Landing Gear System

Landing Gear constitutes the structure and the system that support the aircraft on ground during taxi,
take off and landing. The subject of Landing Gear encompasses multi disciplinary areas of engineering
like structures, mechanisms, fluid mechanics, runway flotation etc. Total weight of the Landing Gear
system is about 3% to 6 % of the aircraft take off weight, (3% -4% range for fixed type and 5% -6% range
for retractable type landing gears). Landing Gear of today is a very sophisticated and safety critical
system of the aircraft.

Landing Gear system Functions

Landing Gear, Alighting Gear or Undercarriage as it is called, constitutes the structure and system that
support the aircraft on ground and does the following functions:
1. Provides a suspension system during ground roll. Provides a suspension system during ground
roll
2. Provides cushioning on landing impact by absorbing and dissipating the kinetic energy, keeping
the ground reaction within desired limit
3. Facilitates for braking for stopping the aircraft
Landing Gears in an Aircraft
Aircraft featured here: Dassault Falcon 900EX

(NLG)
Nose Landing Gear

Right Main Landing

Left Main Landing Gear(MLG)
Gear (MLG)

Landing Gear System

Landing Gear constitutes the structure and the system that support the aircraft on
ground during taxi, take off and landing. Total weight of the Landing Gear system is about 3% to
6 % of the aircraft take off weight, (3% -4% range for fixed type and 5% -6% range for
retractable type landing gears).
The subject of Landing Gear encompasses multi disciplinary areas of engineering like
structures, mechanisms, fluid mechanics, runway flotation etc.
Landing Gear of today is a very sophisticated and safety critical system of the aircraft.
Landing Gear system Functions
Landing Gear, Alighting Gear or Undercarriage as it is called, constitutes the structure and
system that support the aircraft on ground and does the following functions:

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

1. Provides a suspension system during ground roll
2. Provides cushioning on landing impact by absorbing and dissipating the kinetic energy,
keeping the ground reaction within desired limit
3. Facilitates for braking for stopping the aircraft

Landing Gear Components

The Landing Gear system consists of main and auxiliary units, which may be fixed or
retractable and comprises the following sub systems / components:
a. Strut with Shock absorber
b. Retraction mechanism ,Retraction actuator and Control
c. Wheels, Brakes, Tires ( called as Rolling Gear), floats, skis, skids
d. Down locks & Up locks
e. Landing Gear Doors, Fairings, Door operating system
f. Braking system & Arrestor hook
g. Nose wheel steering system
h. Towing / Mooring provisions
i. Position indicators, Safety systems, Warning devices

Landing Gear Configurations

Landing Gear configuration denotes its arrangement in the aircraft.
A Tricycle type configuration, with two main gears and one auxiliary nose gear is the most
common one. Each gear may have single or multiple wheels.
Other Configurations are:
4-strut gear with 4 landing gears, used in aircraft where unrestricted loading is desired.
Bicycle gear with 2 gears at the centre line of the aircraft with out-trigger gears on wings, used
in high and thin winged aircraft.
Skid, used in helicopters, which make vertical landing.
Multi strut gear, used in very large aircraft.
Hull and Float, used on airplanes operating from water bodies.
Ski and wheel ski, used for operating from snow and ice.

Landing Gear Layouts

Two types of layouts are:
1.Nose gear layout, in which the main gears are placed behind the centre of gravity of the
aircraft and the auxiliary gear is placed at the front end of the aircraft. Number of main gears
may be two or more.
2. Tail gear layout, known also as Conventional layout, in which the main gears are placed
forward of the centre of gravity of the aircraft and the auxiliary gear is placed at the rear end of
the aircraft.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

Tail Gear layout is not used nowadays except in very light aircraft. Nose Gear layout is the
preferred one, for the following reasons:
• Stable and easy to control in landing and in braking, with no tendency to swing around,
owing to a stabilizing moment developed from the side forces generated in main wheels
which are located behind the centre of gravity of the aircraft.
• No nosing over tendency during landing or braking.
• No aerodynamic bouncing on landing as attitude of the aircraft does not increase after touch
down.
• No nosing over tendency during landing or braking.
• Places the aircraft in level attitude with good visibility for the pilot.
• Easy take off with low drag in take off run.
• Easy ground maneuvering with shorter wheel base.

Landing Gear Types

Landing Gear can also be divided as two types, depending on the shock absorber method:
1. Non-absorbing type in which energy is only absorbed, but not dissipated. Examples are rigid
landing gear like skid, spring type landing gear, rubber block landing gearetc. The energy is
absorbed temporarily, but returned to the aircraft quickly.
2. Shock absorbing type in which energy is dissipated by a damper. This does this by forcing a
fluid through an orifice where energy is converted into heat which is then radiated into
atmosphere. Examples are spring oleo and air oleo.

Landing Gear Geometries

Three types of geometries are generally employed in Landing Gears:
• Telescopic geometry: In a
Telescopic geometry, a cantilever
strut houses a telescopic shock
absorber and the In a Telescopic
geometry, a cantilever strut
houses a telescopic shock
absorber and the wheel is
attached to the bottom sliding
tube. In this, the drag load acting
on the wheel will cause friction at
the bearings of the sliding tube
affecting the smooth operation
of the shock absorber. This
geometry results in lighter and
compact design.
• Articulated geometry: In an Articulated geometry, the shock absorber is hinged at both ends
and free to swing. The lower end is hinged to a wheel lever which hinges on a main fitting.
The top end is hinged to the main fitting. The wheel is carried on the lever. This geometry
results in better ride qualities due to the absence of friction in the shock absorber.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

b.) Articulated type with both ends hinged shock absorber
c.) Articulated type with Tension shock absorber
e.) Articulated type in Hinged parallelogram

• Semi articulated geometry: In a semi articulated geometry, the shock

absorber has one fixed end and the other end is hinged to the wheel
lever through a link, or the lever is attached to the main fitting
through a link. Here shock absorber motion takes place under the
action of drag load, but still there is friction at the bearings.
a) Semi articulated type with link between shock absorber and wheel
lever
d) Semi articulated type with link between
shock absorber and fitting
f) Semi-articulated type with link between
wheel lever and fitting.

Wheel Arrangements
When there are more than one wheel per leg, wheels are arranged in one of following
ways
• Tandem : One behind the other (2 wheels per leg)
• Triple : Three in line (3 wheels per leg)
• Twin : Two in line (2 wheels per leg
• Twin Tandem : Twins in tandem ( 4 wheels per leg)
• Tri Twin Tandem :Twin in 3 rows ( 6 wheels per leg)
• Dual Twin : Two twins in line ( 4 wheels per leg)
• Twin Tricycle : 3 Twins in tricycle ( 6 wheels per leg)
• Dual Twin Tandem: Dual Twins in tandem ( 8 wheels per leg)
Where wheels are arranged in tandem, it is known as a Bogie arrangement. Normally bogies
contain 4 or 6 wheels. Bogie is used to provide wide distribution of load.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

• In a bogie arrangement, one wheel/pair of wheels (either front or rear) is made to touch
down first instead of all wheels together to reduce the spin up load.
• This is achieved by a trim actuator.
• To prevent bogie wheels from bouncing on rough surfaces and to ensure that the wheels
remain in contact with runway, a hop damper is used which can be pressurized to act as
actuator to force one wheel downward.

Wheel mounting systems

1. Single wheel (with half fork)
2. Single wheel (with twin fork)
3. Twin wheels
4. Tandem wheels
5. Bogies of 4 or 6 wheel configuration for
large air transport

Four wheeled Bogie and

Strut

Disposition of Wheels
The basic requirements to be met while configuring a landing gear for an aircraft are the
following:
1) Adequate clearance with ground during taxi take off and landing.
2) Ground stability and controllability.
3) Runway flotation.
4) Energy absorption to keep the ground reaction within desired limit.
5) Airfield operational compatibility.
The main criteria for positioning of the wheels with respect to aircraft are the following:
• Adequate height to ensure clearance of the aircraft with ground under all conditions of take
off, landing and ground maneuvering.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

• No tail tipping while braking during
backward motion. A 15º angle for the
line between static contact position
of main wheel and C.G with respect to
vertical is sufficient to ensure this
requirement.
• Stability against lateral overturning
while turning with 0.5 g lateral
acceleration. Turn over angles not
exceeding 63º for smooth runway and
54º for rough runway and carrier
based aircraft are sufficient to ensure
this. This is met by a combination of
proper track for the main wheels and
wheel base.
Track–Distance between main wheels
in front view
Base –Distance between main and
nose wheel in side view

• Adequate nose wheel load of 8 to 15 % of

aircraft weight for proper steering control.
• The main wheel position shall ensure easy
rotation of aircraft for takeoff and sufficient arm
from the C.G to provide directional stability during
ground roll.

Disposition of wheels for stability (Tricycle with single nose wheel)

Landing Gear Loads

• Ground Loads act on the landing gear in all three directions:
– Vertical (z direction), caused due to vertical impact
– Drag (x direction), caused due to tire spin up (aft direction) and due to spring back
(forward direction)
– Side (y direction), due to lateral drift– Side (y direction), due to lateral drift
• The loads arise from the following cases:
– Landing Cases: Three point Level landing, Two point Level landing, Tail down landing,
One wheel landing, Drift landing.
– Ground maneuvering Cases: Braked roll (Symmetrical & Unsymmetrical), Supplementary
conditions (Turning & Steering), Towing, Jacking, Taxiing.
– Supplemental Cases: Retraction and Extension, Locking, Air loads.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

Limit and Ultimate Loads
• Limit load is the highest load likely to occur under operational conditions.
• The landing gear should perform satisfactorily without yielding (detrimental permanent
deformation not exceeding 0.2%) up to the limit load.
• Ultimate loads are obtained by applying a Factor of Safety, usually 1.5, on limit loads. At
ultimate load the landing gear shall not fail, but permanent set is allowed.
• Positive margins of safety are desirable in both yield and ultimate conditions.

Shock Absorber Design Requirements

The important criterion for shock absorber design is the sink rate, as the kinetic energy
to be absorbed and dissipated depends on it. Sink rate is the vertical component of the aircraft
velocity at touchdown. Its value depends on the glide slope and the amount of flaring before
touchdown.
Typical sink rates vary from 3 to 6 ft/sec in actual landings of land planes. But for design
purpose, a higher value is assumed to take into account , a higher value is assumed to take into
account at least 33% margin for error.
The design sink rate is specified by the Airworthiness regulation depending on the type
of aircraft. It varies from 8 to 13 ft/sec and 10 ft/sec is typical value for many aircraft.
• For basic trainer aircraft a higher value of 13 ft/sec is used.
• For STOL aircraft the design sink rate is around 15 ft/sec.
• For deck landing aircraft the value is about 20 to 25 ft/sec.
Shock absorption Methods
The Shock absorber and Tire together provide the cushioning to the aircraft during touchdown.
The kinetic energy associated with the vertical sink rate is absorbed and dissipated by
the shock absorber and tire. Thus the ground reaction is kept within tolerable level thereby
protecting the aircraft structure.
The shock absorbers can be divided into two types based on the spring used:
a) Fluid spring with gas / oil. b) Solid spring made of metal or rubber.
A shock absorber using both oil and air is known as oleo pneumatic shock absorber, which
is the most preferred one because of its high efficiency (80 to 90%). Other types include coil
spring, leaf spring, liquid spring, rubber blocks etc. which have an efficiency about 50 to 60%.

Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers v.imp

• Principle of Oleo Pneumatic shock absorber
In an oleo pneumatic shock absorber, under the external load, the oil contained in a

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

cylindrical chamber is compressed and forced through an orifice into a pre-charged gas
chamber, further compressing the gas. This action provides cushioning to reduce shock of
landing. Some energy is dissipated as heat while the oil is being forced through the orifice
(damping) and the remaining energy is absorbed by the gas spring.
Damping is provided for recoil as well to control the velocity of rebound. The stored
energy is dissipated during the recoil stroke.
The damping is proportional to square of the velocity of closure. The gas spring supports
the weight of the aircraft and acts as shock absorber during taxiing. It helps to extend the shock
absorber when aircraft is airborne (load removed).

Classification of Oleos
• Single stage : Has only one air chamber
• Two stages : Has two air chambers
• Mixing type : There is no separation between oil and air chambers
• Separator type : Oil and air are separated by a floating piston
• Two stage oleos provide varying spring characteristics and
are used to handle operation from rough airfields. Two stages
are also used in nose gears to reduce pitch oscillations due to
large variations in load caused due to braking in aircraft with
short wheel bases.
• A variable orifice area is required to maximize efficiency.
• At the beginning of the oleo stroke, the closure velocity is
less and the orifice area should be small, thereafter it
should be large to avoid sharp increase in load and again
towards the end of closure it should be again small.
• Orifice area can be varied by a hydraulic valve or with a
metering pin.
• The optimum orifice area is determined through a
mathematical simulation of landing through a dynamic
analysis using software package like ADAMS(Automatic
Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems)which is a widely
used tool for the shock absorber performance analysis.
• Virtual prototyping using these softwares helps in better,
faster and cheaper product development.

Retraction System

• Landing gear is retracted in flight to reduce aerodynamic drag. This is achieved by having a
mechanism which is actuated by a suitable actuator for retraction and extension.
• This also facilitates the aircraft to adapt to landing on different surfaces (eg. Landing on land
or water as needed).
• The mechanism is generally a 4 bar linkage which has a geometry to take all the loads and to
get accommodated in the bay space.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

• The actuator capacity is designed to cater to retracting within 6 to10 seconds under vertical
accelerations of 1.5 and maximum air load.

Retraction Actuation
• For retraction of landing gear various
actuation systems are employed.
1. Electrical retraction system using an
electric motor. This is generally used on
light aircraft.
2. Hydraulic actuation system using
hydraulic power generated by an engine
driven pump for large aircraft or electrically
operated pump in smaller aircraft.
3. Mechanical system used in small aircraft.
• Apart from a normal system for
retraction and extension an emergency
extension system is also provided.
Emergency systems consist of back up
hydraulics, stored gas energy, mechanical
system or free fall gravity systems.

Brake system
• The main functions of the brake are to stop, to control while taxiing, to hold the aircraft
during engine run up and for parking.
• Aircraft brake consists of rotor discs rotating with the wheel and stator discs which are
stationary. The discs are forced together by an actuation force and a friction torque is
generated between them. The energy is absorbed as heat in a heat sink mass. Suitable friction
material is used at the rubbing surface.
• The criteria for aircraft brake sizing are kinetic energy to be absorbed and -torque/drag to be
produced to achieve required deceleration
• The kinetic energy to be absorbed in landing is a function of the landing speed. Stopping the
aircraft in a rejected take off in an emergency requires large amount of kinetic energy to be
absorbed. This requirement decides the mass of heat sink needed.
• The design requirement for deceleration to be produced by brake is 10ft/sec 2. This
requirement decides the torque to be produced by the brake and in turn the number of rubbing
surfaces and normal force to be applied through pistons.
Antiskid system
Antiskid system is provided in high speed aircraft to prevent wheel locking and to
optimize braking for obtaining minimum stopping distance.
Modulating type: In modulating type the pressure is not dumped fully, but only modulated as
required. In this system the brake pressure is metered by a servo valve to accomplish antiskid
protection at the point of maximum braking effectiveness. Electronic controllers are employed
to control the servo valves. Modulated systems yield the shortest possible stopping distances.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

On-off type: In on-off type the brake pressure is automatically released though a on-off valve
when the wheel is about to skid. An impending skid is detected by rapid deceleration of the
wheel.

Environmental Control System

• Environmental Control System deals with the following requirements to be met for the
aircraft cabin- Ventilation, Temperature control, Humidity control, Pressurization
Also, ECS system provides cooling for the Avionics Bay as well as heat load transfer from
hydraulic, fuel and oil systems. ECS system provides de-misting, anti-icing, anti-g and rain
dispersal services.

Air Conditioning & Pressurization vimp

Air conditioning system refers to the first 3 of the above requirements, namely, control of
ventilation, temperature and humidity. For aircraft flying at low altitudes up to 10,000’, air
conditioning alone is adequate whereas pressurization is required for high altitude aircraft to
ensure required pressure of oxygen for breathing. ARP 1270 outlines aircraft cabin
pressurization control criteria.
Air Conditioning refers to adequate supply of air to the cabin with controlled temperature and
humidity. As the aircraft is operated at different levels in different temperature zones, the air
conditioning system must be capable of taking extremely cold air and warming it, or extremely
hot humid air and cooling it and dehumidifying it.
For comfort the average requirements are, about 1lb of air per minute per person for
ventilation, temperature between 18°C to 24°C, relative humidity of 30% to 60%
Some light aircraft have only ventilation along with ram air heating systems using exhaust gas
from engines. The hot air supplied as required to the cabin through a control box.

Some other light aircraft uses dedicated combustion heater to heat ram air. These systems are
suitable up to a maximum of 16000’.For aircraft flying at higher altitudes above 16000’, some
kind of air conditioning system is used.
As the ambient temperature is a variable, the air conditioning systems use heated ambient air
for its cycle.
Heating of the ambient air is either by dedicated means, or hot bleed air is taken from a gas
turbine compressor.
This hot air is then split and a portion cooled before it is mixed together to achieve the desired
temperature and supplied to the cabin.

Cooling system
Cooling of air is done by two ways
1. Air cycle machines: In this, heat is removed by a heat exchanger from compressed hot
air which is then expanded in a turbine resulting in cold air. An Air Cycle machine is also called
Cold Air Unit (CAU).

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

Different types of CAU are: Bootstrap, Brake turbine and Turbofan.
In the bootstrap CAU, the hot charge air is generated by a blower or bleed air from gas
turbine engine is taken. The air is passed through flow control valve, bypass valve, primary heat
exchanger, cold air unit and water separator. The cold air is then mixed with hot air as required
and supplied to cabin. The charge air from blower or from compressor is at a high pressure and
temperature. Bypass valve controls the amount of air that enters the heat exchanger.
One more bypass valve controls the amount of air that enters the cold air unit. Both are
controlled by temperature sensors.
The primary heat exchanger cooled by ram air. The primary heat exchanger cooled by ram air
cools the charge air at constant pressure.
The bootstrap cold air unit has 3 components, compressor, heat exchanger and turbine.
Compressor and turbine are linked together.
The system is referred to as a bootstrap as it is able to self start. As soon as air flows
across the turbine it starts to rotate and then its compressor increases the airflow which
accelerates the turbine. Due to increased load from the turbine they self regulate.
The output from the compressor is passed through secondary heat exchanger before supplied
to turbine. The air that is expanded in the turbine is cold air.
2. Vapor cycle machines: Vapor Cycle system is a closed loop system where heat load is
absorbed by evaporation of a liquid refrigerant such as Freon. The refrigerant passes through a
compressor and then cooled in a condenser. It flows back to the evaporator via an expansion
valve. Vapor cycle machines, though more efficient, are heavier than Air cycle machines.

Cabin Air conditioning

Water extractor removes excess moisture. Water particles are removed through a
diffuser that slows the airflow and guides it over a coalescer and the water is extracted. Dried
air leaving water separator is than mixed with hot air and supplied to the cabin.

Pressurization system
Cabin pressurization is done to safeguard humans from effects of hypoxia at high
altitudes. Hypoxia is the sickness caused due to reduced partial pressure of oxygen. Partial
pressure of oxygen above 8000’ altitude is not comfortable, and hence ambient pressure in
cabin is to be maintained at 10.92 psi (8000’ cabin altitude) or higher.Maximum safe altitude
for pilots to operate without supplementary oxygen is 15000’. Above 20,000’ loss of
consciousness sets in.
Maintaining cabin differential pressure causes stress on aircraft structure and an upper
limit of 9.5 psi is fixed by airworthiness regulations. So to protect the aircraft from structural
damage due to excessive pressure differential two outward relief valves called safety valves and
two inward relief valves are fitted.
Cabin is pressurized by using ventilation air from the air conditioning system. The inflow
is considered fixed. The cabin pressure is determined by controlling the outflow of this air.
During aircraft’s climb, air has to be allowed to escape from the cabin at a greater rate than
inflow from the air conditioning system to allow the cabin altitude to climb. When the aircraft
and the cabin altitudes arrive at their predetermined level, the outflow must equal inflow.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

The major component
in the cabin
pressurization system
is the outflow or
discharge valve.
Rate of change is the
value in ft/minute by
which the cabin
altitude is allowed to
ascend or descend. The
maximum allowed rate
of change for human
comfort due to human
ear physiology is 500 fpm for ascent and 300 fpm for descent. An example for Rate of Change of
Cabin Pressure is as shown in the graph.

Auxiliary Power Unit

Auxiliary Power unit (APU) is a small gas turbine engine which supplies pneumatic
/hydraulic/ electrical power to the aircraft systems when main engines are not running.
It is started by an electrical motor prior to aircraft engine starting. It supplies the pneumatic
power from its starting. It supplies the pneumatic power from its compressors for starting of
the first aircraft engine. Further cross bleed air can be used to start other engines.
APU will be mounted with electrical generators and hydraulic pumps for generating energy.

Aircraft Electrical & Electronic Systems

What is Avionics?
• Avionics is actually a combination of Aviation & Electronics.
• Represents the field of technology that encompasses the electronic equipment and
systems that are used on aircraft and aircraft components.
• Avionics equipment is usually thought of as different from electrical or
electromechanical aircraft equipment but the lines between electrical systems and
avionics systems are not always distinct, especially in the more modern aircraft.
• Supports the goal of helping flight crews get safely from pint to point.
• Avionics helps pilots with their responsibilities in the cockpit to
– Aviate (Tracking and Controlling Aircraft Pitch, roll and yaw)
– Navigate (track position, way point estimates, deviation from desired course,
avoiding collision with obstacles, in all weather conditions)
– Communicate (communicate flight progress with others who need to know –
other crew members, ATC, other aircraft, Flight Service Stations and airlines).

What are the functions of Avionics?

• Function of Avionics Systems is to receive, compute and display
– Navigation data,

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

 – sense flight parameters,
– correlate information,
– consolidate and present information to crew,
– support crew by automating functions like flight control and flight management,
– enhance safety,
– improve flight performance,
– permit communication with external elements.
– Help crews manage their workload, onboard systems and the flight situation

Terminologies used in Avionics

ADF Automatic Direction Finder. An aircraft radio navigation which senses and indicates the
direction to a Low/Medium Frequency non-directional radio beacon (NDB) ground transmitter.
DME Distance Measuring Equipment. Ground and aircraft equipment which provide distance
information and primary serve operational needs of en-route or terminal area navigation.
EAT Estimated Approach Time
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System , in which multi-function CRT displays replace
traditional instruments for providing flight, navigation and aircraft system information, forming
a so-called " glass cockpit ".
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
GPS Global Positioning System. A navigation system based on the transmission of signals from
satellites provided and maintained by the United States of America and available to civil
aviation users.
HDG Heading. The direction in which an aircraft's nose points in flight in the horizontal plane,
expressed in compass degrees (eg. 000 or 360 is North, 090 is East)
HSI Horizontal Situation Indicator. A cockpit navigation display, usually part of a flight-director
system, which combines navigation and heading.
IFR Instrument Flight Rule . prescribed for the operation of aircraft in instrument
meteorological condition.
ILS Instrument Landing System . consists of the localizer, the glideslope and marker radio
beacons (outer, middle, inner). It provides horizontal and vertical guidance for the approach.
INS Inertial Navigation System. It uses gyroscopes and other electronic tracking systems to
detect acceleration and deceleration, and computes an aircraft's position in latitude and
longitude. Its accuracy, however, declines on long flights. Also called IRS, or Inertial Reference
System.
KNOT (kt) Standard Unit of speed in aviation and marine transportation, equivalent to one
nautical mile per hour. One knot is equal to 1.1515 mph., and one nautical mile equals to 6,080
feet or 1.1515 miles. One knot is equal to one nautical mile per one hour.
LORAN C Long Range Navigation is a Long-Range low frequency Radio Navigation. Its range is
about 1,200 nm by day to 2,300 nm. by night.

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MAGNETIC COURSE Horizontal direction, measured in degrees clockwise from the magnetic
north.
MACH NUMBER Ratio of true airspeed to the speed of sound. Mach 1 is the speed of sound at
sea level. Its values is approximately 760 mph.
NDB Non-Directional Beacon. A medium frequency navigational aid which transmits non-
directional signals , superimposed with a Morse code identifier and received by an aircraft's
ADF.
RMI Radio Magnetic Indicator. A navigation aid which combines DI ,VOR and /or ADF display
and will indicate bearings to stations, together with aircraft heading.
RNAV Area Navigation. A system of radio navigation which permits direct point-to-point off-
airways navigation by means of an on-board computer creating phantom VOR/DME
transmitters termed waypoints.
TACAN TACtical Air Navigation. Combines VOR and DME and used by military aircraft
only.System which uses UHF frequencies , providing information about the bearing and
distance from the ground station we have tuned into.
TCAS Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System. Radar based airborne collision avoidance
system operating independently of ground-based equipment. TCAS-I generates traffic
advisories only. TCAS-II provides advisories and collision avoidance instructions in the vertical
plane.
TRANSPONDER Airborne receiver / transmitter which receives the interrogation signal from the
ground and automatically replies according to mode and code selected. Mode A and B wre used
for identification, using a four digit number allocated by air traffic control. Mode C gives
automatic altitude readout from an encoding altimeter.
VFR Visual Flight Rules. Rules applicable to flights in visual meteorological conditions.
VHF Very High Frequency. Radio frequency in the 30-300 Mhz band, used for most civil air to
ground communication.
VOR Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range. A radio navigation aid operating in the 108-
118 Mhz band. A VOR groun station transmits a two- phase directional signal through 360
degrees. The aircraft's VOR receiver enables a pilot to identify his radial or bearing From/To the
ground station . VOR is the most commonly used radio navigation aid in private flying.
VORTAC A special VOR which combines VOR and DME for civil and military used . System
provides information about the bearing and distance from the ground station we have tuned
into.
Aircraft Navigation Systems
• Finding the way from one place to another is called NAVIGATION.
• Moving of an aircraft from one point to another is the most important part for any kind
of mission. Plotting on the paper or on the map a course towards a specific area of the
earth , in the past, used to be a task assigned to a specialized member of the aircraft's
crew such a navigator. Such a task was quite complicated and not always accurate. Since

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 it depended on the observation , using simple maps and geometrical instruments for
calculations.
• Today, aerial navigation has become an art which nears to perfection. Both external
Navaids (Navigational Aids) and on-board systems help navigate any aircraft over
thousand of miles with such accuracy that could only be imagined a few decades ago.

Methods of Navigation V.IMP

There are three main methods of air navigation. There are:
1. Pilotage , 2. Dead Reckoning , 3. Radio.
1. Pilotage or Piloting: is the most common method of air navigation. This method, the pilot
keeps on course by following a series of landmarks on the ground. Usually before take-off,
pilot will making pre-flight planning , the pilot will draws a line on the aeronautical map to
indicate the desired course. Pilot will notes various landmarks , such as highways , railroad
tracks, rivers , bridges . As the pilot flies over each of landmark , pilot will checks it off on
the chart or map. If the plane does not pass directly over the landmark , the pilot will know
that he has to correct the course.
2. Dead Reckoning
Dead Reckoning is the primary navigation method used in the early days of flying. It is the
method on which Lindberg relied on his first trans-Atlantic flight. A pilot used this method
when flying over large bodies of water, forest, deserts. It demands more skill and
experience than pilotage does. It is based on time, distance, and direction only.
The pilot must know the distance from one point to the next, the magnetic heading to be
flown. Pilot works on the pre-flight plan chart , pilot plan a route in advance. Pilot calculate
the time to know exactly to reach the destination while flying at constant speed. In the air,
the pilot uses compass to keep the plane heading in the right direction. Dead reckoning is
not always a successful method of navigation because of changing wind direction. It is the
fundamental of VFR flight.
3. Radio Navigation
Radio Navigation is used by almost all pilots. Pilots can find out from an aeronautical chart
what radio station they should tune to in a particular area. They can then tune their radio
navigation equipment to a signal from this station. A needle on the navigation equipment
tells the pilot where they are flying to or from station, on course or not
• Navigating Across Oceans Pilots have special methods for navigating across oceans.
Three commonly used methods are:
1. Inertial Guidance: This system has computer and other special devices that tell pilots
where are the plane located.
2.LORAN: Long Range Navigation The plane has equipment for receiving special radio
signals sent out continuous from transmitter stations. The signals will indicate the plane
location
3.GPS Global Positioning System: is the only system today able to show your exact

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

 position on the earth any time, anywhere, and any weather. The system receiver on the
aircraft will receives the signals from satellites around the globe.

Present information to Crew - Display system Purpose & Functions

Provides situational awareness to the pilot by displaying flight critical information for
successful completion of the mission.
• Type of Information displayed
• Primary flight performance - Airspeed, Attitude, Altitude, Heading, Vertical
Speed, Radio Direction & Distance, etc.
• Navigation – Flight plan, approach, VOR, moving map, Situation awareness, …
• Engines – Torque, Np, Ng, ITT (Turbine inlet temperatures) , Oil Pressure, Oil
Temperature, Fuel Pressure, Fuel Flow, Fuel Qty (different tanks)
• Aircraft Utility System
• Pressurization/ air conditioning
• Hydraulic Power
• Auxiliary Power unit
Flight deck

Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)

An Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) is a flight deck instrument display system in
which the display technology used is electronic rather than electromechanical. EFIS
normally consists of a primary flight display (PFD), multi-function display (MFD) and
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) display. Although cathode ray tube
(CRT) displays were used at first, liquid crystal displays (LCD) are now more common

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

 PFD/ND Format

Some important components of PFD

• An attitude indicator (AI), also known as gyro horizon or artificial horizon, is an instrument
used in an aircraft to inform the pilot of the orientation of the aircraft relative to earth. It
indicates pitch (fore and aft tilt) and bank or roll (side to side tilt) and is a primary
instrument for flight in instrument meteorological conditions. Attitude indicators also have
significant application under visual flight rules, though some light aircraft do not have them
installed.
• The horizontal situation indicator (commonly called the HSI) is an aircraft instrument
normally mounted below the artificial horizon in place of a conventional heading indicator.
It combines a heading indicator with a VOR/ILS display, reducing pilot workload by lessening
the number of elements in the pilot's instrument scan to the six basic flight instruments.
Among other advantages, the HSI offers freedom from the confusion of reverse sensing on a
localizer backcourse approach. On a front course approach, the HSI needle is set to the
inbound track; on a back course approach, the HSI needle is set to the outbound rather than
the inbound track, causing needle deflection that mimics a front course approach instead of
displaying the normal reverse sensing.
• A moving altitude tape for a flight instrument display adapted to provide intuitive visual
cues for determining deviation from a desired altitude. A window incorporates a digital
altitude readout and a pointer index which is aligned with calibration marks on the altitude
tape. In use the tape exhibits a motion in accordance with deviations in altitude of the
aircraft and displays a vernier indication of such deviations with respect to the reference
index. The tape further includes indicia associated with the reference index for defining

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

 predetermined increments of altitude deviation in accordance with commonly commanded
altitudes, and a further pointer indicative of actual altitude deviation from a preset altitude.
• Altitude tape and integral vertical speed indicator: A device for enhancing altitude
awareness in an avionics display is disclosed. The device includes an altitude indicator that
displays a current altitude on the avionics display. A scrolling display of altitude levels is
displayed with the altitude indicator on the avionics display. The scrolling display includes a
plurality of scaled numbers that represent predetermined intervals of altitude levels
surrounding the current altitude. The scrolling display also includes a non-numeric graphic
construct that is displayed adjacent the plurality of scaled numbers. The graphic construct
has first and second substantially mirror-image portions that are positioned on first and
second opposing sides of the plurality of scaled numbers. A controller causes the altitude
indicator to display the current altitude on the avionics display.

EFIS Format

Navigation Aids

• Air navigation needs

1. Earth model for reference
2. A co-ordinate system to identify position/fixes and to compute distances
3. Navigational aids for reducing the workload of Navigator/pilot
• Basic Navigation aids
Aeronautical Charts: specialized maps that show more than geographical features -
1. Navigation aids and airways which are highways in the air
2. Location of airports, Land marks like mountains, rivers, lakes etc.

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

 3. National borders
• Magnetic compass

CNSA Systems
• Communication
Infrastructure providing connectivity
between Air-Ground and Ground-
Ground systems
• Navigation
Helps in en route navigation
• Surveillance
Helps gathering weather reports,
collision detection etc.
• Air Traffic Management
Managing Air Traffic
Integrated CNS Architecture to
improve ATM

Navigation Systems –Methods

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design

Raghavendra Pai ; Introduction to Aircraft Design