Training SYS FlexibleTransmissionGrids Part1 LMC Final 27 04 2010

Flexible Transmission Grids
Part 1: Fundamentals and Main Challenges

of Modern Grids
Luís Miguel Costa

SmartGrids Network Studies Specialist, Ph.D.
luis.costa@areva-td.com
Internal SYS Webinar Training, 27 of April 2010

Training Scope
Composed of two parts:

1. A more fundamental part:
Some basic notions of power system operation and related
challenges;
Basics of reactive power compensation;
DC transmission systems.
2. A more product-line-oriented part:
Proposing SBU solutions to the identified challenges:
- Clarifying the working principles of each solution;
- Pointing out the main advantages/drawbacks of each solution;
- Giving examples of application as needed.
The main objective here is to better grasp

some fundamental aspects related to grid operation.
2 Flexible Transmission Grids – Part 1: Fundamentals and Main Challenges of Modern Grids 2
Training Structure
1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

i. Definition, Scope and Typical Topology
ii. Make-or-Brake Constraint: Instantaneous Power Balance
2. AC Power Flow
i. The Power Triangle (Fundamentals, Components and Component Definition)
ii. Kirchhoff's Laws and Power Transfer
3. Grid Stability
i. Definition, Conditions and Coordination with Grid Design
ii. Voltage, and Rotor-Angle Stability
4. Reactive Power Compensation
i. Basic Principle, Objectives
ii. Maximum Power Transfer
iii. Shunt and Series Compensation
5. DC Transmission Systems
i. Motivation for DC, Types of DC Systems/Technologies
ii. DC vs. AC (Compactness, Break-Even)
iii. Configurations and Applications (Going for UHVDC)
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
Introduction to AC Transmission Grids
Definition
Transm
ission G
rid
Power System structure interconnecting

Generation centers to Load centers.
Scope
Provide physical solutions for bringing generated electrical

energy to where it is needed:
Cost-effectively:
For the same transmissible power:
- Higher voltages result in higher insulation-related costs and in lower RI²
losses (due to lower currents);
- Lower voltages result in higher currents and, thus, in increased cable/line
sections (more expensive due to increased Cu/Al costs).
Reliably:
Alternative paths must be available in case of single-element (lines,
transformers…) failure.
Efficiently:
Grid structure should avoid the creation of bottlenecks and power
should flow as directly as possible from the generators to the loads.
The technical design of transmission grids

is both very complex and challenging.
Topology
Ideally, transmission grids consist in several interconnected

closed-loop subsystems providing multiple electrical paths for
transmitting electrical energy:
For increased reliably and security of supply;
For reduced energy losses;
For increased grid efficiency due to reduced grid bottlenecks.
Some regions may have to be supplied through radial
structures:
Due to difficulties (economical, geographical, societal and
environmental) in building additional lines for closing the loop;
Due to technical and economical reasons.
Transmission grid operation and design focuses on

reliability, security of supply, and effectiveness.
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
Make or Break Constraint
ƒ (Hz)
– +
Load Power
Consumption Generation
Transmission grids are designed to

mitigate or reduce power imbalance situations.
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
AC Power Flow
Fundamentals – A Water Flow Analogy
Electrical Power flow can be compared to water flow in

interconnected pipes:
There are sources injecting water (power) upstream;
Water (power) flows through the pipes (grid lines/cables)
according to their sections (impedance);
Water (power) comes out of the circuit as required by
downstream needs.
The power flowing through transmission grid lines/cables

results from well-known Laws of Physics.
AC Power Flow
Fundamentals – Objectives and Utilization
The objective of a Power Flow study is to obtain:

Magnitude and phase angle of nodal (bus) voltages;
Line active/reactive power flows.
Power flow studies:
Are the base of grid design and planning
Are fundamental for devising optimal grid operation
strategies.
Power flow studies can be seen

as a grid “X-ray”.
AC Power Flow
Fundamentals – Considerations
AC Power flow is based on some principles imposed by

power system design:
Voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal:
Imposed by generator/motor designs;
Made possible by the enforcement of power (voltage) quality
standards and by operation of non-linear system components
(transformers) in their linear (unsaturated) operating regions.
System frequency is fixed.
(50 Hz in Europe and 60 Hz in the USA)
Power flow studies consider fixed-frequency sinusoidal

voltage/current waveforms.
AC Power Flow
Fundamentals – Electrical Components
Ui Uk
Zik
Sik
Rectangular Phasor
Component Symbol Unit |∆U| Phase-Shift Power Power Unit
Form Form
Resistance R R R∠0° Ω R·I 0° R·I² W
Inductance L H
Capacity C F
jXL=j·ω·L=
Reactance XL or X XL∠+90° Ω XL·I -90° XL·I² Var
=j·2·π·ƒ·L
Capacitance XC or X jXC=-j/(ω·C) XC∠-90° Ω XC·I +90° XC·I² Var
Z=(R²+X²)½
Impedance Z Z=R+jX Ω |Z|·|I|=Z·I -arctan(X/R) Z·I² VA
∠arctan(X/R)
Y=Z-1=
Admittance Y Y=Z-1=… S
=G+jB=…
Conductance G G=R/(R²+X²) S
Susceptance B B=-X/(R²+X²) S
Many components have an influence

on power flows.
AC Power Flow
The Power Triangle – Components
Three related RMS AC Power Types:

Apparent (Complex or Nameplate) Power:
Important for the thermal sizing of equipment as it is related to the
magnitude of electrical current flows;
Measured in Volt-Ampere (VA) and represented by “S”.
Active (Real) Power:
Part of apparent power that can be transferred for producing “effective”
work;
Measured in Watt (W) and represented by “P”.
Reactive (Field) Power:
Part of apparent power associated to both the creation and
maintenance of the electrical and magnetic fields necessary to a correct
AC power system operation.
Measured in Volt-Ampere Reactive (Var) and represented by “Q”.
Three related RMS AC power types must be considered

for appropriate grid design and operation.
AC Power Flow
The Power Triangle – Component Relationship
Im S
S=P+Q
Q S = P + jQ
α P S = (P² + Q²)½∠arctan(Q/P) = |S|∠α
Re
The grid must transfer power from generators to loads;

Active Power can be transmitted over long distances and
then converted into “useful” or “visible” work;
e.g.: Thermal, mechanical…
Reactive Power is necessary for the system to operate

correctly but cannot be effectively transmitted over long
distances.
e.g.: To create and maintain the electromagnetic field of electrical motors.
Work is done by active power but reactive power

is key to optimal grid power transfer capability.
AC Power Flow
The Power Triangle – Flow Direction (Grid Viewpoint)
Im S
S=P+Q
Q S = P + jQ
α P S = (P² + Q²)½∠arctan(Q/P) = |S|∠α
Re
I Equivalent Power <0 >0

AC
Circuit
Active (P) Supplier/Generator Consumer/Load
Grid U or
Supplier/Generator Consumer/Load
Circuit Reactive (Q)
(I leads U) (I lags U)
Element
Power flow direction is defined by convention.

Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
AC Power Flow
Kirchhoff’s Laws and Power Flow Solutions
Kirchhoff’s Laws describe the laws of physics that

command electricity flows throughout the grid.
The most well-known power flow solution methods are
based on the admittance matrix (Y) representing the grid
and on Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
“The algebraic sum of the currents in all the branches that
converge in a common node is equal to zero.”
Alternative form of Kirchhoff’s current law used in power
flow studies:
The current injected at any given node (bus or junction) of the
grid equals the algebraic sum of the currents flowing from it.
Kirchhoff’s current law supports

admittance-based (I = Y·U) power flow solutions.
AC Power Flow
Power Flow Solutions and Power Transfer
General Power Transfer Equations:
Ui Uj
Sij = Ui·I*ij = Pij + jQij Yij
Pij = Ui²·gij-Ui·Uj·Yij·cos(δij- γij)

Sij
Qij = -Ui²·bij-Ui·Uj·Yij·sin(δij- γij)
Ui = |Ui|∠δi
Transmission Grid Approximations: Uj = |Uj|∠δj
gij ≈ 0
Yij = Yij∠γij = gij+jbij
Rij << Xij ⇒ γij ≈ -π/2 ⇒ bij ≈ -1/Xij
gij = Rij/(R²ij+X²ij) = Yij·cos(γij)
Yij = -bij bij = -Xij/(R²ij+ X²ij) = Yij·sin(γij)
Ui ⋅ U j δij = δi - δj
Pij ≈ ⋅ sin(δ ij )
X ij
Then ⇒ Reminder:
U i2 U i ⋅ U j • A* is the conjugate of A;
Qij ≈ − ⋅ cos(δ ij ) • If A=A∠α, then A*=A∠-α
X ij X ij
Voltage angles strongly affect active power flows.

Voltage modules strongly affect reactive power flows.
AC Power Flow
Power Transfer – Some Highlights
Ui
Ui ⋅ U j
⋅ sin(δ ij )
ij ·I
Pij ≈
j·X
X ij δij Uj R
θ i j ·I
φ I
The lower the value of δij, the higher the system power
transfer margin and, thus, the better the system stability;
The higher the value of θ, the higher the amount of
reactive power to be produced at the source;
The higher the value of φ, the worse the power factor of
the load due to excessive reactive power consumption at the load site.
Power flow studies give key indications

of transmission grids effectiveness and behavior.
AC Power Flow
Typical Values of Line/Cable Parameters
ANNEX
Line-to-Line Q (MVar / km) X (Ω/km) @ 50 Hz X/R

Voltage (consumed by the line/cable)
(kV)
Line Cable Line Cable Line Cable
0.4 0.40 0.07 0.5 0.3

10 0.01 0.40 0.1 0.5 0.4
130 0.05 2 0.40 0.15 3 2
220 0.14 4 0.40 0.18 6 6
400 0.60 13 0.33 (bundle) 0.2 15 9
500 1.00 NA 0.30 (bundle) 16
750 2.30 NA 0.28 (bundle) 30
The higher the voltage

The lower the importance of R!
AC Power Flow
Review of the Main Mathematical Formulas
Ui
Three-Phase Power (Module):
ij ·I
j·X
S = √(3)·UL-L·IL δij Uj R
θ i j ·I
P = √(3)·UL-L·IL·cos(θ) φ I
Q = √(3)·UL-L·IL·sin(θ)
Power Transfer:
Ui Uj
Pij ≈ Ui·Uj·(1/Xij)·sin(δij) Zij
Qij ≈ Ui²·(1/Xij)-Ui·Uj·(1/Xij)·cos(δij) Sij
Maximum Power Transfer:
Ui = |Ui|∠δi
Ui²/(2·Xij) (Uncompensated)
Uj = |Uj|∠δj
Ui²/(Xij) (Compensated) δij = δi - δj
Zij = Rij + jXjj
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
Grid Stability
Definition
Grid stability is the characteristic of the power system to

continue to operate adequately following system
disturbances.
Disturbances may be of two types:
Small:
e.g.: random load/generation variations;
Very common and can be studied with simple linear methods.
Large:
e.g.: sudden power flow variations following contingencies
like those caused by generator outages, load-steps, system
faults…
Less common, but have to be analyzed with complex non-
linear methods.
Transmission grid stability is crucial

to adequate system behavior.
Grid Stability
Conditions
System voltage (at every point of the grid) and frequency

need to remain within strict standards.
e.g.: In France:
Transmission grid voltage can never be outside +/- 8% of its
nominal value;
System frequency (50 Hz) has to be kept within +/- 1% of its
nominal value.
Following a disturbance, the system needs either:

to come back to (or nearby) its previous operating point;
or, to go to a new operating point respecting voltage and
frequency limits.
Grid stability standards are very strict.

Grid Stability
Coordination with Grid Design
Difficult expansion of the
transmission grid
(environmental and social constraints)
Grid pushed towards its
stability limits!
+
Load evolution
(amount and location)
Need to get more out of the
+ same grid through increased
active/reactive power
Increasing variable control…
decentralized generation
(e.g.: wind power)
Need of innovative and

advanced solutions…
FACTS and HVDC are key

to present and future grids!
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
Grid Stability
Voltage Stability
Ui Uj
Ability of the system to Xij
maintain acceptable voltage
levels at all buses: Sij
Under normal operating
conditions;
Considering cos(φ) = 1
Following system Vi (pu) Pmax = Vi2/(2·Xij)
disturbances.
1.0
Instability occurs when the 95 %
0.8
system load goes beyond a
critical point of the system PV 0.6 √2
Vj = Vi/√
curve.
Voltage instability mitigation:
Local power factor, cos(φ),
compensation: line capacity
0 20 40 60 80 100
used for P (not Q)!
Load (% of Pmax)
Voltage stability is key

to a secure, reliable, and efficient transmission system!
Grid Stability
Rotor-Angle Stability
Power imbalances (e.g.:

due to non-dispatchable
sources such as wind
power) result in changes
of rotating speed of
electric machinery:
Impacts on system, on ating
t
load flows, and on voltage ω
Ro assr Motor)
M ator o
levels. (G
en
er
Rotor-angle instability
mitigation: J·α(t) = Tmec(t) - Te(t)
Increase system inertia, add P(t) = ω(t) · Te(t)

energy storage, reestablish
Ui ⋅ U j
⋅ sin(δ ij )
power equilibrium, improve
voltage support. Pij ≈
X ij
Rotor-angle stability is a must

for increased system reliability and security of supply.
Grid Stability
Rotor-Angle Stability - Criteria
Pe > Pmec ⇒ rotating speed
increase/decrease (motor/generator);
Pe < Pmec ⇒ rotating speed
decrease/increase (motor/generator);
Variations of rotating speed are
proportional (J) to the variations of the
kinetic energy stored in the rotating
masses of the system;
Equal Area Criterion: ating
t
ω
Ro assr Motor)
A1 = A2 gives the stability limit! M ator o
er
en
(G
J·α(t) = Tmec(t) - Te(t)

P(t) = ω(t) · Te(t)
Ui ⋅ U j
X ij
Power transfer curve should compensate

rotor-angle variations following disturbances.
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
Reactive Power Compensation
Basic Principle
Ui Uj Ui Uj
Rij + j·Xij Rij
Sij Sij
Uncompensated line: Compensated line:
• Important voltage drop • Small voltage drop;

essentially on Xij; (essentially due to losses on Rij)
• Important reduction of • Optimal power transfer

power transfer capability. capability.
• Compensation possible by
injecting reactive power at j.
Voltage drop in Rij is unavoidable (active component);

Voltage drop in Xij can be avoided (reactive component).
(Equivalent) Xij > 0 ⇒ Use capacitors!

(Equivalent) Xij < 0 ⇒ Use inductances!
Objectives
Ui Uj
Greater management and control of transmission Xij
power flows:
Increased transmission capacity; Sij
Increased voltage stability margins.
Main types of classical compensation: Ui = |Ui|∠δi
Shunt: Uj = |Uj|∠δj
Regulates nodal voltage modules;
(Ui or Uj) δij = δi - δj
Uses Phase-Earth nodal reactances.
Inductances (low load) or Capacities (high load).
Series:
Ui ⋅ U j
Reduces Xij and δij resulting in increased dynamic
stability of the grid; Pij ≈ ⋅ sin(δ ij )
Uses capacitors.
X ij
(Overcharged transmission lines.)
FACTS devices provide advanced reactive power

compensation. (Out of the present scope.)
Reactive power compensation permits greater

transmission grid effectiveness and stability.
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
ii. Power Flow Management and Maximum Power Transfer
Power Flow Management
Ui Uj
Xij
Voltage regulation
through shunt reactive power compensation:
Phase angle control Sij
through phase shifting:
SVC: Static VAR Compensator
STATCOM: STATic Synchronous COMpensator
PST: Phase Shifting Transformer
Ui = |Ui|∠δi
Uj = |Uj|∠δj
U i .U j δij = δi - δj
Pij ≈ . sin ( δ ij )
X ij
Impedance modification
through series reactive power compensation:
SC: Series Capacitor

TCSC: Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
There are several ways to improve power flows

through reactive power compensation.
Maximum Power Transfer
Ui Uj
Xij
Maximum Theoretical Power
Transfer: Sij
Without reactive power
compensation: Ui = |Ui|∠δi
Uj = |Uj|∠δj
1 U i2
U j = U i ⋅ cos(δ ij ) ⇒ max{Pij } = ⋅
δij = δi - δj
2 X ij
Ui ⋅ U j
With reactive power compensation: Pij ≈ ⋅ sin(δ ij )
X ij
U i2
U j = U i ⇒ max {Pij } =
X ij
Reactive power compensation

allows to double transmissible power.
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
Shunt Compensation – No Load
Ui Uj
R XL Lj
Sij
2·XC 2·XC
Real-World case-study example: How to maintain Uj within limits?
(600 km @ 735 kV – Canada)
No Load Case (Lj = 0)
Data:
r << xL;
1. Use voltage divider;
xL = 0.32 Ω/km; 2. Uj = Ui · 2 · XC / (XL + 2 · XC) ≈ 595 kV
xC = 200 kΩ·km. 3. Unacceptable: Uj ≈ 140% · Ui
Preliminary Calculations: 4. Solution: Compensate capacities at
R ≈ 0; each side of the line!
XL = 192 Ω = 0.32 · 600; 5. Load-Side:
2 · XC ≈ - 667 Ω ≈ - 2 · 200 · 103 / 600; a. Uj²/(2·|XC|) = 270 MVar (per phase)
Ui ≈ 424 kV = 735 / √(3). 6. Source-Side:
a. Reduce excitation;
(INSTABILITY DANGER!)
b. Put another shunt inductance with
270 MVar (per phase).
Long low- or no-load lines should

be compensated with shunt inductances.
Shunt Compensation – Characteristic Load
Ui Uj
R XL Lj
Sij
2·XC 2·XC
Real-World case-study example: Characteristic Lj?
(600 km @ 735 kV – Canada)
1. Results in Uj = Ui = U = 424 kV
Data:
2. Happens when: ZLoad = √(L/C):
r << xL;
Independent of line length, of system
xL = 0.32 Ω/km; frequency, and of voltage level.
xC = 200 kΩ·km.
3. For this system (Canada), ƒ = 60 Hz:
Preliminary Calculations: 1. L = 192 / (2 · π · 60) ;
R ≈ 0; 2. C = 1 / (2 · π · 60 · 667 / 2);
XL = 192 Ω = 0.32 · 600; 3. ZLoad ≈ 253 Ω
2 · XC ≈ - 667 Ω ≈ - 2 · 200 · 103 / 600;

4. Lj ≈ 3 · Ui²/ZLoad = 2132 MW.
Ui ≈ 424 kV = 735 / √(3).
5. For Lj = 2132 MW: ≈ 600 MW
capacity
1. Q(XL) = Q(XC) lost
without
2. Line is self-compensated. compensation!
6. max{Pij} ≈ 2809 MW ≈ 3·Ui²/Xij.
There is a characteristic load value
for which lines are self-compensated.
Shunt Compensation – Light/Heavy Load
Ui Uj
R XL Lj
Sij
2·XC 2·XC
Real-World case-study example: Implications of ZLoad < ZLoad_Characteristic?
(600 km @ 735 kV – Canada) (Light Load)
Data: 1. Line produces reactive power:
r << xL; Q(XL) < Q(XC)
xL = 0.32 Ω/km; 2. Uj greater than Ui;
xC = 200 kΩ·km. 3. Need to add shunt inductances for
Preliminary Calculations: obtaining Q(XL) = Q(XC).
R ≈ 0; Implications of ZLoad > ZLoad_Characteristic?
XL = 192 Ω = 0.32 · 600; (Heavy Load)
2 · XC ≈ - 667 Ω ≈ - 2 · 200 · 103 / 600; 1. Line consumes reactive power:

Ui ≈ 424 kV = 735 / √(3). Q(XL) > Q(XC)
2. Uj drops below Ui;
3. Need to progressively add shunt
capacities at the load side for
obtaining Q(XL) = Q(XC).
Light Load ⇒ Add Shunt Inductance.
Heavy Load ⇒ Progressively add Shunt Capacities.
Shunt Compensation – Load Compensation
Ui
Ui Uj
ij ·I
R XL Lj
j·X
Sij δij Uj R
θ i j ·I
2·XC 2·XC φ I
Also called power factor (cos(φ)) correction;

Can increase transmissible power by up to 50%;
Results in reduced transmission losses.
Load power factor correction

is key to efficient power transmission.
Shunt Compensation – Midpoint Compensation
Ui Um Uj Ui = Um = U j = U
R/2 XL/2 R/2 XL/2 Lj X L = X ij
U2 δ 
2·XC Sij Ideal
Sij 2·XC Pij ≈ 2 ⋅ ⋅ sin ij 
Compensator X ij  2 
Consists in “breaking” the line into two “equal” parts;

Permits to either:
Double the line theoretical transmissible power;
or
Double the line length:
For the same voltage level;
For the same conductor section.
or
1 U i2
Quadruple the transmissible power U j = U i ⋅ cos(δ ij ) ⇒ max {Pij } = ⋅
of the base non-compensated line. 2 X ij
Midpoint power factor compensation allows to

double the maximum theoretical capacity of a given line.
Series Compensation
Power transfer capability of transmission lines is limited (Laws of Physics):
due to its length-proportional impedance;
due to enforced voltage limits at the load side.
Effective power transfer is much lower than its theoretical maximum.
2
Pmax
P = E / (XL) ij)
Max =2s Ui²/(X
8080
110%
110% P
Pmax= E / (XL) ij)
Max =s Ui²/(X
100%
100%
7070
90%
90% Note: R and XL assumed to have the same ohmic
95% PMax
95% PMax
Active Power available at Load
Note:
value R and
in this XL assumed to have the same ohmic
example
Active Power available at Load
80% U Uj
6060 80%
70%
value in this example
Ui i XXijij
Uj
70%
2
SSij P(X
PP )==EU
(XL= EUs2 i/²/(X
/ (2)ijX))L)
5050
60%
60% ij
max
Pmax Max
MaxL)= s i²/(X (2 X
ij L Est
Est
50%
50%
4040
40%
40% 2
Ouest
Ouest
PP == EU
EU
P (R)= 2²/(4R(4R)ij))
PcPc Pmax
Max
max
Max(R)= //(4R)
ssii²/(4R ij
30%
30%
3030
20%
20%
60%
60% Pmax(X
60% PMax
Pmax(X
60% PMax L) L
)
EjRjRincrease
U
E increase
2020
10%
10% 19%19%
19%
19% PP
Pmax(R)
Pmax(R)
Max
Max
0%0%
1010 0%0% 10%

10% 20%
20% 30%
30% 40%
40% 50%
50% 60%
60% 70%
70% 80%
80% 90%
90% 100%
100% 110%
110%
Source
Source
Load Voltage
Load Voltage
Voltage (%E
Voltage(%
(%E
(% )is)))
UsU 95%
95%
i
00 ResistiveLine
Resistive Line Inductive Line
Inductive Line Inductive
InductiveLine
Linewith
withshunt
shuntcompensation
compensation
Series Compensation
Ui Uj Ui Uj’ Uj
R XL Lj R XL XC Lj
Sij Sij Series
Compensation
Ui
L ·I
Ui
j·X
δij Uj R δij Uj
θ L ·I
φ θ φ
C ·I
I Ui - Uj I Ui - Uj
j·X
L ·I
R·
L I
j·X
Uj’
Improved voltage profile; (series compensation reduces U - U ) i j
Improved dynamic stability; (series compensation reduces δ ) ij
Increased theoretical transmission capacity; P ≈ XU +⋅UX ⋅ sin (δ ), X < 0 ij

L
i j
C
ij C
Overcompensation may lead to sub-synchronous resonance.

Series compensation advantages are three-fold…
... but, beware of overcompensation.
Series Compensation
1.00
0.90
Ui
Load Voltage Uj (pu)
0.75
0.50 Xij = 0.3 pu Xij = 0.2 pu

Xij
Pj @ 0.9 pf
(lagging)
Uj
0 20 40 60 80 100
Pj (% PMax)
Reduction of Xij results in increased

Power Transfer Capability!
46
T4430 Flexible Transmission Grids – Part 1: Fundamentals and Main Challenges of Modern Grids 46
Series Capacitor Elements
Bypass Varistor
Capacitor Bank
Capacitor Bank
Bypass Varistor
Damping Reactor
Spark Gap
Series Capacitor
Spark Gap
Composite Insulator
Damping Reactor
Bypass Switch
SCS Experience in Chile
Customer: Translec.
Scope: 500 KV substations (S/S): * SCS stands for Series Capacitor System.
1 new S/S at Charrua;
Santiago
1 S/S extension at Ancoa;
Pacific Ocean
1 S/S modification at Alto Jahuel; Alto Jahuel
+ Four 500 kV SCS* Units:
Ranging 227- 392 MVar.
+ All SCS integration studies:
TOV, TRV, relay settings, stability…
Argentina
Completion: 2004; 2x 500kV lines
Note: Extremely demanding seismic design.
Ancoa
2x 500kV lines
Charrua
Ralco
Summary
Shunt Compensation:
Many possibilities:
Load side;
Generation side;
Midpoint.
May be accomplished either by inductances or capacities:
Shunt inductances for no-load or light load;
Shunt capacitors for heavy load.
Series Compensation:
Uses series capacitors to:
Improve voltage profile and dynamic stability;
Increase theoretical transmission capacity;
Overcompensation may lead to sub-synchronous resonance.
Reactive power compensation permits to make

more out of existing grid infrastructure.
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
DC Transmission Systems
General Motivation for DC Systems
Stable and controlled AC power transfer is becoming
increasingly difficult in many cases:
Hard to manage AC power flows throughout the whole meshed transmission
system;
AC systems require reactive power compensation for increased stability and
reduced losses.
Impossibility to interconnect asynchronous AC systems.
Geographic mismatch of energy supply & load demand:
Often implying the need to transfer considerable amounts of power over long
distances.
Societal and Environmental constraints:
Rights-of-way for overhead lines (NIMBY rule).
Strict power quality regulation:
Need to reduce service interruptions and to improve voltage
quality;
Current transmission system pushed towards their limit:
Need to avoid widespread blackouts.
Take more out of the “same” infrastructure.

Types of DC Systems
Two Types:
HVDC = High Voltage Direct Current (< 500 kVdc);
UHVDC = Ultra High Voltage Direct Current (> 500 kVdc);
Two technologies:
LCC – Line Commutated Converter (Classical);
VSC – Voltage Source Converter.
DC systems are used for transmitting or exchanging

electrical power by means of direct current.
Comparing DC Technologies
LCC (Classical): Thyristor
Converters
Converter
Transformers
Uses thyristors:
+
Switches on/off at mains Vdc
frequency.
_
F F
Requires Star/Star & Star/Delta Filters Filters
transformers. DC line/cable
Needs lots of harmonic filters. Many

thyristors
connected
Consumes reactive power from in series
the network.
VSC: Transistor
Converter
Converter
Transformer
Uses transistors: +
Can be switched on/off at high Vdc
speed; _
Requires simple star/star DC line/cable

transformer;
No harmonic filters required; Many
transistors
connected in
Can generate or consume series
reactive power as required;
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
DC vs. AC
AC Issues:
Economic:
Expensive overhead transmission lines;
Need of reactive power compensation.
Technical:
Limited maximum length of underground/under water cables;
Unable to perform asynchronous interconnections;
Stability issues difficult to handle;
High losses;
Difficult to stop the spread of cascading blackouts.
DC systems may provide an attractive

alternative to their AC counterparts.
DC/AC Compactness
DC systems tend to be more compact than AC ones.

DC/AC Break-Even Distances
Overhead lines: Station

> 600 km. Cost
Cable schemes:
Submarine > 40 km; Break Even
DC Distance
Underground > 40 km. DC
Converter
Stations AC
Back to back:
When synchronisation
of AC connections is AC
Stations
impossible;
Transmission
Frequency conversion: Distance
- e.g. 50 Hz to 60 Hz.
There is a point from which DC

becomes cheaper than AC or even the “only” option.
Training Structure

2. AC Power Flow
3. Grid Stability
Configurations and Applications
Configuration Schematic Representation Typical applications
Rectifier Inverter
Asynchronous AC
Back to Back Vdc
Idc
network interconnection.
F F
Rectifier Inverter
DC Line
Vdc Long overhead lines

(> 600 km).
Idc
F F
Point to Point
Rectifier Inverter
Receiving
End
Long
submarine/underground
Vdc
cables (> 40 km).
Idc
e.g.: Offshore wind farms and
F F
islands.
Going for UHVDC
Requirements:
Efficient & cost-effective 3500
Transmission losses
transmission of very high
Line cost
levels of power which is 3000
Station cost
generated far from the load 2500
centres:
2000
e.g.: Hydro, coal, nuclear.
MUSD

1500
UHVDC further increases the 1000
benefits of traditional HVDC as 500
it significantly reduces:
0
765kV AC 500kV DC 800kV DC
Overall investment cost;
Transmission of 6400MW over 2000kM
Transmission losses; Estimate of evaluated costs
Needed ROW (rights-of-way).
765kV AC 500kV DC 800kV DC

BACKUP
Deriving Power Transfer Equations (1/2)
Ui Uj
1 - Base Power Transfer Equations: Yij
S ij = U i ⋅ I ij* Sij

I ij = Y ij ⋅ (U i − U j )
 Ui = |Ui|∠δi
S ij = Pij + j ⋅ Qij
Uj = |Uj|∠δj
Yij = Yij∠γij = gij+jbij

2 – Polar-Form Development of Sij: gij = Rij/(R²ij+X²ij) = Yij·cos(γij)
S ij = U i ⋅ I ij = U i ⋅ Y ij ⋅ (U i − U j ) ⇔ bij = -Xij/(R²ij+ X²ij) = Yij·sin(γij)

* * *
* * * *
⇔ S ij = U i ⋅ U i ⋅ Y ij − U i ⋅ U j ⋅ Y ij ⇔ δij = δi - δj
⇔ S ij = U i2 ⋅ Yij ∠(− γ ij ) − U i ⋅ U j ⋅ Yij ∠(δ ij − γ ij )
3 – Calculate Sij in rectangular coordinates:

S ij = U i2 ⋅ Yij ∠(− γ ij ) − U i ⋅ U j ⋅ Yij ∠(δ ij − γ ij ) ⇔
14444442444444 3
[
144444424444443
]
⇔ S ij = U i2 ⋅ g ij − U i ⋅ U j ⋅ Yij ⋅ cos(δ ij − γ ij ) + j − U i2 ⋅ bij − U i ⋅ U j ⋅ Yij ⋅ sin(δ ij − γ ij )
P Q
ij ij
BACKUP
Deriving Power Transfer Equations (2/2)
4 – Extract Pij and Qij components from 3: Ui Uj
Pij = U ⋅ g ij − U i ⋅ U j ⋅ Yij ⋅ cos(δ ij − γ ij )
i
2
Yij
S ij = Pij + jQij ⇒ 
Qij = −U i ⋅ bij − U i ⋅ U j ⋅ Yij ⋅ sin(δ ij − γ ij )
2
Sij
5 – Recall Some Trigonometric Expressions: Ui = |Ui|∠δi
 π
cos α +  = − sin(α ) Uj = |Uj|∠δj
 2
 π Yij = Yij∠γij = gij+jbij
sin α +  = cos(α )
 2 gij = Rij/(R²ij+X²ij) = Yij·cos(γij)
6 – Recall that, for Transmission Grids: bij = -Xij/(R²ij+ X²ij) = Yij·sin(γij)
g ij ≈ 0 δij = δi - δj
Rij << X ij π 
 ⇒ γ ij ≈ − ⇒ Rij ≈ 0 ⇒  1
 X ij > 0 (Lines are inductive) 2 Yij ≈ bij ≈ −
 X ij
7 – Finally, from 4, 5, and 6, obtain (Transmission Grids):

Ui ⋅ U j
X ij
U i2 U i ⋅ U j
Qij ≈ − ⋅ cos(δ ij )
X ij X ij
BACKUP
Deriving Power Transfer Equations – Graphical Method
(Active Power)
Ui Ui
Ui·sin(δij)
ij · I
1 – Transmission Grids:
φ =
ij ·I
j·X
• Rij << Xij ⇒ Rij ≈ 0;
j·X
• Line Active Power Xij·I·cos(φ)
δij Uj R losses ≈ 0; δij Uj
θ i j ·I • Pij ≈ Pj. θ
φ I φ I
2 – Recall that, load consumption (Pj):

Pij
Pij ≈ Pj = U j ⋅ I ⋅ cos(ϕ ) ⇔ cos(ϕ ) =
Uj ⋅I
3 – From the phasor diagram on the top right and from 2, we obtain:
U i ⋅ sin(δ ij ) = X ij ⋅ I ⋅ cos(ϕ )
 Pij Ui ⋅ U j

(ϕ ) =
P ij ⇒ U i ⋅ sin(δ ij ) = X ij ⋅ I ⋅ ⇔ Pij = ⋅ sin(δ ij )
cos U j ⋅ I X ij
 U j ⋅ I
BACKUP
Maximum Power Transfer – Uncompensated Line
Ui Uj
1 – Base Equations: Zij
U j = U i ⋅ cos(δ ij ) − Rij ⋅ cos(ϕ ) − X ij ⋅ sin(δ ij )

 Ui ⋅ U j
Pij ≈ X ⋅ sin(δ ij ) Ui
 ij
ij ·I
j·X
2 – We can obtain the following: Uj R
δij
• Considering mainly resistive load (φ is small) θ i j ·I
φ I
• Considering Rij negligible (≈ 0)
U j ≈ U i ⋅ cos(δ ij ) With considerations given in 2 (on the left)
 the upper phase diagram simplifies
 Ui ⋅ U j ⇒
( )
to the phase diagram depicted below.
P
 ij ≈ ⋅ sin δ ij
 X ij Ui
j·Xij·I
U i2 U i2
⇒ Pij ≈ ⋅ sin(δ ij ) ⋅ cos(δ ij ) ⇔ Pij ≈ ⋅ sin(2 ⋅ δ ij )
X ij 2 ⋅ X ij
δij
θ
I Uj
BACKUP
Maximum Power Transfer – Compensated Line
1 – Compensated system: Ui Uj
Zij
U j = U i
 U i2
 Ui ⋅ U j ⇒ Pij ≈ ⋅ sin(δ ij )
P
 ij ≈ ⋅ sin(δ ij ) X ij
 X ij
Ui
ij ·I
j·X
δij Uj R
θ ij ·I Uj,Compensated
φ I

Training SYS FlexibleTransmissionGrids Part1 LMC Final 27 04 2010

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Training SYS FlexibleTransmissionGrids Part1 LMC Final 27 04 2010

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Flexible Transmission Grids

Part 1: Fundamentals and Main Challenges

Luís Miguel Costa

Internal SYS Webinar Training, 27 of April 2010

Composed of two parts:

The main objective here is to better grasp

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

Power System structure interconnecting

Provide physical solutions for bringing generated electrical

The technical design of transmission grids

Ideally, transmission grids consist in several interconnected

Transmission grid operation and design focuses on

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

Transmission grids are designed to

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

Electrical Power flow can be compared to water flow in

The power flowing through transmission grid lines/cables

The objective of a Power Flow study is to obtain:

Power flow studies can be seen

AC Power flow is based on some principles imposed by

Power flow studies consider fixed-frequency sinusoidal

Many components have an influence

Three related RMS AC Power Types:

Three related RMS AC power types must be considered

The grid must transfer power from generators to loads;

Reactive Power is necessary for the system to operate

Work is done by active power but reactive power

I Equivalent Power <0 >0

Power flow direction is defined by convention.

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

Kirchhoff’s Laws describe the laws of physics that

Kirchhoff’s current law supports

Pij = Ui²·gij-Ui·Uj·Yij·cos(δij- γij)

Voltage angles strongly affect active power flows.

Power flow studies give key indications

Line-to-Line Q (MVar / km) X (Ω/km) @ 50 Hz X/R

0.4 0.40 0.07 0.5 0.3

The higher the voltage

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

Grid stability is the characteristic of the power system to

Transmission grid stability is crucial

System voltage (at every point of the grid) and frequency

Following a disturbance, the system needs either:

Grid stability standards are very strict.

Need of innovative and

FACTS and HVDC are key

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

Voltage stability is key

Power imbalances (e.g.:

Increase system inertia, add P(t) = ω(t) · Te(t)

Rotor-angle stability is a must

J·α(t) = Tmec(t) - Te(t)

Power transfer curve should compensate

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids

Uncompensated line: Compensated line:

• Important voltage drop • Small voltage drop;

• Important reduction of • Optimal power transfer

Voltage drop in Rij is unavoidable (active component);

(Equivalent) Xij > 0 ⇒ Use capacitors!

FACTS devices provide advanced reactive power

Reactive power compensation permits greater

1. Introduction to AC Transmission Grids