The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current
generated in armature conductors.
–Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the
armature conductors.
–A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each
other.
Commutator
• A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the
alternating voltage generated in the armature winding into direct
voltage across the brushes.
• The number of segments is equal to the number of armature
coils.
• Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the
commutator is keyed to the shaft.
• Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on
commutator segments and slide on the segments when the
commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.
Working Principle Of A DC Generator:
According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,
whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field
(OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf
(electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from
the emf equation of dc generator.
If the conductor is provided with the closed path, the induced
current will circulate within the path.
In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field
and the armature conductors are rotated into the field.
Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the
armature conductors.
The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right
hand rule
Fleming’s Right hand rule
Fleming’s Right hand rule
Used to determine the direction of emf induced in a
conductor
The middle finger , the fore finger and thumb of
the right hand are kept at right angles to one another
The fore finger represent the direction of magnetic
field
The thumb represent the direction of motion of the
conductor
The middle finger will indicate the direction of the
inducted emf
Types of DC Generator
DC generators can be classified in two main
categories
(i) Separately excited
(ii) Self-excited.
Separately Excited:
In this type, field coils are energized from an independent
external DC source.
Self Excited
In this type, field coils are energized
from the current produced by the generator itself.
70

Methods of Excitation
Excitation

Separate Excitation Self Excitation

Series Excitation Shunt Excitation Compound Excitation

Cumulative Differential
Short Shunt Long Shunt
Compound Compound
 Separately Excited DC Generator

A DC generators whose field winding or coil is energized by a

separate or external DC source is called a separately excited DC
Generator.
The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current with
the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles.
i.e. flux is directly proportional to the field current.
But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
Self Excited DC Generator

Shunt wound DC generators;

Series wound DC generators and
Compound wound DC
 Shunt wound DC generators

Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied
by the generator itself.
 Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the

field coils are connected in series
with the armature winding.
EMF Equation of DC Generator

The derivation of EMF equation for DC Generator has two parts:

Induced EMF of one conductor

Induced EMF of the generator

 Derivation for Induced EMF of One
Armature Conductor
For one revolution of the conductor,

Let, Φ = Flux produced by each pole in Weber (Wb)

P = number of poles in the DC generator
Total flux produced by all the poles = Φ * P
Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/ N
N is the speed of the armature conductor in rpm.
Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the
induced emf of the armature conductor is denoted by
“e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.
 Induced EMF of the generator

Let us suppose there are

Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such
a manner that all parallel paths are always in series. Here,
A = number of parallel paths
Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
We know that Induced emf in each path is same across the line
Therefore, Induced emf of DC generator
E = Emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.
Simple wave wound generator Numbers
of parallel paths are only 2 = A.

Lap-wound generator Here, number of

parallel paths is equal to number of
conductors in one path i.e.
P = A Therefore,
 DC Generator Characteristic
Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

Generated emf at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at a given
fixed speed
Internal or Total characteristic (Eg /Ia)

relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the armature
current (Ia)
External characteristic (V/IL)

relation between terminal voltage (V) & the load current (IL).
 Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
This characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-
load saturation characteristic.
The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is
practically similar for all type of generators.
The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the generator
at no load and keeping a constant speed.
Field current is gradually increased and the corresponding
terminal voltage is recorded.
For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is
disconnected from the machine and connected across an
external supply.
Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg
= kɸ.
Hence, the generated emf should be directly proportional to
field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field
current).
However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of
emf is generated (represented by OA in the figure below).
This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there exists
some residual magnetism in the field poles.
Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in
the armature.
This initially induced emf aids the existing residual
flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux.
This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus,
O.C.C. follows a straight line.
However, as the flux density increases, the poles get
saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant.
Thus, even we increase the If further, ɸ remains
constant and hence, Eg also remains constant.
Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H
characteristic.
Open Circuit
Characteristic (O.C.C.)
Internal or Total characteristic (Eg /Ia)

An internal characteristic curve shows the relation

between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the
armature current (Ia)
The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due
to the armature reaction.
Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-load
voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies
 External characteristic (V/IL)
This characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal
voltage (V) and the load current (IL).
Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emf Eg due to
voltage drop in the armature circuit.

External characteristics are very important to determine the

suitability of a generator for a given purpose.
Therefore, This type of characteristic is sometimes also called
as Performance Characteristic or Load Characteristic.
Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator
If there is no armature reaction & armature voltage drop, the voltage will
remain constant for any load current.
Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage
vs. IL
Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load
generated emf is less than the no-load voltage.
The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs load current
IL i.e. internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc
generator).
Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the
armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs.
load current
Characteristics Of DC Shunt
Generator
Characteristics Of DC
Series Generator
DC MOTOR
Construction
Working principle of DC motor
Types of DC motor
Application of DC motor
 When current flows in a conductor it produces a
magnetic field about it - as shown in (a) below
– when the current-carrying conductor is within an
externally generated magnetic field, the fields interact
and a force is exerted on the conductor - as in (b)
Working Principle Of A DC Motor
A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The principle of working of a DC motor
is that "whenever a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force".
The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule and
it's magnitude is given by F = BIL.
Where, B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
Fleming's left hand rule:
If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular
to each other

Direction of Magnetic Field is represented by the first finger,

Direction of the Current is represented by second finger
Direction of the Force is represented by Thumb
APPLICATION OF DC–laundry
MOTOR washing machines,
•D.C. Series Motor.
–it has High Starting Torque and
Variable Speed,
–Heavy Duty applications such as
•Electric Locomotives,
•Steel Rolling Mills,
•Hoists,
•Lifts and Cranes.
•D.C. Shunt Motor.
–It has Medium Starting Torque
and a nearly Constant speed.
•driving constant-speed line
shafts,
•lathes,
•vacuum cleaners,
•wood-working machines,
–elevators,
–conveyors,
–grinders and
–small printing presses etc.
•Cumulative Compound Motor.
– It is a varying-speed motor with high
starting torque and is used for
•driving compressors,
•variable-head centrifugal pumps,
•rotary presses,
•circular saws,
•shearing machines,
•elevators and continuous conveyors
etc.
What would happen if a DC motor was supplied with
AC and vice-versa?
1)In case of Series connection of armature winding and field winding , it may run.
2)But, In case of parallel connection , it won't rotate at all and will start humming and will create
vibrations, as a torque produced by positive and negative cycle will cancel out each other. D.C. motor
will be heated up.
 DC MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia
N ∝ Eb/ɸ
 Starting methods of dc
motor

voltage equation of a DC motor is

E = Eb + IaRa
Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra
Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back emf Eb = 0.
Armature current at the moment of starting can be given as Ia = E / Ra.
In practical DC machines, armature resistance is basically very low, generally about 0.5 Ω.
Therefore, a large current flows through the armature during starting. This current is large
enough to damage the armature circuit.
Practical practices
armature resistance is kept very small usually in the order of 0.5 Ω and
minimum supply voltage being 220 volts.
starting current,
Ia = E / Ra
Ia is as high as 220/0.5 amp = 440 amp.
Due to this excessive starting current

the fuses may blow out and the armature winding and/or
commutator brush arrangement may get damaged.
very High Starting Torque will be produced (as torque is directly
proportional to the armature current), and this high starting torque
may cause Huge Centrifugal Force which may throw off the
armature winding.
3 Point Starter
Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance,
integrated into number of sections as shown in the
figure
The contact points of these sections are called studs
and are shown separately as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN.
Other than that there are 3 main points,
'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature
winding.)
'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
Construction of 3 point starter
 The point 'L' is connected to an electromagnet called
overload release (OLR) as shown in the figure.
 The other end of 'OLR' is connected to the lower end of
conducting lever of starter handle where a spring is also attached
with it and the starter handle contains also a soft iron piece
housed on it.
 This handle is free to move to the other side RUN against
the force of the spring.
 This spring brings back the handle to its
original OFF position under the influence of its own
force.
 Another parallel path is derived from the stud
'1', given to the another electromagnet called No Volt
Coil (NVC) which is further connected to terminal 'F'.
 The starting resistance at starting is entirely in
series with the armature. The OLR and NVC acts as
the two protecting devices of the starter.
 Working
To start with of
theThree
handle isPoint Starter
in the OFF position when
the supply to the DC motor is switched on.
Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force
to make a contact with stud No. 1.
 At this point, field winding of the shunt or the
compound motor gets supply through the parallel path
provided to starting resistance, through No Voltage
Coil.
 While entire starting resistance comes in series with
The high starting armature current thus gets
limited as the current equation at this stage becomes
Ia = E/(Ra+Rst).
As the handle is moved further, it goes on making
contact with studs 2, 3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting
off the series resistance from the armature circuit as
the motor gathers speed.
 Finally when the starter handle is in 'RUN'
position, the entire starting resistance is eliminated
and the motor runs with normal speed
This is because back emf is developed consequently with
speed to counter the supply voltage and reduce the
armature current.
So the external electrical resistance is not required
anymore, and is removed for optimum operation.
The handle is moved manually from OFF to the RUN
position with development of speed
Now the obvious question is once the handle is taken to
the RUN position how is it supposed to stay there, as long
as motor is running ?
The supply to the field winding is derived through No Voltage
No Voltage Coil
Coil. So when field current flows, the NVC is magnetized.
Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece
connected to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic force
produced by NVC, because of flow of current through it.
The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in
'RUN' position against the force of the spring as long as supply
is given to the motor.
Thus NVC holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence
also called hold on coil.
Now when there is any kind of supply failure, the current flow
through NVC is affected and it immediately looses its magnetic
property and is unable to keep the soft iron piece on the
handle, attracted.
At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle
comes back to OFF position, opening the circuit and thus
switching off the motor.
So due to the combination of NVC and the spring, the starter
handle always comes back to OFF position whenever there is
any supply problems.
Thus it also acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor
from any kind of abnormality
Two Point Starter
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

A Transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means

of which electric power in one circuit is transformed
into electric power of same frequency in another
circuit.
Used to change high voltage low current A.C. into low
voltage high current A.C. and vice-versa without
changing the frequency.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Principle - Mutual induction
Consists of two inductive coils which are electrically seperated but magnetically linked through a
path of low reluctance.
If one coil is connected to an alternating voltage source,an alternating flux is set up in the
laminated core,most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces
MUTUALLY INDUCED EMF according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetism
(e= MdI/dt).
The first coil in which electrical energy is fed from the ac supply is called as PRIMARY WINDING.
The other coil in which energy is drawn out is called as SECONDARY WINDING.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
 Fig:MUTUAL
INDUCTION.
According to which
WORKING PRINCIPLE
an e.m.f. is induced
in a coil when current
in the neighbouring
coil changes.
 One of the circuit namely primary is energized by
connecting it to an AC supply at specific voltage magnitude
, frequency and waveform.
•Two basic parts:
(i) Magnetic core
(ii) Windings or coils
PARTS OF
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
(i) MAGNETIC CORE:
either square or rectangular
Further divided into two parts – limb and yoke.
Limb – vertical portion on which coil is wound
Yoke – top and bottom horizontal portion
The transformer core is generally laminated to minimise eddy current losses.
Made out of a good magnetic material such as a high grade silicon steel of 0.3 to
0.5 mm thick.

Such a material has High Relative Permeability and Low Hysteresis Losses.
Laminations are insulated from each other by varnish.
Laminations are overlapped to avoid air gap at the joints.
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
(ii) WINDINGS OR COILS:
Coils are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other.

To achieve better performance of transformer and to have high mutual inductance two windings are
split into number of coils and are wound adjacent to each other on the same limb.
MAGNETIC COILS
(i) CYLINDRICAL COILS:
Used in core type transformers
Mechanically strong
Low voltage winding placed
near to the core.
(ii) SANDWICH COILS:
Used in shell type transformers
Each HV portion lies between
two LV portion sandwiching
the HV portion.
This reduces leakage flux.
 TYPES OF
TRANSFORMERS
•Core type

•Shell type

•Berry type
CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER
•Has a single magnetic circuit.
•Core is rectangular and has two limbs
•Winding encircles the core.
•LV coil is placed inside near to the core while HV coil
surrounds LV coil.
•Natural cooling is more effective.
SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER
Has a double magnetic circuit.
Core has three limbs.
Both the windings are placed on the central limb.
Multilayer disc type or sandwich coils are used.
When laminating the core all the joints at alternate layers are
staggered to avoid narrow air gap at the joints.
CORE TYPE

L – Type stamping
SHELL TYPE
 BERRY TYPE
TRANSFORMERS

•Has distributed magnetic circuit.

•Number of independent magnetic circuits are more than 2.
 OTHER PARTS OF
TRANSFORMER

• Transformer tanks are filled with insulating oil to make it cool and
also provide insulation.
• Oil should be free from alkalies and sulphur.
• Presence of very small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of
the oil and affects its performance badly and hence the tanks are
kept air tight.
• In large transformer chambers called BREATHERS are provided
to prevent the atmospheric moisture to pass on to the oil.
 OTHER PARTS OF TRANSFORMER
The breathers contain SILICA GEL crystals
which immediately absorbs the atmospheric
moisture.
Due to long and continuous use, the sludge is
formed in the oil which can contaminate the oil.
To keep the sludge seperated from the oil in main
tank, an air tight metal drum is provided which
is placed on the top of the tank called as
CONSERVATOR.
EMF Equation of Transformer
INTRODUCTION TO THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

•The three phase induction motor is the most widely used

electrical motor.
•simple
•rugged
construction.
•low cost
•good operating
characteristics
•absence of
commutator and
•good speed regulation
 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR

•STATOR:
–Stationary part of induction motor.
–A stator winding is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three phase supply is
given to it.
•ROTOR:
–Rotating part of induction motor.
–The rotor is connected to the mechanical load through the shaft.
•CLASSIFICATION OF ROTOR BASED ON
CONSTRUCTION
i) Squirrel cage induction motor
ii) Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or
phase wound induction motor.
•The construction of stator for both the kinds of three
phase induction motor remains the same.
•The other parts are:
– Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made
up of steel.
–Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
–Fan for cooling purpose.
 –For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is
needed.
–There is a small distance between rotor and stator which
usually varies from 0.4 mm to 4 mm. Such a distance is called
air gap.

•STATOR:

–Stator frame

–Stator core

–Stator winding or field winding

STATOR FRAME
Outer most part of the three phase induction motor.
Support the stator core and the field winding.
Provide protection and mechanical strength to all the
inner parts of the induction motor.
Made up of die cast or fabricated steel.
The frame of three phase induction motor should be
very strong and rigid as the air gap length of three
phase induction motor is very small.
 Carry the alternating flux.
STATOR CORE To reduce the eddy current losses,
stator core is laminated.
These laminated types of structure are
made up of stampings which is about
0.4 to 0.5 mm thick.
All the stamping are stamped together
to form stator core, which is then
housed in stator frame.
The stamping is generally made up of
silicon steel, which helps to reduce the
hysteresis loss occurring in motor.
 STATOR WINDING OR FIELD WINDING
The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three phase
induction motor carries three phase windings.
This three phase winding is supplied by three phase ac supply.
The three phases of the winding are connected either in star or
delta depending upon which type of starting method is used.
The squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star – delta starter
and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is delta connected.
The slip ring three phase induction motor are started by
inserting resistance so, the stator winding of slip ring induction
motor can be connected either in star or delta.
STATOR CONSTRUCTION
Stator windings are connected directly to the power source.
ROTOR CONSTRUCTION
•Induction motor rotor types:
i)Squirrel cage type:
Rotor winding is composed of copper bars
embedded in the rotor slots and shorted at both end
by end rings.
Simple, low cost, robust, low maintenance
ii) Wound rotor type:
•Rotor winding is wound by wires. The winding
terminals can be connected to external circuits
through slip rings and brushes.
•Easy to control speed, more expensive.
 TYPES OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
SQUIRREL CAGE THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase induction motor is cylindrical in shape and
have slots on its periphery.

The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed as the skewing
prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of motor
more smooth and quieter.

The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminium bars or copper bars.

Squirrel cage Rotor
construction
Squirrel Cage Rotor
•These aluminium bar or copper bars are called rotor
conductors and are placed in the slots on the
periphery of the rotor.
•The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by
the copper or aluminium rings called the end rings.
•In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor
conductor are braced to the end ring and hence form
a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and
hence got its name as "squirrel cage induction
motor".
•The squirrel cage rotor winding is made
symmetrical.
• The rotor resistance is very small and it is not possible to add external resistance
as the bars are permanently shorted.
ADVANTAGES OF SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION
ROTOR:
Very simple and rugged.
As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors
requires less maintenance.
APPLICATIONS:
lathes
drilling machine
fan
blower printing machines etc
SLIP RING OR WOUND THREE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
In this type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound
for the same number of poles as that of stator but it has less
number of slots and has less turns per phase of a heavier
conductor.
The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of
stator winding.
The rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are
placed inside these slots.
The three end terminals are connected together to form star
connection.
As its name indicates three phase slip ring induction motor
consists of slip rings connected on same shaft as that of rotor.
The three ends of three phase windings are permanently
connected to these slip rings.
The external resistance can be easily connected through
the brushes and slip rings and hence used for speed
control and improving the starting torque of three
phase induction motor.
The brushes are used to carry current to and from the
rotor winding.
These brushes are further connected to three phase star
connected resistances.
At starting, the resistance are connected in rotor circuit
and is gradually cut out as the rotor pick up its speed.
When the motor is running the slip ring are shorted by
connecting a metal collar, which connect all slip ring
together and the brushes are also removed.
This reduces wear and tear of the brushes.
Due to presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor
construction becomes somewhat complicated
therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel cage
induction motor.
Advantages of slip ring induction motor:
It has high starting torque and low starting current.
Possibility of adding additional resistance to
control speed.
Application:
Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is required i.e in hoists,
cranes, elevator etc.
Slip ring rotor
COMPARISON
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Stator windings are supplied with three phase AC
supply.
Rotating magnetic field is produced which rotates with
synchronous speed with the constant magnitude of
1.5φm.
Rotating magnetic field sweeps the rotor surface.
Emf is induced in the rotor.
Rotor bars are short circuited and hence current flows
in the bars.
Current carrying conductor produces rotor magnetic
field which interact with stator magnetic field to
produce torque.
 CLASSIFICATION SINGLE
PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

•Depending on the construction and the method of

starting:
(i) Split phase induction motor
(ii)Capacitor start induction motor
(iii)Permanent split capacitor motor
(iv)Capacitor start capacitor run motor
(v)Shaded pole induction motor
SPLIT PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
CAPACITOR START INDUCTION MOTOR
PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTOR
CAPACITOR START CAPACITOR
RUN MOTOR
SHADED POLE
INDUCTION MOTOR
 APPLICATIONS OF
SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR

•Compressors

•refrigerating and air conditioning equipments

•conveyors and high torque loads

•Fans, blowers and centrifugal pumps.

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

A Transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means

of which electric power in one circuit is transformed
into electric power of same frequency in another
circuit.
Used to change high voltage low current A.C. into low
voltage high current A.C. and vice-versa without
changing the frequency.