Alternating Voltage and Current

The e.m.f. can be represented by a sin wave as in figure below, where Em

represents the maximum value of the e.m.f. and e is the value after the loop has
rotated through an angle θ from the position of zero e.m.f.
The unit of measurement for the horizontal axis of figure 3 is the degree. A
second unit of measurement which can be used is the radian (rad).
e.m.f. in loop AB

Em
e
180o
0
90o 360o
- Em

1 cycle

67
Definitions:
A few basic terms will be defined in this section which can be applied to any
waveform.
- A path plotted as a function of some variable such as time, position, degree,
radian, temperature, and so on.
-Periodic waveform: a waveform that continually repeats itself after the same
time interval.
-Period (T): the time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic
waveform or the time of one cycle.
-Frequency (f): the number of cycles that occur in 1 second, the unit used for
measuring frequency is cycle per second or hertz (Hz).
1
f = , f = Hz, T = second (s)
T
-Instantaneous value: the magnitude of the waveform at any instant of time.
-Amplitude or Peak value: the maximum value of a waveform.

Example 1: Calculate the frequency and the period of a sinusoidal waveform that
complete 80 cycle in 24ms.

Solution:
no. of cycle 80
f = = = 3333.3333 (hertz)
time 24 × 10 −3
1
T (period) = = 0.3 msec.
f

Example 2: A coil of 100 turns is rotated at 1500 rev/min in a magnetic field

having a uniform density of 0.05 T, the axis of rotation being at right angles to
the direction of the flux. The mean area per turn is 40 cm2. Calculate,
(a) the frequency, (b) the period, (c) the maximum value of the generated e.m.f.
and (d) the value of the generated e.m.f. when the coil has rotated through 30o
from the position of zero e.m.f.

Solution:
no. of cycle no. of revolution 1500
(a) frequency = = = = 25 Hz
second second 60
(b) period = time of 1 cycle
1 1
= = = 0.04 sec
frequency 25
(c) Em = 2π ABNn
= 2π × 0.05 × 0.004 × 100 × 1500/60 = 3.14 volts
(d) e = Em sinθ = 3.14 × 0.5 = 1.57 volts

67
Different form of e.m.f. equation:
The standard form of an alternating voltage which would be shown before, is
e = Em sin θ, which also can be written in the following forms
2π
e = Em sin ωt = Em sin t = Em sin 2πf t
T
Example 3: An alternating voltage of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of
120 V. Write down the equation for its instantaneous value. Taking time from the
instant the current is zero and is becoming positive, find (a) the instantaneous
value after 2.8 ms, and (b) the time taken to reach 96 A for the first time.

Solution:
v = 120 sin 2πf t = 120 sin 377t
(a) v = 120 sin (377 × 2.8 × 10-3) = 104.4 V.
(b) 96 = 120 sin (377 × t) ⇒ sin (377 × t) = 96/120
sin (377 × t) = 0.8 ⇒ (377 × t) = sin-1 0.8
(377 × t) = 0.927
∴ t = 0.927/377 = 0.00246 second.

Phase Relations:
π
As known from the property of the sine wave that it has a maximum value at (
2
3π
and ), with a zero value at (0, π, and 2π) as shown in figure 3. If the waveform
2
is shifted to the right or left of 0o, the expression become
Am sin (ωt ± θ)
Where θ is the angle in degree or radians that the waveform has been shifted.

Am Am

- Am - Am

Am sin (ωt – θ) Am sin (ωt + θ)

Figure 4

67
If the waveform shifted with + 90o (π/2), the waveform will called cosine wave.
That is:
sin (ωt + 90) = cos ωt
while
cos (ωt – 90) = sin ωt

- 90o 0 90o 180o 270o

360o
90o

i
Figure 5

The term lead and lag are used to indicate the relationship between two sinusoidal
waveform of the same frequency. In figure 5, the cosine curve is said to lead the
sine curve by 90o, and the sine is said to lag the cosine curve by 90o.

Example 4: what is the phase relationship between the following sinusoidal

waveforms?
a- v = 10 sin (ωt + 30o)
i = 5 sin (ωt + 70o)
b- i = 15 sin (ωt + 60o)
sin (– α) = – sin α
v = 10 sin (ωt – 20o)
cos (– α) = cos α
c- i = 2 cos (ωt + 10o)
– sin α = sin (α ± 180)
v = 3 sin (ωt – 10o)
– cos α = cos (α ± 180)
d- i = – sin (ωt + 30o)
v = 2 sin (ωt + 10o)
e- i = – 2 cos (ωt – 60o)
v = 3 sin (ωt – 150o)

Solution:
a- i leads v by 40o or v lags i by 40.
b- i leads v by 80o or v lags i by 80.
c- i = 2 cos (ωt + 10o) = 2 sin (ωt + 10o + 90o) = 2 sin (ωt + 100o)
i leads v by 110o or v lags i by 110.
d- – sin (ωt + 30o) = sin (ωt + 30o – 180o) = sin (ωt – 150o)
v leads i by 160o or i lags v by 160.
or
– sin (ωt + 30o) = sin (ωt + 30o + 180o) = sin (ωt + 210o)
i leads v by 200o or v lags i by 200.

67
 e- – 2 cos (ωt – 60o) = 2 cos (ωt – 60o – 180o) = 2 cos (ωt – 240o)
hawever
cos α = sin (α + 90)
so that
2 cos (ωt – 240o) = 2 sin (ωt – 240o + 90o) = 2 sin (ωt – 150o)
i and v in phase.

Average Value: the average value over a complete cycle of any current or
voltage is equivalent to the D.C. value

area under cuve of one cycle

Average value =
length of curve

Example 5: find the average value for the waveforms of

1- figure 6 (a), 2- figure 6 (b), over one full cycle.
v (V) v (V)
1 cycle
1 cycle
3

0 t ms 4
4 8 0 6 8 t ms
-1 -2 10
4

-10
a b

Figure 6

Solution:
(3)(4) − (1)(4)
1- Average value = = 1 volt.
10
− (10)(2) + (2)(4) − (2)(2)
2- Average value = = 1.6 volt.
10

67
Root Mean square (R.M.S.) value:
The r.m.s value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) current
which when flowing through a given time produce the same heat (power) as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the
same time. It is also known as the effective value of the alternating current.
The following experiment may be found useful in illustrating the meaning of the
r.m.s. figure 7 show two circuits having identical metal filament lamp (L), but
one is connected to a battery and the other to a sinusoidal generator. The voltage
applied to each circuit is so adjusted that the brightness of the filament is the
same in the two circuits, then we can say that:
Vd.c. = Vr.m.s. of the alternating voltage

DC AC
Supply L Supply L

(a) (b)

Figure 7

If the current shown in figure 7 (a) is passed through a resistance of R ohm, the
heating effect of i1 is i12R, etc., as shown in figure 7 (b). the variation of the
heating effect during the second half cycle is exactly the same as that during the
first half cycle,
i12 R + i22 R +  + in2 R
∴ average heating effect =
n

(a)

(b)
Figure 8
67
Suppose I to be the value of direct current (dc) through the same resistance R to
produce a heating effect equal to the average heating effect of the alternating
current then:
2 i12 R + i22 R +  + in2 R
I R=
n
 i12 + i22 +  + in2 
I=   = square root of the mean of the square of the current
 n 
 
= root mean square (or r.m.s.) value of the current.

more precisely the effective (r.m.s.) value can be expressed as:

area under the square of the curve
effective (r.m.s.) value =
length of the cycle

Example 5: find the effective or r.m.s. value for the waveforms of

1- figure 9 (a), 2- figure 9 (b), over one full cycle.
v (V) v (V)

1 cycle 1 cycle
3

4
0 t ms 0 8 t ms
4 8
-2
4
-1
-10

a b

Figure 9

Solution:
a- [v]2

(9)(4) + (1)(4) 1 cycle

Vr.m.s. = = 2.236 V 9
8

1
0 t ms
4 8

[v]2
1 cycle
b- 100
(100)(2) + (16)(2) + (4)(2)
Vr.m.s. =
10
16
4 t ms
2 4 6 8 10
67
 = 4.899 V

67
Average and r.m.s values of sinusoidal waveforms:
If Im is the maximum value of the current, which varies sinusoidally, the
instantaneous value i is represented by:
i = Im sin θ

2
Figure 10

∴ total area enclosed by the current waveform

2π 2π

∫ I m sin θ dθ = − I m [cos θ]0

2π
= ∫ i dθ = =0
0 0
for the half cycle the total area enclosed by the current waveform
π π
= ∫ i dθ = ∫ I m sin θ dθ = − I m [cos θ]0 = − I m [− 1 − 1] = 2Im
π

0 0
from the definition of the average value,
2I m
the average value of the current over half a cycle = = 0.637 Im amperes.
π
While for the r.m.s., the total area enclosed by the i2 curve

Figure 11. the curve of sin2θ

π π 2 π
I
= ∫ i dθ = ∫ I m sin θ dθ = m ∫ (1 − cos 2θ) dθ
2 2 2

0 0 2 0
π
π 2
2
Im  1 
= θ − sin 2 θ = Im
2  2 
0 2
from the definition of the r.m.s. value,
(π / 2) I m
2
Im
Ir.m.s. = = = 0.707 Im
π 2

67
This relationship derived for current also applied to voltage. Hence, in general:
average value of a sinusoidal current or voltage = 0.637 × maximum value
r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current or voltage = 0.707 × maximum value

r.m.s. value
Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of
average value
0.707 I m
For sinusoidal alternating current = = 1.11
0.637 I m

Example 6: Calculate the effective or r.m.s. value, the form factor of a periodic
voltage having the following values for equal time interval changing suddenly
from one value to the next: 0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, 0, -5, -10, etc.

Solution:
v

60
50

20

10
5

-5
-10

-20

-50
-60

Figure 12
The waveform of the alternating voltage is shown in figure 12. Obviously, it is
not sinusoidal but it is symmetrical. Hence, though r.m.s. value may be found by
considering either half cycle or full one cycle, the average value have necessarily
to be considered for half cycle only, otherwise the symmetrical negative and
positive half cycle will cancel each other out.

67
 0 + 5 + 10 + 20 + 50 + 60 + 50 + 20 + 10 + 5
Average value (half cycle) = = 23 V
10
0 2 + 5 2 + 10 2 + 20 2 + 50 2 + 60 2 + 50 2 + 20 2 + 10 2 + 5 2
2
Mean value of v = = 965 V
10
∴ r.m.s. = 965 = 31 V

r.m.s. value 31
Form factor = = = 1.35
average value 23

Vector representation of alternating quantity:

A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has magnitude as well as direction.
The length of the line represents the magnitude of the alternating quantity; the
inclination of the line with respect to the reference axis gives the direction of that
quantity.
The alternating voltages and currents with the same frequency can be represented
vectors rotating counter-clockwise as that of the alternating quantity. In figure 14
(a), OP is such a vector, which represents the maximum value of the alternating
current and its angle with x-axis gives its phase. Let the alternating current be
represented by the equation e = Em sin ωt. it will be seen that the projection of OP
on y-axis at any instant gives the instantaneous value of that alternating current.
OM = OP sin ωt or e = OP sin ωt = Em sin ωt

M P
Em
e

O 0 360o

1 cycle

a b
Figure 14

Addition and subtraction of sinusoidal alternating quantities:

Suppose OA and OB in figure 15, to be the phasors representing to scale the
maximum value of two alternating voltages having the same frequency but
differing in phase by an angle φ.

67
 F C

D A

E B

O
Figure 15
As shown from figure 15, OC represents the maximum value of the resultant
voltage of OA and OB, and it termed the phasor sum of OA and OB. In addition,
it is evident that OC is less than the arithmetic sum of OA and OB except when
the latter are in phase with each other.

67
Example 7: the instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented
respectively by v1 = 60 sin θ volts and v2 = 40 sin (θ – π/3) volts. Drive an
expression for the instantaneous value of (a) the sum, and (b) the difference of
these voltages.

Solution:
(a) The horizontal component of v1 = 60 cos (0) = 60 V
The horizontal component of v2 = 40 cos (-60) = 20 V
Resultant horizontal component = 60 + 20 = 80 V

The vertical component of v1 = 60 sin (0) = 0 V

The vertical component of v2 = 40 sin (-60) = -34.64 V
Resultant vertical component = 0 + (-34.64) = -34.64 V
Hence, max. value of resultant voltage (80) 2 + (−34.64) 2 = 87.2 V
The phase difference of the resultant voltage with respect to the x-axis (0o) =
 − 34.64 
tan-1   = – 0.41 radian or –23.4
o

 80 
∴ The instantaneous value of the resultant voltage = 87.2 sin (θ – 0.41) volts.

(b) The horizontal component of v1 = 60 cos (0) = 60 V

The horizontal component of v2 = 40 cos (–60) = 20 V
Resultant horizontal component = 60 – 20 = 40 V

The vertical component of v1 = 60 sin (0) = 0 V

The vertical component of v2 = 40 sin (–60) = –34.64 V
Resultant vertical component = 0 – (–34.64) = 34.64 V
Hence, max. value of resultant voltage (40) 2 + (34.64) 2 = 52.9 V
The phase difference of the resultant voltage with respect to the x-axis (0o) =
 34.64 
tan-1   = 0.741 radian or 40.9
o

 40 
∴ The instantaneous value of the resultant voltage = 52.9 sin (θ – 0.417) volts.

Vector diagrams using r.m.s. values:

Instead of using max. values, it is needed some time to draw vector diagrams
using r.m.s. values of alternating quantities. But it should be understood that in
that case, the projection of the rotating vectors on the y-axis does not give the
instantaneous value of the alternating quantity.

67
Capacitors:
Up to now, the only passive device appearing in the lectures has been the resistor.
An additional passive device called the capacitor will be consider, which are
quite different from the resistor in purpose, operation, and construction.
Unlike the resistor, this element displays their total characteristic only when a
change in voltage or current is made in the circuit in which they exist. If we
consider the ideal situation, they do not dissipate energy like the resistor but store
it in a form that can be returned to the circuit whenever required by the circuit
design.

Figure 16. Some type of capacitors

The behavior of the capacitor can be will understood by examining the behavior
of the following circuit

1 R1
2
E 3 C

Figure 17. The circuit that use to examine the behavior of the
capacitor in DC circuit

67
 i vR e
+ -
1
++ ++
E - - - - vc

Figure 18. When the switch become at position 1. The upper plate
of the capacitor will charged positively, and the lower plate will
charged negatively

vR = 0 ic = 0
+ -

++
E vc = E
--

Figure 19. After few milliseconds, the capacitor will become as an

open circuit and hence, no current will fellow. And the voltage
across the capacitor become vC = E

The time required for the voltage across the capacitor to reach its maximum value
depend on the value of the resistance (R) in the circuit and the value of the
capacitor (C), which is usually in millisecond.
vR = 0 ic = 0

1
2 ++ ++
E 3 vC = E
-- --

Figure 20. When the switch become at position 2, the circuit

become opened, and there no way for electron to fellow. In this
case the capacitor will possess of their total charge.

67
 - vR + ic

++ ++
3 vC = E
-- --
e

Figure 21. At position 3, the circuit become as shown. So the

flowing of the electron will opposite (i.e. the current will flow in
opposite direction)

The waveforms of the current iC and voltages vC and vR, when the switch moved
between the various position every time constant is shown below

Figure 22

67
Inductors:
We have examined the resistor and capacitors in previous sections. Now we shall
examine the third element, the inductors. Before proceeding to the behavior of
the inductors, we must return to some basic physical principle. First if a current
passing through a conductor a magnetic field present around the conductor.

Figure 23

With a coil of N turn the magnetic flux linking the coil resulting from passing a
current through the coil are shown below

Figure 24

If the current passing through the coil increases in magnitude the flux linking the
coil, also increase. From Faraday’s law, if a coil of N turns is placed in a region
of a changing flux, a voltage will be induced across the coil
dφ
e=N
dt
where N is the number of turns of the coil and dφ/dt is the instantaneous change
in flux (in webers) linking the coil. So if the flux linking the coil does not change,
such as when the coil sits in a magnetic field of fixed strength, dφ/dt = 0, the
induced voltage equal zero.

67
The behavior of the capacitor can be will understood by examining the behavior
of the following circuit

1 R
E 2 L

Figure 25. The circuit that use to examine the behavior of the
inductor in DC circuit

i vR
+ -
1
+

E vL
-

Figure 26. When the switch become at position 1. There will be a

change in the current from zero to its maximum value as result there
will a change in flux density so, an induced voltage will produce. The
polarity of the induced voltage will opposite the supply voltage

+ vR -

2 vL
+

iL

Figure 27. At position 2. There will be changes in the current from its
maximum value to zero. Also, there will be a change in flux density
but dφ/dt will be now in minus. So, the polarity of the induced voltage
will reverse

67
The waveforms of the current iL and voltages vL and vR, when the switch moved
between the various positions is shown below

Figure 28

67
Alternating current in a circuit possessing resistance only:
Consider the circuit shown in figure below
i

Figure 29

i = v/R amperes
If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is represented by:
v = Vm sin θ
Then the instantaneous value of current in resistive circuit:
V
i = m sin θ
R
So,
V V
Im = m and I r .m. s . = r .m. s .
R R
The phasor represent the voltage and current in a resistive circuit are in phase
I V

The voltage and current waveform for a resistive circuit is shown below
voltage
Vm
current
Im
time
0

Figure 30

67
Alternating current in a circuit possessing inductance only:
Consider the circuit shown in figure below
i
L

Figure 31

Suppose the instantaneous value of the current through the coil having inductance
L henrys is represented by:
i = Im sin θ = Im sin 2πf t
di
The instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. = e = – L ×
dt
The minus sign indicate that the induced voltage opposite the applied voltage
d (sin 2πft )
e = − LI m
dt
e = − 2πf LI m cos 2πft
e = − 2πf LI m sin (2πft − π / 2)
This expression show that the induced e.m.f. lags the current by 90o

Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the whole of the applied
voltage is absorbed in neutralizing the induced e.m.f.,
∴ If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage = v = 2πftLI m cos 2πft
= 2πftLI m sin (2πft + π / 2)
The last expression show that the applied voltage leads the current by 90o
Also, from the last expression the maximum value of the applied voltage is
Vm = 2πf LIm
So that,
Vm
= 2πfL = XL = inductive reactance.
Im
Where the inductive reactance is expressed in ohms and is represented by the
symbol XL.
V
I=
XL

67
The phasor diagram for a purely inductive circuit is given in the figure shown
below
V

Figure 32

The voltage and current waveform for a purely inductive circuit is shown below
applied
induced
voltage current
e.m.f

Im

Im
time
0

Figure 33

Note:
For inductors in series, the total inductance is found in the same manner as the
total resistance in series.
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + …… LN

For inductors in parallel the total inductance is found in the same manner as the
total resistance in parallel.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +  +
LT L1 L2 L3 LN

L1 L2 L3 LN

LT L1 L2 L3 LN
LT

Figure 35

67
Alternating current in a circuit possessing capacitance only:
Consider the circuit shown in figure below
i

Figure 36

Suppose the instantaneous value of the voltage applied to a capacitor having

capacitance C farads to be represented by:
v = Vm sin θ = Vm sin 2πf t
dv
The instantaneous value of the current = i = C ×
dt
d (sin 2πft )
i = CVm
dt
i = 2πf CVm cos 2πft
i = 2πf CVm sin (2πft + π / 2)
This expression show that the current leads the applied voltage by 90o
From the last expression the maximum value of the current is
Im = 2πf LVm
So that,
Vm Vm 1
= = = XC = capacitive reactance.
I m 2πf CVm 2πf C
Where the inductive reactance is expressed in ohms and is represented by the
symbol XC.
V
I= = 2πf CV
XC
The phasor diagram for a purely capacitive circuit is given in the figure shown
below
I

Figure 37

67
The voltage and current waveform for a purely capacitive circuit is shown below
applied
voltage
Vm current

time
0

Figure 38

Note:
For capacitors in series, the total capacitance is found by:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +  +
CT C1 C 2 C3 CN
Which is the same manner of that finding the total resistance in parallel.

For capacitors in parallel the total capacitance is found by:

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + …… CN

Which is the same manner of that finding the total resistance in series.

C1 C2 CN

CT C1 C2 C3 CN

Figure 39

67
Alternating current in a circuit possessing resistance, inductance and
capacitance in series:

Consider the circuit shown in figure below

R L C

Figure 40
Here we take the general case of R, L and C in series, and we can adapt the
results to the other cases by merely omitting the capacitive or the inductive
reactance from the expression derived for the general case.

It is clear from the above diagram that

V = VR2 + (VL − VC ) 2 VL
From the above equation we can get

V = IR 2 + (IX L − IX C ) VR
2
I

V =I R2 + (X L − X C )
2

VC

V
= R2 + (X L − X C )
2

I
2
 1 
The impedance of the circuit in ohms = Z = R +  2πfL −
2

 2πfC 

The phase difference between the current and the supply voltage φ =

I(X L − XC ) X − XC 2πfL −1 2πfC

φ = tan-1 = tan-1 L = tan-1
IR R R

IR R
cos φ = =
IZ Z
I(X L − XC ) X − XC
sin φ = = L
IZ Z

67
Example 8: A coil having a resistance of 12 Ω and an inductance of 0.1 H is
connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The reactance and the impedance of the coil.
(b) The current.
(c) The phase difference between the current and the applied voltage.

Solution:
The circuit diagram and the phasor diagram for the circuit for this example is
shown below

I
V
IXL
R = 12
100 V
50 Hz
L = 0.1 H
I

Figure 41

(a) Reactance = XL = 2πf L = 2 × π × 50 × 0.1 = 31.4Ω.

Impedance = Z = ( R 2 + X L ) = 12 2 + 31.4 2 = 33.6Ω.
2

V 100
(b) I = = = 2.975 A.
Z 33.6
X 31.4
(c) φ = tan-1 L = tan-1 = 69o
R 12
Example 9: A metal filament lamp, rated at 750 W, 100 V, is to be connected in
series with a capacitor across a 230 V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The capacitance required.
(b) The phase angle between the current and the supply voltage.

Solution:
The circuit diagram and the phasor diagram for the circuit for this example is
shown below

VR I
I
100 V
R
750 W
230 V
60 Hz
VC
V

Figure 42

67
From the power and the voltage across the metal filament lamp, we can find
P 750
I= = = 7.5 A
VR 100
V 100
R= R = = 13.333 Ω
I 7.5
V 230
Z= = = 30.666 Ω
I 7.5
Z 2 = R 2 + XC 2 ⇒ (30.666)2 = (13.333)2 + XC 2
XC = 30.666 2 − 13.3332 = 27.6 Ω
1 1
XC = ⇒ C= = 96 µF
2 × 3.14 × 60 × C 2 × 3.14 × 60 × 27.6
− XC − 27.6
φ = tan-1 = tan-1 = – 64.2o
R 13.333

Other solution
This problem can also be solved using phasor diagram, where
V 2 = VR 2 + VC 2 ⇒ (230)2 = (100)2 + VC 2
∴ VC = 207 V
P 750
I= = = 7.5 A
VR 100
V 207
XC = C = = 27.6 Ω
I 7.5
1 1
XC = ⇒ C= = 96 µF
2 × 3.14 × 60 × C 2 × 3.14 × 60 × 27.6
V 100
φ = cos-1 R = cos-1 = 64.2o in the fourth quarter.
V 230

67
Example 10: A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a
capacitance of 100 µF in series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate:
a- The impedance.
b- The current.
c- The voltage across R, L and C.
d- The phase difference between the current and the supply voltage.

Solution:
The circuit diagram for this example is shown below
R = 12 L = 0.15 H C = 100 uF

100 V
50 Hz
Figure 43

1 2
a- Z = R 2 + (2π f L − )
2π f C
1
Z = 12 2 + (2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.15 − −6
)2
2 × 3.14 × 50 × 100 × 10
Z = 12 2 + (47.1 − 31.85) 2 = 19.4 Ω
V 100
b- I = = = 5.15 A.
Z 19.4
c- Voltage across R (VR) = 12 × 5.15 = 61.8 V,
Voltage across L (VL) = 47.1 × 5.15 = 242.5 V,
Voltage across C (VC) = 31.85 × 5.15 = 164 V.
X − XC 47.1 − 31.85
d- φ = tan-1 L = tan-1 = 51.48o
R 12
VL

VL - VC V = 100

I
VR

VC

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Alternating current in simple parallel circuit:
There are two arrangement of simple parallel circuit; these are resistance in
parallel with inductance and resistance in parallel with capacitance. It should be
remembered that parallel circuit consists of two or more series circuits connected
in parallel. So each branch can be analysed separately as a series circuit and then
current of the branches can be added by phasor diagram.

For the resistance and inductance in parallel:

i
iR iL
iR v
V R L
iL
i

Figure 44

The resistive branch current is given by:

V
IR = , where IR and V are in phase
R
in the inductive branch, the current is given by:
V
IL = , where IL lags V by 90o
XL
The voltage is common in both branches, so it is taken as a reference.

The total supply current is obtained by:

I = I R2 + I L2
And the total impedance equal
V 1
Z= =
I 1 1
+ 2
R2 X L

And the phase angle φ between the current and the voltage is given by:
R
φ = tan-1 , or
XL
Z
φ = cos-1
R

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And for the case of resistance and capacitance in parallel:
i
iR iC i
iC
V R C
iR
v

Figure 45

The resistive branch current is given by:

V
IR = , where IR and V are in phase
R
in the capacitive branch, the current is given by:
V
IC = , where IC leads V by 90o
XC
The voltage is common in both branches, so it is taken as a reference.

The total supply current is obtained by:

I = I R2 + I C2

And the total impedance equal

V 1
Z= =
I 1 1
2
+ 2
R XC

And the phase angle φ between the current and the voltage is given by:
R
φ = tan-1 , or
XC
Z
φ = cos =
R

67
Example 11: A circuit of a 120 Ω resistor in parallel with a 40 µF capacitor is
connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
a- The branches current and the supply current.
b- The circuit phase angle.
c- The circuit impedance.

Solution:
The circuit diagram for this example is shown below
i
i
iR iC iC
240 V
50 Hz iR
v

Figure 46

V 240
IR = = =2 A
R 120
1 1
XC = = = 80 Ω
2πfC 2π × 50 × 40 × 10 −6
V 240
IC = = =3 A
XC 80
I = ( I R2 + I C2 ) = 3.6 A
R 120
φ = tan −1 = tan −1 = 56.3
XC 80
V 240
Z= = = 66.7 Ω
I 3.6

67
Power in AC circuits:
AC circuits deliver energy to resistive and reactive loads. It is found that in the
case of resistive loads the energy is dissipated in the same way as a DC dissipate
energy in a resistors. In the case of reactive loads, it is found that the energy is
delivered to the load and then returned to the source. In this section we will
examine in more detail the process of energy transfer, first in resistive circuits
and then in reactive circuits.

• Power in a resistive circuit:

Let instantaneous value of voltage and current be
v = Vm sin ωt
and
i = Im sin ωt
the value of the power is given by the product of the voltage and the current
power = vi = Vm sin ωt × Im sin ωt
P = Vm I m sin 2 ωt
1
P = Vm I m (1 − cos 2ωt )
2
1 1
P = Vm I m − Vm I m cos 2ωt
2 2
From this expression, it is seen that the instantaneous value of the power contains
of two components, since the average of the cosine curve over complete cycle is
zero.

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∴ The power in a resistive circuit is
1
P = Vm I m
2
V I
P= m × m
2 2
2
Vrms
P = Vrms × I rms =I R=
2
rms
R
• Power in a circuit with resistance and reactance:
Let instantaneous value of voltage and current be
v = Vm sin ωt
and
i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
the value of the power is given by the product of the voltage and the current
power = vi = Vm sin ωt × Im sin (ωt + φ)
1
P = Vm I m {cos φ − cos (2ωt − φ)}
2
1 1
P = Vm I m cos φ − Vm I m cos(2ωt − φ)
2 2
In this expression, it is seen that the instantaneous value of the power contains of
two components, since the average of the cosine curve over complete cycle is
zero.
∴ The average power over one cycle in an inductive circuit is
1
P = Vm I m × cos φ
2
V I
P = m × m × cos φ
2 2
P = Vrms × I rms × cos φ

So, in AC circuit we have the following type of power which are:

Apparent Power (S): which is the amount of power delivered to the load without
consideration of the phase difference between the current and voltage, and it is
determined by the product of the terminal voltage and the load current. And
measured in volt ampere (VA).
V2
S = VI = I Z =
2

Z
Active Power (P): which is the amount of delivered power that is dissipated in the
resistive part of the load. And it is measured in (watts)
V2
P = VI cos φ = I R =
2

R
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Reactive Power (Q): which is the power associated with the reactive elements.
And it is measured in volt ampere reactive (var)
V2
P = VI sin φ = I X =
2

X
The factor (cos φ) is termed power factor.

Example 13: a coil having a resistance of 6 Ω and an inductance of 0.03 H is

connected across a 50 V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate:
1- The current.
2- The power factor.
3- The apperant power.
4- The active power.

Solution:
1- X L = 2πfL = 2 × π × 60 × 0.03 = 11.31Ω
Z = R 2 + X L2 = 6 2 + 11.312 = 12.8 Ω
50
I= = 3.91 A
12.8
X 11.31
2- φ = tan −1 L = tan −1 = 62 
R 6
∴power factor = cos φ = 0.469

3- apperant power = I × V = 50 × 3.91 = 195.5 VA

4- active power = I × V cos φ = 50 × 3.91 × 0.469 = 91.7 W

or = I 2 × R = 3.912 × 6 = 91.7 W

The practical importance of the power factor:

If an a.c. generator is rated to give, say, 20 A at a voltage of 300 V, it means
that these are the highest current and voltage values the machine can give
without the temperature exceeding a safe value. Consequently the rating of the
generator is given as 300 × 20 = 6000 VA or 6 kVA. The phase difference
between the voltage and the current depends upon the nature of the load and not
upon the generator. Thus if the power factor of the load is unity, the 6 kVA are
also 6 kW, and the engine driving the generator has to be capable of developing
this power together with the losses in the generator. But if the power factor of
the load is, say, 0.5, the power is only 3 kW

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