MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

KHERSON STATE MARITIME ACADEMY

VESSEL’S POWER PLANTS OPERATION DEPARTMENT

COURSE PROJECT

on the subject “Marine internal combustion engines” on the topic

Thermal, kinematics, dynamics and strength calculation of the marine

medium-speed diesel engine MAN B&W 7L48/54

Course project supervisor 5/ Ph.D., asoc. prof. Yu. Bohdan

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Петров 20__ .
Carried out cadet of the 233 G. Green
group «__» __________ 20__ .

Kherson – 20__
 Kherson state maritime academy
(institution of higher education)

Department Vessel’s power plants operation department

Subject Marine internal combustion engines
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Educational program Exploitation of ship power plant
Year _____________Group __________________Semester
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of the course project for cadet

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(surname, name)

1. Course project topic

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2. Course project deadline
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3. Initial data for course project
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4. Content of calculation and explanation note (list of question)
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5. List of drawings (with exact indication of required drawings)
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6. Task issue date
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CALENDAR SCHEDULE
Deadline of the
Sec. № Course project stage name Notice
project stage

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Cadet _________________________ _

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Supervisor _________________________ _

(signature) (surname, name, patronymic)

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 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................4
SECTION 1 DIESEL ENGINE PROTOTYPE FEATURES ANALYSIS.............6
1.1 Main characteristics of the diesel engine MAN-B&W 7L58/64........................6
1.2 Engine’s non movable main parts......................................................................8
1.3 Engine’s movable main parts...........................................................................13
SECTION 2 ENGINE CYCLE THERMODYNAMIC CALCULATION.........20

2.1 Selection and justification of the design features of the engine, as well as its
geometrical parameters.........................................................................................20

2.2 Selection and justification of the initial data for the thermodynamic
calculation of the engine cycle..............................................................................25

2.3 Engine thermal (engine cycle) calculation......................................................28

2.3.1 Content and properties of fuel-air mixture and combustion products..........28

2.3.2 Air inlet process (Charging).........................................................................29

2.3.3 Compression process....................................................................................31

2.3.4 Combustion process.....................................................................................31

2.3.5 Expansion process........................................................................................33

2.3.6 Exhaust process............................................................................................34

2.3.7 Indicated parameters of the cycle.................................................................34

2.3.8 Effective parameters of the engine...............................................................35

2.3.9 Specification of the main engine dimensions...............................................36

2.4 Construction of the indicator diagram.............................................................37

2.4.1 Construction of the four-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram.................37

2.4.2 Construction of the two-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram.................40

KSMA.271.VPPOD.CP.MICE.01.00
Cha Shee № Signat Dat
nge
t document
Develope Green GI. ure e .EN.Letter Sheet Sheets
Thermal, kinematics,
d
Checked Bohdan dynamics and strength 3
Tech. Yu.O.
Bohdan calculation of the marine
control
Reg.contr Yu.O.
Bohdan medium-speed diesel KSMA, gr.233 fst
ol
Approved Yu.O.
Savchuk engine MAN B&W 7L48/54
V.P.
SECTION 3 KINEMATIC AND DYNAMIC CALCULATION OF
MARINE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES............................................42

3.1 Kinematic analysis of the crank mechanism...................................................42

3.2 Dynamic calculation of an engine...................................................................45

SECTION 4 STRENGTH CALCULATION OF PISTON GROUP DETAILS

OF MARINE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES......................................51

4.1 Strength calculation of piston..........................................................................51

4.1.1 Designing dimensions and shape of pistons.................................................51

4.1.2 Strength calculation of piston.......................................................................55

CONCLUSIONS...................................................................................................58

REFERENCES......................................................................................................59
 INTRODUCTION

The new four-stroke, heavy-fuel engine will be produced as in-line units

with 6, 7, 8, and 9 cylinders developing 1,650 bhp per cylinder at 428 rpm, having
a bmep of 20 x 15 bars (292 psi), providing a power range (mcr) from 9,900 to
14,850 bhp.
The L58/64 diesel is a logical upgrading of M.A.N, medium-speed engines
that have rendered excellent service in operation on heavy fuel for almost 20 years.
This early understanding of heavy fuel burning characteristics was further extened
by the 40/45 engine type, which was launched on the market in the 1970s,
introducing a modern concept with high firing pressure—the basis for low fuel
consumption. The 40/45 engines with the longest service record have logged
almost 30,000 hours of operation and have proved to be highly reliable in
operation on the heavy fuel oil grades bunkered throughout the world. For this
reason, this impressive engine type has "fathered" the major components of the
L58/64 engine, as reliability is of particular importance for marine main engines.
During the development of the L58/64 engine, particular emphasis was
placed on the following points: • low fuel consumption rates; • adaptability to
varying operating and environmental conditions as well as fuel ignition qualities; •
high reliability; and • simple and easy maintenance.
The L58/64 follows the same sturdy design philosophy as predecessor
trunk-piston engines of M.A.N, design. Though the new engine is comparatively
large, the frame consists of one sturdy casting, with an underslung crankshaft
supported by bearings that are positioned and locked to the engine frame by both
vertical and horizontal bolts. The shape of the resultant structure resembles a
reinforced tunnel distinguished by very high stability of the main bearings during
engine operation.
The significance of the injection system for low fuel consumption rates was
taken into account by a great development effort in the design of the L58/64.
Measurements taken on engines of different sizes, as well as theoretical
investigations, have revealed that reductions in fuel consumption are obtainable
with higher injection pressures. The injection system of the 58/64 engine has
therefore been designed for pressures of 1,300 bars.
During the test of the 3-cylinder trial L58/64 engine, the low fuel
consumption rate of 125 grams per horsepower hour (0.27 lbs/hph) measured after
the first 100 hours of operation is particularly noteworthy because, at that time,
combustion had not been optimized. It should be borne in mind that the mechanical
efficiency of a 3-cylinder engine is comparatively low.
The turborcharger, which is smaller than that of production engines,
negatively influences the fuel consumption rate as well. Considering these factors,
the low fuel consumption rates aimed at for production 58/64 engines operating at
different loads, including 123 g/hph at 85 percent of economy continuous rating,
will definitely be reached and most probably even be undercut. M.A.N, estimates
that the specific fuel consumption rate of the 9-cylinder 9L58/64 engine will be
121 g/hph.
The test engine has been operated from the very beginning on 7,000 sec
Redwood 1 fuel.
In addition to high operating efficiency, the 58/64 engines will provide an
excellent opportunity for high waste heat recovery. Exhaust gas temperature
downstream of the turbocharger will be 660 F over a broad operating range.
In a number of marine applications, this means that the at-sea electrical
load can be produced by the waste heat recovery system instead of operating an
auxiliary diesel generator, an added fuel saving.
M.A.N.-B&W Diesel also produces a full line of two-stroke and four-
stroke diesel engines with outputs from 500 to more than 56,000 bhp, heavy-fuel-
burning auxiliary engine generator sets, complete propulsion systems with
reduction gearing and controllable- pitch propellers, stationary power plants, and
cogeneration packages.
An eight-page color brochure and a 64-page technical report on the new
L58/64 engine are now available. These contain detailed technical data including
specifications, ratings, performance data, test results, photographs, and cross
section color drawings of the new engine and its key components.
 SECTION 1
DIESEL ENGINE PROTOTYPE FEATURES ANALYSIS

1.1 Main characteristics of the diesel engine MAN-B&W 7L58/64

Maker…..…………………………..……. MAN B&W Diesel

Augsburg/Germany;
Quantity..…………………………………1;
Type..……………………………………..MAN-B&W 7L58/64
Ships 7 cylinders
diesel engine, single acting,
four-stroke, medium speed,
direct injection,
non-reversible, turbocharged;
Cylinder diameter…………………..……580 mm;

Piston stroke……………………………...640 mm;

Engine speed…………..………………....428 min-1;

Cylinder power…………………………..1390 kW;

Combustion pressure………….................15 МPа;

Compression pressure................................13,5 МPа;

Mean effective pressure…..……………...2,3 МPа

Compression ratio..………………………13,2

Charging air pressure………......................0, 27 МPа

Specify fuel oil consumption……………..0,180 kg/kW·hour;

Maximum continuing rating………………9730 kW (at n = 428,0 min-1);

 Fuel oil.…………………………………...heavy fuel (fuel oil viscosity
380 sSt at 50 ºС)
and MDO.
Direction of crankshaft rotation…………..counterclockwise
Firing order………………...……………...1-3-5-7-6-4-2-1

Ship diesel engine MAN-B&W 7L58/64 (Fig. 1.1) is L-type, single acting,
four-stroke, medium speed with direct injection of fuel oil, turbocharged and
nonreversible.

Figure 1.1 – Cross section of diesel engine MAN-B&W 7L58/64:

1 – piston; 2 – cylinder liner; 3 – exhaust valve drive mechanism;
4 – camshaft; 5 – connecting rod; 6 – crankshaft; 7 – crosshead unit; 8 – air cooler;
9 – air receiver; 10 – turbocharger
1.2 Engine’s non movable main parts
Crankcase
Crankcase/main bearing/tie rod
The engine crankcase (4) is made of cast iron (see Fig. 1.2). It is made in one
piece and designed to be very rigid. Tie rods (3) reach from the lower edge of the
suspended crankshaft bearing to the upper edge of the crankcase and from the
upper edge of the cylinder head (1) to the diaphragm. The bearing caps (6) of the
main bearing are in addition laterally tensioned using the casing. The camshaft
drive cogs and the oscillation damper casing are integrated in the crankcase.

Figure 1.2 - Main components: 1 Cylinder head; 2 Backing ring; 3 Tie rods;
4 Crankcase; 5 Crankshaft; 6 Main bearing cap; 7 Cross rods

Cooling water/lubrication oil

 The crankcase does not have any water passages. The lubrication oil is fed to
the engine through a distribution pipe which is arranged on the exhaust side over
the crankcase covers. This pipe supplies the main bearing, connecting rod bearing,
camshaft drive, camshaft, eccentric shaft fuel injection pumps, the block distributor
of the cylinder lubrication system and the turbo supercharger.
Access
Through large covers on the side walls (see Fig. 1.3) the running gear
components are easily accessible. On ships’ engines, the crankcase covers on the
exhaust side are generally equipped with safety valves and are equipped in the
same way on some stationary engines.

Figure 1.3 – Crankcase viewed from the coupling end

Oil sump
The oil sump is welded from sheet steel. It catches oil which drips from the
engine and feeds it into the lower-lying lubrication oil tank. In the case of engines
with semi-resilient bearings or rigid bearings, an oil sump without fittings (a) is
used. In the case of engines with resilient bearings, reinforced oil sumps such as
designs (b) or (c) are used (see Fig. 1.5).
Figure 1.4 a) Without fittings b) V-oil sump c) Reinforced oil sump

Bearing cap/tie rods

The main bearing covers (6) are arranged in a suspended position (Fig. 1.5).
They are held by the continuous tie rods (3). The cross-tension is maintained by
the cross rods (7). They stabilize the form of the bearing box and prevent lateral
yielding of the crankcase under the effective ignition pressures.

Figure 1.5 – 3 Tie rods; 4 Crankcase; 5 Crankshaft; 6 Main bearing cap;

7 Borehole for cross rods; 8 Bearing shell; 21 Camshaft drive Cogs

Locating bearing
The locating bearing, which establishes the axial position of the crankshaft,
is arranged on the coupling end. It consists of the bipartite camshaft drive cog on
the crankshaft and of wearing rings, which rest on the first thrust bearings.
 Cylinder liner
Cylinder liner/backing ring/top land ring. The upper area of the special cast
iron cylinder liners (15) is surrounded by a spheroidal graphite iron backing ring
(see Fig. 1.11). This is centered in the crankcase (4). The lower area of the cylinder
liner is guided by the diaphragm of the crankcase. There is a top land ring on (14)
the cylinder liner join.
The division into 3 components, i.e. into cylinder liner, backing ring and top
land ring means the best possible design with regard to safety from distortion,
cooling and the guarantee of minimal temperatures of certain parts.

Figure 1.11 – Cylinder liner, top land ring and backing ring: 2 Backing ring;
4 Crankcase; 14 Top land ring; 15 Cylinder liner
The top land ring (14) which protrudes opposite the cylinder liner bore hole
works together with the recessed piston crown of the differential piston, so that any
coke coatings on the piston crown do not come into contact with the running
surface of the cylinder liner (15). This thus avoids bare polished areas on which
lubricating oil adheres badly.
Cooling
The cooling water reaches the cylinder liner via a pipeline which is
connected to the backing ring. The water cools the upper part of the cylinder liner,
flows through the bore holes in the top land ring (jet-cooling) and flows through
holes in the backing ring back to the cooling chambers of the cylinder head. The
cylinder head, backing ring and top land ring can be drained as one.
 The top land ring, cylinder liner and cylinder head can be checked for gas
tightness and cooling water leakages using the bore holes in the backing ring.

Cylinder head/rocker arm casing

The cylinder heads are made from spheroidal graphite iron. They are held
against the top land ring by eight stud bolts. The strong floor of the cylinder heads
cooled by bore holes as well as the inner part strengthened with ribs guarantee a
high degree of designed strength.

Valves in the cylinder head

The cylinder head has 2 inlet valves (16) and 2 exhaust valves (17) which
are built in to valve cages (19), 1 starting valve as well as 1 indicator valve and (in
the case of ships’ motors) 1 safety valve. The fuel injection valve (18) lies between
the valves in a central position. It is surrounded by asleeve which is sealed in the
lower area from both the surrounding cooling water space as well as from the
combustion chamber (see Fig. 1.12).

Figure 1.12. Cylinder head: 1 Cylinder head; 16 Inlet valve; 17 Exhaust

valve; 18 Fuel injection valve; 19 Valve cage

Connections
The connections between the cylinder head and the exhaust pipe are made
using snap closures.
Rocker arm casing/valve drive
The cylinder head is locked upwards by the rocker arm casing and a cover,
through which the valves and the injection valve are easily accessible (Fig. 1.13).
 Figure 1.13 – Rocker arm casing (inlet valve on left, exhaust valve on right)

1.3 Engine’s movable main parts

Crankshaft
Crankshaft/counterweights/drive wheel
The crankshaft is forged from a special steel. It is arranged in the head and
has two counterweights per cylinder held by anti-fatigue bolts for the extensive
balancing of the oscillating weights (see Fig. 1.6). The drive wheel for the geared
drive consists of two segments. They are held together by four tangentially
arranged screws.

Figure 1.6 – Crankshaft

Fly wheel
 The fly wheel is arranged on the flange of the crankshaft on the side of the
coupling. The engine can be turned during maintenance work by a turning gear
using its rim gear.

Torsional vibration damper

Rotary oscillations, produced by the crankshaft when excited, are reduced
using a vibration damper (see Fig. 1.8), which is arranged on the opposite side to
the coupling. The vibrations are transmitted from the inner part to assemblies of
case springs and there are damped through friction and cushioning. The inner is
designed so that cooling water and lubrication oil pumps can be driven using a rim
gear screwed on (not visible in figure).

Figure 1.8 -Torsional vibration damper, partially fitted with spring

assemblies
 Figure 1.9 – Connecting rod

Connecting rod with two parting Lines

The connecting rod parting line lies below the eye of the connecting rod (see
Fig. 1.9). Therefore the connecting rod bearing does not have to be opened when
removing the piston. This has advantages for operational safety (no change in
position/no new adjustments), and this method of construction reduces the piston
fitting height.
The bearing shells are identical with those of the main bearing. The bearing
cap and connecting rod head are both screwed together with anti-fatigue bolts (stud
bolts).

Bearing shells
 The connecting rod parting line lies below the eye of the connecting rod (see
Fig. 1.9). Therefore the connecting rod bearing does not have to be opened when
removing the piston. This has advantages for operational

Piston
Constructive characteristics
Basically, the piston consists of two parts (see Fig. 1.10). The piston crown
(9) is forged from high-quality materials. The lower part is made from aluminium
alloy. The choice of materials and the constructive design produce a high level of
resistance to the ignition pressures which are created and allow close piston play.
Close piston play as well as the method of construction of the piston as a
differential piston reduce the mechanical load on the piston rings (11), prevent the
ingress of abrasive particles and protect the oil film from combustion gases.
Cooling
The special form of the piston crown (9) makes effective cooling easier.
Cooling is carried out using oil. It is supported by the shaker effect inside and
outside as well as by an additional row of cooling holes on the piston egde. In this
way the temperatures are adjusted so that the thermal / mechanical stresses can be
controlled and cold condition corrosion in the ring grooves can simultaneously be
avoided. The ring grooves are inductively hardened. Subsequent machining is
possible.
The cooling oil is fed through the connecting rod. The transfer from the
oscillating connecting rod to the upper part of the piston is carried out using a
funnel on spring bearings which slides on the outer contour of the connecting rod
eye.
 Figure 1.10 – Piston - bipartite, oil cooled: 9 Piston crown; 10 Anti-fatigue
bolt; 11 Compression ring; 12 Oil control ring; 13 Connecting rod; 20 Piston pin

“Differential piston”
Compared to the remaining running surface, the piston crown (9) has a
somewhat smaller diameter. Pistons of this design are called differential pistons.
An explanation on the purpose of the step can be found under the following point
“Cylinder liner”.
Piston rings
The upper and lower parts are connected with one another using anti-fatigue
bolts (10). There are 3 compression rings (11) and an oil control ring (12) to seal
between the piston and the cylinder liner. The 1 st compression ring has a chrome-
ceramic coating. The 2nd and 3rd rings are chrome coated. All the compression
rings are arranged in the wear-resistant and well cooled steel crown.
Piston pin.
The piston pin (20) is on a floating bearing in the piston and fixed axially to
the safety rings. There are no bore holes to affect the formation of an oil film or
rigidity.

Control drive/camshaft drive

Arrangement of the camshaft drive and the intermediate wheels The
camshaft drive is integrated in the crankcase (see Fig. 1.14). It is placed on the
coupling end between the first main bearings. The drive of the camshaft wheel is
carried out over two spur toothed intermediate wheels through a gear rim on the
crankshaft (1). The first intermediate wheel has a large rim gear on the drive side
and a small one on the power take-off side. The second intermediate wheel drives
the camshaft (2) over a press-on wheel.

Figure 1.14 – Camshaft drive: 1 Crankshaft; 2 Camshaft

 The intermediate wheels run on axes which are inserted and screwed from
the outside.
Lubrication oil supply
The bearing bushes of the cogs are supplied with lubrication oil by the axes
which supply the meshing using spray nozzles.

Camshaft
The engine has a multi-part camshaft, which activates the gas exchange and
the fuel injection pumps (see Fig. 1.15). The cams are shrunk on hydraulically. The
shaft pieces are connected through the exhaust cam using conical sleeves.

Figure 1.15 – Camshaft

The camshaft lies together with the cam follower shaft and the rocker arms
in a formed trough. The bearing caps are arranged vertically. The bearings are two-
component bearing shells. Each cylinder has an injection cam (3), an inlet valve
cam (4), an exhaust valve cam (5) and a starter cam (6) (Fig. 1.15).

Thrust bearing
There are thrust bearings to position the camshaft longitudinally. They are
integrated in the vibration damper of the camshaft and arranged on the opposite
side to the coupling.

Valve drive
Camshaft-rocker arm-stop rods
The stop rod drive for the inlet and exhaust valves is carried out by the
camshaft over inlet and exhaust rockers (8), which are carried on short shaft pieces
and pick up the cam movement through a coil (see Fig. 1.16).
 Figure 1.16 – Camshaft with rocker arms: 3 Injection cam; 4 inlet valve
cam; 5 Exhaust valve cam; 6 Starter cam; 7 Pulse pipe of the starter disk cam; 8
Rocker arm; 9 Eccentric shaft

Activating the valves

The movement of the inlet valve stop rod is transferred through an
articulated lever to the valves. The exhaust valves are driven over an intermediate
lever. The rocker levers are carried in the casing on full floating axles (see Fig.
1.17).

Figure 1.17 – Rocker arm casing (inlet valves on left, exhaust valves on
right)
 SECTION 2

ENGINE CYCLE THERMODYNAMIC CALCULATION

2.1 Selection and justification of the design features of the engine, as well as its
geometrical parameters

Selection and justification of design and operational parameters

When choosing and justifying the magnitude of the initial parameters and
factors of the internal combustion engine, one should proceed from the main trends
and directions of development of modern ship engines.
The main tasks of the ship engine building are the following:
 increasing fuel efficiency;
 reducing oil consumption;
 using of alternative fuels;
 reducing of toxicity;
 increasing in liter and piston power;
 reducing in weight and dimensions.
Taking into account these and other tasks, the initial parameters of the engine
under consideration should be selected.
Engine type. On small-tonnage vessels used gasoline engines with spark
ignition.
Gasoline engines – the most massive ICE used on small-tonnage vessels,
yachts, boats. This is due to their advantage over diesel engines in mass, speed and
tugging performance, less noise and lower manufacturing cost.
The use of two-stroke diesel engines as the main ones on large-tonnage vessels
is explained by:
 high efficiency, which is associated with high efficiency of such engines;
 the possibility of obtaining large aggregate capacity (up to 100 MW);
 the ability to transfer power directly to the propeller, which greatly simplifies
the design of the transmission;
 the ability to work on low-grade fuels;
 a great durability.
The use of four-stroke diesel engines as the main ones on medium- and large-
tonnage vessels, as well as their use to drive the auxiliary units of the SPP, is
explained by:
 higher fuel efficiency inherent in the working cycle, especially in partial
modes, which ensures a reduction in fuel operating costs by 25...40 % compared
with other types of engines;
  lower fuel cost, which is primarily associated with the transfer of most
modern medium-speed engines to heavy fuel;
 gradual decrease of energy, overall and mass parameters of diesel engines due
to their forcing at the engine speed and the mean effective pressure by improving
the gas exchange process, more efficient use of air during mixing and combustion;
 less toxic exhaust gases;
 high service life of diesel engines;
 approximation of the cost of production of diesel engines and other types of
engines;
 the ability to create multi-engine units for which the optimal combination of
the number of operating engines and their load depending on the given speed of the
vessel can be chosen.
Compression ratio (ε). The compression ratio can be defined as the value
obtained by dividing the total cylinder volume (stroke or swept volume) by the
volume of combustion chamber (clearance volume). Compression ratio is generally
between 12 and 19; however, it depends on the design of the engine. Compression
ratio outside this ratio would either prevent the engine from starting or lead to
other problems. Marine engines with smaller cylinders will have higher
compression ratio.
In all types of engines, with an increase in the compression ratio, the heat
utilization improves, and, consequently, the indicated efficiency of the engine
improves, which has a positive effect on their performance. However, at the same
time, at medium and maximum loads, the toxicity of exhaust gases increases (the
amount of hydrocarbons due to an increase in the volume of the wall layer during
the combustion process and the amount of nitrogen oxides due to an increase in the
combustion temperature). The load on the crank mechanism also increases, and in
order to ensure the reliability of the engine, it is necessary to increase the
dimensions and weight of its main parts accordingly. As a result, mechanical losses
increase.
In four-stroke diesel engines, with an increase in the compression ratio, the
temperature and pressure in the period of the start of fuel injection increase, which
leads to a “softer” engine operation. Therefore, in multi-fuel diesel engines ε = 21
and higher. Increasing ε is also advisable to improve diesel starting. The indicated
efficiency in the range of compression ratios (ε = 14.5...19) used in diesel engines
varies slightly. An increase in temperature at large ε leads to an increase in the
content of nitrogen oxides in the combustion products.
Stroke/bore ratio – represents the main dimension of the engine. The value of
this ratio largely determines not only the power but also the weight and dimensions
of the internal combustion engine.
With decreasing S/D:
  reducing dimensions of the engine height and increase in length;

 reducing mechanical losses and wear rate of parts by reducing the average
piston speed;
 conditions of arrangement of valves are improved and prerequisites are
created for increasing their sizes;
 increases the rigidity of the crankshafts due to the possibility of increasing the
diameters of the main and connecting rod journals.
It is advisable to reduce the S/D ratio with increasing engine speed. This trend is
observed for high-speed four-stroke marine internal combustion engines, which in
recent years have seen a decrease in S/D from 1.4 to 1...1.1, with a proportional
increase of the engine speed.
However, a significant increase in the diameter of the cylinder, and as a
consequence, a decrease in S/D leads to:
 increase the load on parts of the crank mechanism from the pressure of gases
and inertia forces;
 reduce the height of the combustion chamber, which leads to deterioration of
the conditions of mixing.
Due to these reasons, for modern medium- and low-speed engines there is a
tendency to increase S/D from 2.16...2.67 to 2.83...3.82 and even to 4.8 due to an
increase in the piston stroke. When choosing this parameter, it is advisable to focus
on its value in the prototype.
Number and arrangements of cylinders. With an increase in the number of
cylinders while maintaining a constant power of the internal combustion engine,
the diameter of the cylinders decreases. This allows you to increase ε in gasoline
engines and thereby improve the efficiency of its work. Increasing the number of
cylinders improves balance and increases the uniformity of the engine. In diesel
engines with an excessive decrease in the diameter of the cylinder, structural
difficulties arise with the provision of directional movement of the air charge in the
cylinder, which is necessary for the implementation of high-quality mixture
formation and combustion of the mixture.
However, with an increase in the diameter of the cylinder, the heat loss to the
cooling medium decreases, which leads to an increase in the indicated efficiency
and an increase in the thermal stress of the engine parts. With an increase in the
number of cylinders and their row arrangement, the engine length increases, the
height and width decrease. By the arrangement of the cylinders, ship engines are
divided into in-line (L) and V-type engines. The most widespread in-line with a
vertical arrangement of cylinders. This arrangement is convenient when servicing
the engine, and also simplifies the design of the crankcase.
With the increase in power and speed, a large spread V-type engines, which
significantly reduce the overall length, weight and cost of manufacture. The
parameters of these engines depend primarily on the angle of the collapse of the
cylinders and the angle of the cranks. These angles affect not only balance, but also
to a large extent the uniformity of the engine speed, its overall dimensions, the
design of the intake tract and the uniformity of air supply to the cylinders, as well
as the convenience of repair and maintenance. V-type engine layout is mainly
applied to medium- and high-speed.
Engine speed. In a petroleum (gasoline) engine with increasing engine speed (n,
rpm), the efficiency of the combustion process does not deteriorate, however, heat
loss per cycle is reduced due to the reduced time for heat exchange between the
gases (combustion products) and the walls, which increases the indicated
efficiency. With increasing n, the amount of carbon monoxide CO in the exhaust
gases increases, and nitrogen oxides NOх decreases.
In a diesel engine with increasing speed, the quality of fuel atomization
improves, the speed of the air charge increases, and the temperature and pressure
by the end of the compression process become higher. The cumulative effect of
these factors causes an increase in the indicated efficiency (ηi) while
simultaneously increasing the "stiffness" of combustion, the maximum pressure
during combustion (рz), and the pressure buildup rate (dp/dφmax) in the rapid
combustion phase. Indicator parameters with growth of n are improved as long as
the fuel supply equipment works reliably, and the filling ratio remains rather high.
However, with an increase of the engine speed, inertial loads increase, the
dimensions and mass of parts of the crank mechanism increase, friction losses, and
the reliability and durability of the engine decrease. In addition, when using the
SPP with low-speed engine and direct transfer of power to the screw, increasing
the engine speed leads to a decrease in the efficiency of the propulsion plant.
Method of fuel-air mixing and combustion chambers shapes. Distinguish
between external and internal fuel-air mixing. For gasoline and gas engines with an
external type of mixture formation, the choice of the shape of the combustion
chamber is to ensure high cylinder filling, efficiency of the combustion process
with the lowest toxicity of the combustion products and use of the heat generated.
The design of the combustion chamber largely depends on the overall engine
layout. The combustion chamber should provide a high degree of purification from
exhaust gases and filling the cylinders with fresh charge; reducing the ratio of the
surface of the combustion chamber Fch to its volume Vch, which reduces the heat
loss to the cooling system; optimal degree of turbulence at the inlet and
compression; the possibility of increasing the degree of compression while
reducing the tendency to detonation burning; reducing the duration of burning.
For diesel engines, the shape of the combustion chamber depends on the type of
fuel-air mixture formation chosen: non divided chamber (volume, film or volume-
film) or divided chamber (swirl and pre-chamber). In the volumetric method of
mixing, providing the best efficiency with the greatest "stiffness" of combustion,
and therefore significant loads on crank mechanism parts, non divided shallow
combustion chambers are used in the cylindrical or close piston forms, as well as

Hisselman chambers. In case of film mixing, which provides a sufficiently high

efficiency with a significant reduction of loads on crank mechanism parts, semi-
divided combustion chamber shapes are used, located in the piston crown. For
these diesels difficult forcing them in power, in particular the use of turbocharging.
In divided chamber diesel engines, the economy is worse than non divided
chamber and semi-divided ones. Their main advantages are lower requirements for
fuel equipment and lower toxicity of exhaust gases.
For four-stroke, naturally aspirated diesels, the excess air ratio is in nominal
mode α = 1.25...1.4, with turbocharging α = 1.6 ... 1.8. For two-stroke low-speed
turbocharged diesel engines α = 1.8 ... 2.2.
Type of using fuel. Methods of formation of the air-fuel mixture, and the course
of chemical reactions depend on the requirements for fuels used in internal
combustion engines. In engines with external mixing (gasoline and gas engines),
the fuel supplied with the air through the intake valve should easily evaporate and
form a close to homogeneous mixture with the incoming air. In engines with
internal mixing, fuel is fed directly into the cylinder at the end of the compression
stroke. Start filing slightly ahead of the time of ignition, and part of the fuel is
introduced in the combustion process. Under these conditions, it is necessary to
ensure the required quality of atomization of fuel, in which the small, rapidly
evaporating droplets formed are mixed with the air in the cylinder.
These requirements are met by liquid and gaseous fuels. Diesel fuels MDO and
heavy fuel oils HFO are used as liquid fuels in marine engines. All these fuels are
very close in elemental composition and heat of combustion. When performing
calculations of the operating cycle of the engine, the average experimental
composition of the fuel, the lowest calorific value (LHV) Ни and the average
molecular weight μt of fuel according to Table 2.1 should be specified. The
following composition is typical for standard diesel fuel. All calculations for the
course project is recommended to apply in relation to this type of fuel.

Table 2.1 – Elementary content and properties of using fuel

Параметр Petrol MDO HFO
Fuel oil elementary content (by mass)
С – carbon 0.85 0.87 0.85…0.87
Н – hydrogen 0.15 0.126 0.121…0.125
O – oxygen ––– 0.004 0.004…0.006
S – sulphur 0.004…0.04
Average molecular weight, kg/kmol (μт) 110…120 180…200 200…230
Low heat value, kJ/kg (Ни) (LHV) 44000 42700 42500
Hydrogen and carbon oxides ratio
0.45…0.5 – –
ΜΗ
( Κ=
Μ CО
z
)
 2.2 Selection and justification of the initial data for the thermodynamic
calculation of the engine cycle

Ambient temperature and pressure (Т0, р0). Pressure and temperature of the
ambient air are р0=0,1 МPa and Т0=288 К.
For turbocharged engines, the environmental parameters are equal to the
corresponding parameters of the air at the outlet of the compressor, and in the
presence of intermediate air cooling – the pressure and temperature of the air
behind the cooler. Depending on the pressure increase ratio, the following
values of air pressure pk at the outlet of the compressor are taken: low pressure
charging pk = 1.5p0, medium pressure charging pk = (1.5 ... 2.2)  p0, high
pressure charging pk = (2.2 ... 4.0)  p0.
The air temperature in the air receiver of the turbocharged engine is equal to
the temperature at the outlet of the compressor and depends on the pressure
increase ratio:
nк−1
р
Τ к =Τ к
0 р ()
0
n
к
288
0.15
( )
0.1
0.5
=352.72

(2.1)

where nк – polytropic compression coefficient in a compressor, depending on its

type and the degree of perfection of the process occurring in it, nк =1,4…2.
In an engine with a cooler after the compressor, the temperature in the air
receiver is determined as follows:
Т к =Т 'к −σ ох ( Т 'к −T а ), 352.72−0.8 ( 352.72−293 )=322.86
2

(2.2)

Tа
where 2 – average temperature of the cooling agent in the air cooler, when
Tа
using seawater for cooling 2 = Т0 = 293 К;
Т‘к – air temperature before the cooler, which is assumed to be equal to the
temperature at the outlet of the compressor;
 σох – cooling degree for water-air heat exchangers, σох = 0,5…0,9,
Residual gases pressure рr, МPа, The residual gases pressure in the engine
cylinder рr depends on the number, size and location of the valves, the resistance of
the intake and exhaust pipilines, valve timing, the compression air ratio, engine
speed and other factors. For engines with release to the atmosphere accept: рr =
(1,05…1,25)р0. It is recommended to take a higher value for high-speed engines.
For turbocharged engines with a gas turbine on release рr= (0,76…0,98) рк.
Residual gases temperature for petroleum engines Тr = 900…1100 К, for four-
stroke diesel engines – 700…900 К, for two-stroke diesel engines – 700…800 К. It
should be borne in mind that an increase in α, and ε leads to a decrease in Тr, and
an increase in the engine speed increases the temperature of the residual gases.
The degree of preheating charge at the inlet for four-stroke gasoline engines ΔT
= 10 ... 20 K, four-stroke diesel engines without turbocharging ΔT = 20...40 K;
four- and two-stroke turbocharged diesel engines ΔТ = 5...10 K. It is necessary to
take into account that with an increase in the diameter of the cylinder D, the engine
speed n; and the degree of compression ε, the value of Тr is reduced, if the inlet and
exhaust pipelines are located near or the inlet pipe is equipped with heating, then
the value of ΔT should be taken closer to the upper limit. Turbocharged engines in
the absence of an intermediate cooler, the charge temperature at the outlet of the
compressor may exceed the temperature of the walls of the intake duct. Under
these conditions, there is no heating, but a cooling of the fresh charge. In general,
for engines with turbocharged ΔТ = -5 ... 10 K
2
Resistance coefficient с= β +ξ вп taking into account the drop in the velocity of
fresh charge after it enters the cylinder and the hydraulic resistance of the intake
system of the engine, varies within 2.5 ... 4.0. β is the coefficient of attenuation of
the velocity of the charge, ξвп – coefficient of resistance of the intake system in its
narrowest section. The main influence on the value of c has engine speed. As n
increases, the coefficient increases too.
Average air speed in the flow areas of the intake valves (scavenging holes) of
diesel engines
ωвп = 30 ... 70 m/s; in gasoline engines ωвп = 50...80 m/s, and in some types of
engines it can reach 150 m/s. This speed depends on the diameter of the intake
valve (total area of scavenging holes) and the engine speed. With a decrease in the
diameter of the inlet valve (the total area of scavenging holes) and an increase in n,
the average velocity ωвп increases.
Polytrophic compression exponent (n1),. The parameters of the compression
process are calculated according to the conditional average for the compression
process of the polytropic index n1, varying within for medium- and high-speed
diesel engines – n1 = 1,38…1,4, for low-speed diesel engines – n1 = 1,34…1,42.
When choosing the value of n1, remember the following:
 with increasing engine speed n1 increases;
 with an increase in the average temperature of the compression process, n1
decreases;
 with a decrease in the cooling rate of the engine n1 increases;
 with a decrease in the ratio of the cooling surface to the cylinder volume, n1
increases; for diesel engines with divided combustion chambers, n1 = 1.34...1.38,
with non-divided combustion chambers n1 = 1.32...1.42.
In different engines the exponent n1, has different numerical values varying with
the size, speed and load of the engine. The larger the cylinder volume the smaller
the relative cooled area and, consequently, the smaller is the amount of heat
rejected to the cylinder walls, and the larger becomes the numerical value of 1 n .
Polytrophic expansion exponent (n2). The parameters of the expansion process
are calculated with the conventionally averaged polytropic expansion exponent n2.
For gasoline engines n2 = 1.23...1.30, for medium- and low-speed diesel engines n2
= 1.2...1.3, for high-speed diesel engines - n2 = 1.15...1.25. It should be
remembered that the polytropic expansion exponent depends on the mode of
operation of the engine, cylinder size, cooling method and a number of other
factors. In all cases, when the duration of fuel burnout increases, the relative heat
exchange and gas leakage decrease, n2 decreases.
Effective heat utilization efficiency (ξz) this is parameter, which consider heat
losses during combustion process. It value ξz changes on nominal mode in
following ranges:
for petroleum engines 0,85…0,9
for diesel engines:
low- and medium-speed 0,75…0,85;
high-speed 0,7…0,8;
Super long stroke low-speed (S/D =3,8…4,2) 0,92…0,97.
When selecting data for calculations, the relationship between these values and
the mode of operation of the engine should be taken into account. As the engine
speed increases, the ξz value increases with improved mixing and combustion. For
gasoline engines, ξz increases with increasing n until the increase in heat loss due
to an increase in the afterburning phase of the fuel exceeds the decrease in heat
transfer due to a reduction in the contact time of hot gases with the cylinder walls.
 Pressure increase ratio (λ). When calculating combustion process in a diesel
engine, in addition to the value of ξz, it is necessary to specify pressure increase
ratio λ. The value of λ depends mainly on the type of mixing and the shape of the
combustion chamber and varies in diesel engines within the following limits:
for swirl chamber – 1,6…
1,8;
pre-chamber – 1,4…
1,6;
with direct injection and film fuel-air mixing – 1,6…
1,8;
with direct injection and volume fuel-air mixing – 1,8…
2,5;
for medium- and low-speed engines and working on HFO – 1,1…
1,3.
When choosing λ, it should be remembered that with an increase in the degree
of pressure increase, the rigidity of the engine operation increases, the loads of
parts of the crank mechanism increase, the friction losses increase, and the engine
wear increases.
The coefficient of completeness of the indicator diagram for petroleum engines
φ = 0,95…0,97, for diesels φ = 0,92…0,95.

2.3 Engine thermal (engine cycle) calculation

2.3.1 Content and properties of fuel-air mixture and combustion products

Theoretical quantity of air which need for full combustion of the 1 kg fuel oil
defined by equations:
for liquid fuel

1 С Н S О
L0 = ( + + −
0 ,208 12 4 32 32 ) 1
¿
0.208 )+(0.121/4)+(0.002/32)-(0.005/32)=0.488

(2.3)
 1 8
l=
0 (
0 , 23 3
С+8 Н +S−О ) 1
0.23 (8/3(0.85)+8(0.121)+0.02-0.005=14.128

(2.4)

Amount of fresh air charge, (М1) kmol, can be obtained from the following
formulas:
for diesel engines
Μ 1=αL0 1.25 ( 0.488 )=0.61
(2.5)

Amount of combustion products components, kmol:

for diesels:
С 0.85
Μ CO = =0.070
2 12 12 kmol
(2.6)

H 0.121
Μ H O=
2 2 2 =0.060 kmol

(2.7)

Μ O2=0 , 21(α−1) Lo 0.21 ( 1.25 ) 0.488=0.025 kmol

(2.8)

Μ N =0 , 79 αL0 0.79 ( 1.25 ) 0.488=0.4819 kmol

2

(2.9)

Total amount of the combustion products (М2), kмоl/kg.

For fulness combustion (α > 1)
n
M 2=∑ M Type equation here .
i=1 . (2.10)

With aim to simplify of calculation, for defining М2 can be obtained following

expressions:

C H 0.85
Μ 2= + +(α−0 , 21) L0
for fulness combustion (α>1) 12 2 ; 12 +(0.121/2)+(1.25-
0.21)0.488=0.63
 (2.11)

C H 0.85
Μ 2= + +0 ,79 αL0
for not full combustion (α<1) 12 2 . 12
+(0.121/2)+0.79(1.25)0.488=0.61
(2.12)

Average molar isochoric heat capacity of the combustion products, (c''v)

kJ/(kmolK):

Value of average molar isochoric heat capacity of the combustion products, in

the range of temperatures tz – 1000…2800 °С can be approximated using the
following approximating equations (the mean square error of the approximation
does not exceed 0.6% of the average cv value):
for diesel fuel combustion products
c''v=27,0211+0,002039tz-2,234α, kJ/(kmolK).
27.0211+0.002039 ( 1000 )−2.234 ( 1.25 )=26.26
(2.13)

2.3.2 Air inlet process (Charging)

Pressure at the end of air inlet process , (ра) МPа.
Resistances in the inlet line leads to a decrease of the pressure ра, supplied to
the cylinder charge by the amount Δ ра
ра= р0 – Δ ра or ра= рcomp – Δ ра.
Pressure loss due to intake system resistance can be determined from the
Bernoulli equation. Taking a zero charge rate at the entrance to the intake system
and neglecting the change in charge density during its movement, we get:
ω 2вп
Δp a =с ρ ×10−6 4 × 402 /2
2 к , МPа *1.2*10^-6=0.00384
(2.14)

where ρк – air density in the working cylinder, kg/m3.

The density of air in the working cylinder is determined by the formula
6
р0×10
ρк = 0.1∗106
Rв T 0 ∗288
, 287
=1.2

(2.15)
where Rв = 287 kJ(kgК) is the gas constant of air.
 For diesel engines with charging instead of ро and То should put рcomp and Тcomp.
For marine four-stroke aspired diesel engines ра =(0,8…0,9)ро, turbocharged ра
=(0,9…0,96)рcomp. In two-stroke diesel engines with uniflow scavenging, given the
pressure of the piston at the stage of closing the exhaust valve ра =(0,96…1,1)рcomp.
Upper pressures should be taken for impulse turbocharged engines.

Coefficient of residual gases (γr). This coefficient characterizes the quality of

cleaning the cylinder from the products of combustion and is defined as the ratio
beetwen the number of moles of residual gases and the number of moles of fresh
air charge. Excluding charging residual gas coefficient determined using
dependence

(Т 0 + ΔТ )× p r
γ r= ( 288+20 )∗¿ 0.114 ¿/¿
Т r ×(ε 0 p а −p r ) ;
(2.16)

For the engine with turbocharging should be instead of То substitute Тоcomp.

Coefficient of residual gases
- for four-stroke turbocharged diesel engines γr =0,04…0,02;
- two-stroke with uniflow scavenging γr =0,04…0,08;
- two-stroke with loop scavenging γr =0,08…0,12;
- two-stroke with cross scavenging γr =0,12…0,14;
Temperature at the end of the inlet process (Та) depends on the ambient
temperature Т0 (Тcomp), charge preheating ΔT , temperature of residual gases Тr and
residual gas coefficient γr
Τ о + ΔΤ + γ r Τ r
Τ а= 0.04 ( 750 )
1+γ r 288+20+ +0.04=325
; 1
(2.17)

For turbocharged engines instead of То should put Тcomp. The inlet air
temperature range for the aspired engine is Та = 310…350 К, and for turbocharged
diesel engines Та = 320…400 К
Charge efficiency (ηv) is a significant quality indicator of gas exchange
processes of the inlet stroke and determined by the ratio of the actual amount of
fresh charge released to the cylinder, to the amount of charge that would have been
contained in the cylinder volume at the outside air pressure and temperature, р0 and
Т0:
MД
ηv = Type equation here .
М0 ,

where Мact - the actual number of moles of fresh charge in the cylinder;
 М0 - the number of moles of the fresh charge, which would have been
contained in the cylinder volume at р0 and Т0 (aspired engines) or at рcomp and Тcomp
(turbocharged engines).
Without taking into scavenging and recharging of the cylinder for marine
engines, the charge efficiency is:
Tк ε 0 ра р r
ηv =
(
( Т к + ΔТ )×( ε 0 −1 ) р к
−
рк ); 322.86
322.86+20
∗(15−1)¿
-0.114/0.15)=6.5

(2.18)
Must be considered when analyzing the results that for diesels ηv = 0,8…0,9; for
gasoline and gas engines ηv = 0,75…0,85.

2.3.3 Compression process

In a real engine heat capacity of the charge in the cylinder changes depending on
the temperature, since heat exchange occurs with the cylinder walls, as well as the
nature of straight edema Nia n Processes influence leakage of gases through leaks
of valves and piston rings, pre-charge the cylinder to the intake valve closing,
evaporation fuel combustion at the end of compression. In connection with this
description of the current thermodynamic process in real engine difficult. In
practice, it is considered that the compression process takes place a polytropic
index n1, the magnitude of which provides the same work in the compression
process as in the case of a variable indicator that occurs in the actual process.
Pressure and temperature at the end of compression. From the equation of a
polytrophic line, the pressure and temperature at the end of the compression stroke
are
Pressure at the end of the compression process (рс), MPa.
n
рс =р а ×ε 0 1 ; 0.08∗151.38=3.25
(2.19)
For gasoline and gas engines рс =0.6…1.5 MPa, for diesel engines рс =3.5…16.0
MPa.
The temperature at the end of combustion process, (Тс) К.
ε 1.38
. 325∗( 15 ) −1 ¿=1014 k=909
n 1−1
Тс = Та 0

(2.20)
For petroleum and gas engines Тс = 550…750 К, for diesel engines Тс =650…
900 К.
Average molar isochoric heat capacity of the combustion products (с’v),
kJ/(kmolK).
To simplify the calculations, the average molar heat capacity of the combustible
mixture is assumed to be equal to the heat capacity of air. To calculate с’v,
empirical dependence is used:
' −3 −7 2
c v =20 , 088+3 , 7544×10 t c−5 , 657×10 t c , 20.088+3.7544∗10−3(636)-
 5.657*10^-7(636)^2=22.65
(2.21)
where tc =Tc –273°C.909−273=636

2.3.4 Combustion process

The combustion process in diesel engines.

The combustion equation is:

ξz Ηи
+(μc 'v +8,314 λ)t c=μ(c }v } +8,314 \) t rSub { size 8{z} } } { ¿¿ ¿ ( 0.85 ) ( 42500 )
Μ 1 (1+γ r ) , ( 0.61 )( 1+0.04 )
+(1.03(22.65)+8.314(1.2)(636)=1946

(2.22)

where М1 – total amount of fuel-air mixture, kmol/kg (2.7, 2.8);

Ни – low heat value of the fuel, (for MDO 42700 kJ/kg, for HFO 42500 kJ/kg);
ΔНи – non relies heat amount, kJ/kg;
с'v – average molar heat capacity of the working mixture, kJ/(kmolK) (2.21);
с”v – average molar heat capacity of the combustion products,
kJ/(kmoldegree) (2.13);
μ – coefficient of molecular changing;
λ – engine pressure increase ratio;
γr – coefficient of residual gases;
ξz – effective heat utilization efficiency;
tc and tz – temperatures at the end of compression and at the end combustion,
respectively, °С.
tc = Тc – 273, tz = Тz – 273.
Non relies heat amount due to oxygen insufficient (ΔHu) for petroleum engines
kJ/kg with account of chemical combustion fulness at α <1.
ΔHu= 119950(1-α)L0 . (2.23)
Coefficient of molecular changing (μ).
M 2 + γM 1
μ= 1.2 ( 0.61 )
M 1 + γM 1 0.63+
. 0.61 +1.2(0.61)=1.014
 (2.24)
For petroleum engines μ=1,06…1,12, for diesels and gas engines μ=1,03…1,06.
Equations (2.39, 2.40) after substitution of the above values and the value of c''v
according to equations (2.27, 2.28) turns into a quadratic equation, relatively to tz .
2
А t z + Вtz –С = 0 . (2.25)

Solving the equation (2.39, 2.40), we find the temperature tz,, °С, at the point z.

−В+ √ В2 + 4 АС
tz= 2А , (2.26)

Тz = tz + 273 K.

Maximum combustion temperature for petroleum and gas engines Тz =2300…

2900 K. For diesel engines – Тz =1500…2200 K.
For diesel engines λ in the next range 1.1…2.5 depends on type of engine.

Theoretical pressure at the end of combustion for internal combustion engines

(рz), МPа.

рz=рс λ ; 3.35 ( 2.5 )=8.3

(2.27)

For petroleum and gas engines рz = 3,0…5,0 МPа. In the actual cycle at the end
of combustion process pressure рzg , МPа, approximately on 15 % lower than
theoretical, that’s why

рzg = 0,85 рz. (0.85)(8.3)=4.3

(2.28)

In the further calculation should use theoretical pressure рz.

Subsequent expansion ratio (ρ) for diesel engines working at dual cycles:

μ Τ 1.014
ρ= × z
λ Τc . 2.47 *2219/909=1.002

(2.29)

For diesel engines ρ =1,2…1,7.

2.3.5 Expansion process

Pressure at the end of expansion (рв), МPа.
For diesel engines

pz
pв = n2
δ , 8.3/15^1.25=0.28
(2.30)

where δ – subsequent expansion ratio, for carbureted engines δ = ε .

For diesel engines

ε0 15
δ=
ρ . 1.002 =14.97

(2.31)

Pressure at the end of expansion for petroleum and gas engines pв =0,35…0,5
МPа; for diesel engines рв=0,2…0,4 МPа.
Temperature at the end of expansion (Тв), К

For diesel engines

Tz
T в= 2219
n 2−1 =1128
δ . 151.25−1
(2.32)
For petroleum and gas engines Тв= 1200…1500 К; for diesel engines Тв =900…
1200 К.

2.3.6 Exhaust process

When calculating the suction process, the values of the pressure рr and the
exhaust gases temperature at the end of the release were approximated. The
accuracy of the choice of these values can be checked by calculating the
temperature of residual gases using the formula:

Tb
T r=
pb 1128 / √3 0.28
√
3
pr /1.2=778.3
(2.33)

2.3.7 Indicated parameters of the cycle

Mean indicated pressure (рi), MPa,

For diesels
 p c λρ 1 1 1
p' =
i
[ (
ε 0 -1 n2 −1 δ2 )
1− n −1 −
n1−1(1−
ε 1
0
n −1
) + λ ( ρ−1 )
] .
3.35
15
−1
(2.47(1.002)/1.25-
1(1-1/15^1.25-1)-1/1.38-1(1-1/15(1.38-1)+2.47(1.002-1))=1.05

(2.34)

For gasoline engines рi = 0,8…1,2 МPа, for aspired diesels рi = 0,75…1,05

МPа, for turbocharged diesels рi = 1,05…2,7 МPа, for gas engines рi = 0,5…0,7
МPа.
The actual mean indicated pressure of the cycle is somewhat less than the
theoretical one, due to the difference between the actual indicator diagram and the
theoretical one. This difference is taken into account by the coefficient of
completeness of the indicator diagram, which for gasoline engines is assumed to be
φ = 0.94...0.97, for diesel engines φ = 0.92...0.95. Taking into account the
coefficient φ, the actual mean indicated pressure of the cycle is equal to:
'
pi=ϕpi . (2.35)

Indicated efficiency for engines operating on liquid fuel (ηi),

p i l0 α
ηi = 2.5∗0.488∗1.25
ρ 0 Η и ηv . ∗42.5∗6.5
0.1 =0.05

(2.36)
In equation (2.56) LHV Hu need to substitute expressing in МJ/kg.
For gasoline and gas engines at the nominal mode, the indicated efficiency ηi =
0.28...0.33; for diesel engines ηi = 0.42...0.45.
Specific indicated fuel oil consumption (gi), g/(kWh),

3600 3600
gi= ∗( 0.44 )=192
Η и ηi ; 42.6
(2.37)
where LHV Нu substitute in МJ/kg;
It should be remembered that the limits of change gi on the nominal mode for
gasoline engines are gi = 245...300 g/(kWh), for four-stroke diesel engines gi =
175...240 g/(kWh), for two-stroke diesel engines gi = 155...200 g/(kWh).

2.3.8 Effective parameters of the engine

Mean effective pressure of the cycle (ре) is defined as the difference between the
mean indicated pressure of the cycle pi and the mean pressure of mechanical losses
рм
 ре = рi –рм . 2.5∗0.012=0.03

(2.38)
The mean pressure of mechanical losses is the power expended on overcoming
friction in the crank mechanism, the drive of auxiliary mechanisms, the suction and
exhaust processes, related to the unit volume of the cylinder. To determine the
value of рм, an empirical formula is used, having a general view:
рм=Ар+ВрVп.ср., МPа, 0.105+0.0138 ( 8.5 )=0.012
(2.39)
where Vп.ср. – mean piston speed, m/s;
Ар, Вр – coefficients.
Depending on the design features of the engines, the coefficients Ар and Вр take
the following values: gasoline engines with S/D > 1 Ар = 0.05; Вр = 0,0155;
gasoline engines with S/D <1 Ар = 0.034; Вр = 0.013; diesel engines with divided
combustion chamber Ар = 0.105; Вр = 0,0138; diesel engines with non-divided
combustion chamber Ар = 0.105; Вр = 0,0120.
Mechanical efficiency (ηм). The mechanical efficiency of an engine is defined as
the ratio of the mean effective pressure to the mean indicated pressure
ре
η м= 0.03
рi =0.012
; 2.5
(2.40)
Effective efficiency (ηе).
ηе =ηi ×η м ; 0.05∗0.012=0.0006
(2.41)

Specific fuel oil consumption (ge), g/(kWh),

gi
gе = 192
ηм ; =16000
0.012
(2.42)
In table 2.2. values are given ηм, ре, ηе , gе for nominal continue rating (mode).

Table 2.2 – Effective parameters

Type of ηΜ ре, Мpа ηе gе, g/(kWh)

engine
Gasoline 0,7…0,85 0,6…0,95 0,25…0,33 300…325
Gas 0,75…0,85 0,5…0,75 0,23…0,28 -
High-speed 0,8…0,85 0,5…2,7 0,35…0,41 211…245
Medium speed 0,89…0,91 0,5…3,0 0,35…0,47 175…240
Low-speed 0,88…0,93 0,75…2,0 0,4…0,51 167…217

2.3.9 Specification of the main engine dimensions

Engine displacement (Vл), l:
30 τΝ е 30∗4∗1128
∗110=41018.18
Vл = ре n ; 0.03

(2.43)

where τ – stroke coefficient, for four-stroke engine is equal 4 and for two-stroke
engines – 2.

Cylinder working volume (Vh), l:

Vл
Vh= i . (2.44)

Diameter of cylinder (D), mm,

4Vh 4∗1
D = 100 √
3

π (S / D) . √
100 3 3.14 =760 ¿
¿ (2.45)

Piston stroke (S), mm,

S=
( DS ) D .
¿ 1800

(2.46)

The resulting values of S and D should be rounded up to an integer value.

Having received S and D it is necessary to clarify the main parameters and
indicators of the engine:
- engine displacement, l,
2
πD S 3.14∗( 760 )2∗1800
∗106 =3264
Vл = 4×106 ; 4
(2.47)

– effective power, kWh

ре V л n 0.03∗3264
Ν е= ∗4=89.76
30 τ ; 30
 (2.48)

– torque, Nm,
4
3×10 ×Ν е 3∗10 4∗89.76
∗110=7796.17
Ме = πn ; 3.14

(2.49)

– fuel consumption per hour, kg/h,

Gт= Ν е ¿ g е×10−3 ; 89.76∗16000∗10−3=1436.16

(2.50)

– mean piston speed, m/s,

Sn 1800 ( 1128 )
Vп.ср.= 30000 . 30000 =676.8

(2.51)

If there is a discrepancy between the previously accepted value Vп.ср and

obtained by this formula by more than 5 ... 10 %, it is necessary to recalculate the
effective parameters of the engine, starting with the determination of the new value
of the mean mechanical pressure.
When performing calculations, the dimension of all quantities should be
indicated after the calculated dependence; All calculations are accompanied by
brief explanations, necessary diagrams and graphs. If during the calculation it is
necessary to set the values of a quantity, then it should be explained why this value
was chosen. It is necessary to solve equations in a letter form and only in the final
dependence to substitute numerical values. During the calculation, it is
recommended to compare the obtained values of the parameters of individual
processes (p , Т , γ ч , ηv , р , Т etc.) and the output parameters of the internal
а а с с

combustion engine (ре, Ne, gе, ηе etc.) with the values of these parameters for the
internal combustion engine selected as prototype, taking into account current
trends in engine development.

2.4 Construction of the indicator diagram

2.4.1 Construction of the four-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram

The indicator diagram is constructed in order to verify the analytically obtained
value of the mean indicated pressure and a visual representation of the progress of
the operating cycle in the cylinder of the engine being calculated.
The diagram (Fig. 2.1a) should be draw on A4 sheet of paper (210297 mm) in
the following sequence.
Select the scale of volumes and pressure so that the diagram takes up the entire
sheet, and its height was 1.2...1.7 times the base.
Apply a uniform pressure scale p (1, 2, 3, MPa) and volumes on the axis of the
diagram, setting the value of the volume of the combustion chamber, l, on the
abscissa axis
Vh
V c=
ε−1

and full cylinder volume is Vа = Vс + Vh, and on the ordinate axis – at the
appropriate pressure scale, key points of the cycle: с, z, z', в.
Data for the construction of polytropic compression and expansion can be found
in an analytical or graphical way. When applying the analytical method, the
working volume is divided into parts and the intermediate value of the volumes Vi.
is determined. It is recommended to take smaller spaces between Vi. in the region
of the upper dead point and large ones in the area of the lower dead point to ensure
accuracy of construction. The intermediate value of pressure is determined by the
formulas:
On the expansion curve
n1
Vа
рсi= р а
( )
Vi
;
on expansion curve
n2
V
( )
рbi = рв а
Vi
;
where Vz= Vc – for gasoline engines;
Vz= Vc ρ – for diesels;
ρ – preliminary expansion ratio.
The calculation of intermediate pressure values is recommended in the form of
table 2.3.

Table 2.3 – Data for indicator diagram drawing

Vi Vа/Vi pci pbi
 After constructing the intermediate points, they are connected with the help of
French curve and get the calculated indicator diagram.
The calculated indicator diagram is recommended to be rounded, as shown in
figure 2.1а as in a real engine due to the advance of self-ignition the working
mixture ignites before the arrival of the piston at TDC and increases the pressure at
the end of the compression process; The process of visible combustion occurs at a
constantly changing volume. The actual pressure of the end of visible combustion
рzg = 0,85рz; the opening of the exhaust valve before the arrival of the piston at
TDC reduces the pressure at the end of expansion and the process of release and
filling of the cylinder takes place.

Figure 2.1 а – Indicator diagram of four-stroke diesel engine

The position of point с' depends on the ignition timing from с'' or the beginning
of the fuel supply, and the position of point c is approximately determined by the
expression:
рс''
= (1,15…1,25)рс.
The position of the point z' depends on the preliminary expansion ratio. The
position of the point b determines the angle of anticipation of exhaust, the point b'
is usually located between points b and a.
According to the indicator diagram for checking the heat calculation and
plotting the diagram, the mean indicator pressure is determined, MPa,
Fa c c z b b a
m р,
' '' ' ' ''

рig =
l

where F – area of the indicator diagram, mm;

l – the distance between TDC and BDC, mm;
mp – pressure scale, МPа/mm.
The discrepancy between the рi, defined - analytical and graphical ways, should
not exceed 3 %.
2.4.2 Construction of the two-stroke diesel engine indicator diagram
The diagram of the design cycle of a two-stroke engine is constructed as
follows. Depending on the required size of the diagram, the pressure scale is taken
тр, mm/MPa, and the length of the segment corresponding to the working volume
of the cylinder Vs is chosen. The volumes of the cylinder at characteristic points of
the indicator diagram or the segments of the diagram corresponding to these
volumes are calculated depending on the working volume of the cylinder Vs from
the following relations:
– volume of the combustion chamber
Vс= Vs(1-ψa)/(ε-1)
where ψa – proportion of the lost stroke due to scavenging holes;
– cylinder volume at the beginning of compression
Vа=Vс+Vs(1-ψa);
– cylinder volume at the end of visible combustion
Vz’ = ρVc,

where ρ – preliminary expansion ratio.

After that, the calculated values are plotted on the abscissa axis as shown in
figure 2.1b.
On ordinate axis carried out at appropriate volumes, the values of pressure ра,
рс, pz, рь are laid in the accepted scale of pressure. The lines of polytropic
compression and expansion are calculated and constructed, as well as for a four-
stroke engine, and the results of the calculations are entered in table 2.3.
The pressure values are plotted on the diagram with the corresponding values of
the volumes Vi. Smooth curved ас, z’b., are drawn through the points obtained.
Having drawn straight lines сz, zz’, ba, ао, get a diagram of the design cycle of a
two-stroke diesel engine. Points b and 0 are joined by a smooth curve.
The actual indicator diagram differs from the diagram of the calculation cycle
and has rounds in the region of points с, z, z’.

Figure 2.1b – Indicator diagram of two-stroke diesel engine

The considered features of an actual indicator diagram explain the reasons for
the decrease in its area compared to the area of the calculation cycle diagram. In
two-stroke diesel engines, the tail part of the actual indicator diagram (ab0) is
partially and in some cases fully compensates for the reduction in the area of the
diagram. The difference between the areas of the actual indicator diagram and the
diagram of the calculation cycle is estimated by the coefficient of completeness of
the indicator diagram, which is the ratio of the area of the actual indicator diagram
to the area of the calculation cycle diagram: φп = Fa/Fp, and is set when designing
on the basis of the prototype.
 SECTION 3

KINEMATIC AND DYNAMIC CALCULATION

OF MARINE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

3.1 Kinematic analysis of the crank mechanism

In most structures, a central crank mechanism is used in which the axes of the
cylinder and the crankshaft are in the same plane.
Such a mechanism is characterized by two kinematic parameters: the crank
radius r and the connecting rod length Lш. Instead of the last parameter, the
dimensionless is usually used it is the ratio between the crankshaft and the length
of connecting rod λ:
λ = r/ Lш; 0,2 < λ < 0,32. (3.1)

Figure 3.1 – Schemes of the crank mechanism of internal combustion engines;

a – central; b – displaced (deaxial); c – articulated-type connecting rod

In the calculations for the crank mechanism of the central type (Fig. 3.1a) the
ratio between the displacement of the piston Sx and the angle of rotation of the
crankshaft φ is determined as follows:
Sx=А'А=А'О-АО= (А'В'+В'О)-(АС+СО). (3.2)
 Segment А'В' is equal to the length of the connecting rod Lш, and the segment
В'О - the radius of the crank r. With this in mind, as well as expressing the
segments AC and CO through the product Lш and r, respectively, by the cosines of
the angles β and φ, we get
λ
[
S x=( L ш +r ) −( Lш cos β +r cos ϕ ) =r 1−cos ϕ+ ( 1−cos β )
4 ] . (3.3)
From the ACB and OCB triangles we find CB = AB sinβ = OB sinφ or Lш sinβ =
r sinφ, from where
r
sin β= sin ϕ=λ sin ϕ
Lш . (3.4)
The expression (3.4) includes cos β. Express this function through the sine

cos β= √1−sin2 ϕ=√1−λ2 sin 2 ϕ . (3.5)

We expand the expression (3.5) in a row with the help of Newton's binomial,
and we get
λ2 2 λ4 4 λ6 6
cos β=1− sin ϕ− sin ϕ− sin ϕ−. .. .
2 8 16 . (3.6)
For practical calculations, the required accuracy is fully provided by the first
two terms of the binomial (3.6), i.e., the function cos β is expressed in terms of sin
φ as follows:
λ2
cos β=1− sin 2 ϕ .
2 . (3.7)
Given that
1
sin2 ϕ= ( 1−cos 2ϕ )
2 ,
expression (3.7) can be written in the form:
λ2
cos β=1− ( 1−cos2 ϕ )
2 . (3.8)
Substituting (3.8) into equation (3.3), we obtain an approximate expression for
determining the piston movement:
λ
[
S x=r ( 1−cos ϕ ) + ( 1−cos 2 ϕ )
4 ]. (3.9)
Differentiating equation (3.9) in time, we obtain an equation for determining the
piston speed:
 dS x dS x dϕ dϕ λ
W=
dt
=
dϕ dt
=r
dt (
sin ϕ+ sin 2 ϕ
2 ) . (3.10)
In the kinematic analysis of a crank mechanism, it is considered that the engine
speed is constant. In this case:
dϕ πn
ω= dt = 30 (3.11)
where ω – crankshaft angular speed, s-1;
n – engine speed, min -1.
In view of (3.11), equation (3.10) takes the form
λ
(
W=rω sin ϕ+ sin 2 ϕ
2 ) . (3.12)
Differentiating (3.12) in time, we obtain an expression for determining the
acceleration of the piston
dW
J= =rω2 ( cos ϕ+ λ cos 2 ϕ )
dt . (3.13)
The results of kinematic analysis are filled in the table according to the
sample given below (Table 3.1). Calculations are performed in increments of 15 °
crank degrees. According to the tabular data, graphs of the piston movement (Sx),
piston speeds (W) and its acceleration (J) should plot on graph paper. On the speed
diagram put the value of the average speed, which is taken from the thermal
calculation.
Table 3.1 – Results of crank mechanism kinematic calculation

Piston displacement Piston speed Piston

Angle of crank
acceleration (J),
shaft rotation (φ) (Sx), cm (W), m/s m/s2
0 0,0000 0,0000 860,95
15 0,4739 2,8170 813,70
30 1,8438 5,3280 679,97
45 3,9633 7,2784 481,98
 3.2 Dynamic calculation of an engine

When constructing the force scheme, the initial force is the specific total force
Рс, acting on the piston pin (cross head pin) - this is the algebraic sum of the
pressure forces of the gases Рг acting on the piston crown, and the specific inertia
forces of masses of parts Pj moving reciprocating,
Рс = Рг + Pj . (3.14)
Let us consider in more detail the effect of gas pressure forces on the piston Рг
of inertial forces of moving masses Pj.
The values of the force from the gas pressure in the cylinder Рг, is determined
from the expression:
Рг = (рi- р0) Fп, (3.15)
here рi – the current value of pressure in the working cylinder (determined from the
pφ diagram based on the results of the thermal calculation of the engine, see
section 2.4), МPа;
Fп – piston area, mm2;
р0 – ambient pressure, (0,1 МPа).
The specific inertia force of crank mechanism details moving reciprocating is
determined from the dependence
Pj= – mjJ; (3.16)
where J – acceleration of reciprocating moving masses, m/s2,
mj – mass of parts performing reciprocating motion.
To simplify the dynamic calculation, the actual crank mechanism is replaced
with a dynamically equivalent system of concentrated masses mj and mR (Fig. 3.2).
mj=mп+mшп, (3.17)
mR – performing rotational motion.
mR=mк+mшк, (3.18)
where mп – mass of piston set, kg
mп=mпорш+mпк +mпп+mcк+mпш+mпоп +mпол, (3.19)
where mпорш – piston mass;
mпк – piston rings mass;
mпп – piston pin mass;
 mcк – mass of piston pin circlips, respectively;
mпш – piston rod mass;
mпоп – cross head pin mass;
mпол – guide shoe mass (guide shoes).
In formula 3.19, only the masses of parts provided by the engine design are
substituted.
The mass of the connecting rod group mш is replaced by a system of two masses
mшп and mшк
mш= mшп+ mшк , (3.20)
where mшп – part of the mass of the connecting rod group, referred to the center of the
upper head of the connecting rod and moving reciprocating along with the piston;
mшк – part of the mass of the connecting rod group, referred to the center of the
lower (crank) head and moving rotationally along with the center of the crankshaft
connecting rod journal;
mк – unbalanced part of the crankshaft crank, kg.
The mass mj is concentrated at point A, the mass mR is concentrated at point B
(Fig. 3.2).

Figure 3.2 – Dual mass scheme of crank mechanism

For a given prototype and the main dimensions of the engine determine the
mass of parts of the crank mechanism, moving reciprocating and rotational. Data
on mass of piston sets are taken from prototypes or determined by the formulas:
mшп = 0,275 mш; (3.21)
mшк= 0,725 mш. (3.22)
In addition to the mass of the connecting rod mшк, the rotating parts include:
mass of the crank web, reduced to the axis of the crank journal (Fig. 3.3).

Figure 3.3 – Speculation of crankshaft rotating mass

That is:
mR=mшк + mшш + 2mщ(ρ/r). (3.23)
Wherein:
2
πd шш
l шш γ
mшш= 4 , (3.24)
mщ=dщbщlщγ, (3.25)
where γ – specific gravity of the crankshaft material, kg/m3;
dшш – diameter of the connecting rod journal, m;
lшш – length of the connecting rod journal, m;
dщ,bщ,lщ - geometrical dimensions of the web.
In the absence of prototype data, the design values of the missing values can be
taken in accordance with the averaged values.

In the absence of data on the engine being designed, it is necessary to specify

the constructive masses of the piston and connecting rod groups, using statistical
data.
Compliance of the masses selected in this way can be checked by the value of
the maximum inertia force
Pj
max =-mjrω2(1+λ).
Pj
The value max must be within:
Diesel engines:
n > 2000 min-1 (60…140)
kN.
We decompose the force Рс (fig. 3.4), acting along the axis of the cylinder, into
two components:
- horizontal (guide) force on the crankshaft N, perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder
N=Рctgβ; (3.26)
- force S directed along the axis of the connecting rod.
S=Рc/cosβ. (3.27)
Let us transfer the force S along the line of its action to the center of the
connecting rod journals of crank mechanism (S' = S) and decompose it into two
components:
- normal force K' directed along the crank radius,
K'=Scos(φ+β)=Pс(cos(φ+β)/(cosβ)), (3.28)
- tangential force T, tangent to the circumference of the crank radius
Т=Ssin(φ+β)=Pс(sin(φ+β)/(cosβ)). (3.29)
We transfer the normal force К' along the line of its action to the center of the
shaft and denote К'' (К''= К'). Apply two equal and oppositely directed forces T'
and T'' (T''=T') then a pair of forces T and T'' on the arm r will create a moment
called torsional (Мкрут).
Torque is transmitted through the crankshaft to the flywheel.
Мкрут=ТR=Рсr(sin(φ+β)/(cosβ)) ≈ Рсr(sinφ – (λ/2)sin2φ). (3.30)
Forces K" and T" can be folded; their resultant S" equal to the force S acting
along the connecting rod loads the main (frame) shaft bearings. The force S" can
be decomposed into two components: N", perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder,
and P ", acting along the axis of the cylinder.
Forces N" and N form a pair of forces, the moment of which is called
overturning (Мопрок) and acts on the fixed parts of the crank mechanism. Moment
Мопрок is directed against the torque and in accordance with the equilibrium
condition of the moving parts of the mechanism as a whole in magnitude is equal
to the torque:
Мопрок= Nh = Pс tgβ r(sin(φ+β)/(sinβ)) = Nr (sin(φ+β)/(cosβ)). (3.31)

a b

Figure 3.4 – Diagram of the forces and moments of the crosshead (a) and trunk
engine crank mechanism (b) operating in the engine

The centrifugal inertia force directed along the crank radius also acts in the
crank mechanism:
К= – mRrω2 . (3.32)
As already noted, to determine the force Рг, pressure values are read from the
unfolded indicator diagram in increments of 10-15 ° and substituted into formula
 3.15. The values thus obtained are filled in table 3.2. Further, Рj. values are
calculated. Taking into account the signs of the action of the forces Рг and Рj, the
total force Рс= Рг + Рj is determined.
The angle of deflection of the connecting rod β corresponding to the angle of
rotation of the crank φ can be found from the expression β = arcsin (λ sin φ).
In the same way, the forces S, N, K, T are calculated taking into account the sign
(direction of action). From the tabular data, diagrams are plotted on graph paper,
placing them so that they fill at least 70 % of the sheet space.

Table 3.2 - Dynamic calculation results

Forces which acting in crank/connecting-rod mechanism
Φ Mкр; N
Р г; N Pj; N P с; N N; N S; N T; N K; N
×m
-
11569,0 11609,6 11705,3
0 40,63 1493,02 4322,66 10877,9 477,65
6 9 0
0
- - - -
1 - -
-27,51 18785,1 18812,6 18856,4 17839,2 -675,08
5 1284,01 6109,33
3 3 0 8
- - - -
3 - - -
-35,62 15697,7 15733,3 15871,2 12581,5
0 2087,83 9674,79 1069,06
4 6 8 7
- - -
4 - - - -
-35,62 11126,9 11162,6 11360,9
5 2113,55 9387,66 6398,65 1037,34
8 0 3
 SECTION 4

STRENGTH CALCULATION OF PISTON GROUP DETAILS

OF MARINE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

4.1 Strength calculation of piston

4.1.1 Designing dimensions and shape of pistons

By design, pistons of trunk engines and crosshead engines are distinguished.
They can be uncooled and cooled (oil, water).
The shape of the piston and its dimensions are designed in such a way that a
satisfactory removal of heat perceived by it is ensured.
When designing, it is necessary to strive to obtain the simplest geometric shape
(Fig. 4.1, 4.2)

Figure 4.1 – Shape of the piston casing of the trunk engine. a – conical head, b
– stepped head, c – head and piston skirt are tapered, d – side surface of the piston
has a curvilinear profile with a maximum diameter at the height of bosses
For approximate sizes, we assume that the piston has a cylindrical shape with an
external diameter equal to the diameter of the cylinder of the engine D.
In solid pistons of the trunk engines (Fig. 4.3), the head 1 after the lower sealing
ring 4 passes into the guide (trunk) part 2.
In two-stroke engines, the design of the piston may differ significantly
depending on the scavenging scheme. For engines with cross scavenging the piston
has a long trunk, which acts as a timing valve. In engines with uniflow scavenging
there is no need to prevent gases from flowing from the charge receiver to the
exhaust, and therefore the pistons on such engines make a small height, in fact
such a piston consists of one head (Fig. 4.2).
 Figure 4.2 – The design of the pistons of modern two-stroke diesel engines with
a uniflow scavenging
For approximate sizes, we assume that the piston has a cylindrical shape with an
external diameter equal to the diameter of the cylinder of the engine D.
In solid pistons of the trunk engines (Fig. 4.3), the head 1 after the lower sealing
ring 4 passes into the guide (trunk) part 2.
In two-stroke engines, the design of the piston may differ significantly
depending on the scavenging scheme. For engines with cross scavenging the piston
has a long trunk, which acts as a timing valve. In engines with uniflow scavenging
there is no need to prevent gases from flowing from the charge receiver to the
exhaust, and therefore the pistons on such engines make a small height, in fact
such a piston consists of one head (Fig. 4.2).
The piston crown (head) contains grooves for sealing rings (from three to six).
The upper ring, working in the most difficult conditions, it is desirable to have
farther from the bottom of the piston.
The distance from the upper edge of the piston to the groove of the first piston
ring l is calculated by the relations:
for heavy weight marine diesel engine:
l = (1...4)δ, mm, (4.1)
where δ – piston bottom thickness, mm

for lightweight diesel:

 l = (0,6…2,0)δ, mm . (4.2)
To protect the upper ring from overheating, sometimes a circular groove 5 is
made above it, which serves as a thermal barrier.
The piston bottom thickness δ depends on its material, design features, cooling
method, the presence or absence of ribs on the inside of the bottom.
For uncooled cast iron and aluminum piston
δ = (0,035…0,06)d, mm , (4.3)
where d – cylinder bore, mm.
For the cooled piston from cast iron and aluminum alloys
δ = (0,04…0,08)d, мм. (4.4)

Figure 4.3 - Sketch of a two-stroke crosshead piston (left) and a four-stroke

trunk engine (right): 1 – piston head (crown); 2 – skirt (trunk part); 3 – piston boss;
4 – grooves for piston rings; 5 – thermal barrier groove
The transition from the bottom to the walls is formed with large radii of
curvature, which ensures a more uniform distribution of heat load in the sections of
the piston head.
The configuration of the piston head is determined mainly by the mixture
formation system and the scavenge system. During volumetric mixing and direct
fuel injection, the bottom of the piston has a configuration that corresponds to the
number, size and shape of the fuel jets.
The height (length) of the piston head Нг is determined mainly on the basis of
the distance l indicated above, the number and height of the piston rings.
Нг = (0,35…0,65)d, mm (4.5)
 The total height (length) of the piston H depends on the type of engine, tact,
degree of rapidity. For crosshead engines with uniflow scavenging, the overall
height of the piston is equal to the height of the head. For two-stroke diesels with
cross scavenging the piston height must be such that the trunk blocks the inlet and
discharge (or at least the exhaust) holes when the piston is in the TDC.
In low-speed diesel engines with uniflow scavenging Нг = Н and is equal to:
Н = (0,85…1,4)d, mm. (4.6)
For medium-speed four-stroke diesel engines of the trunk type, the height of the
piston is:
Н = (1,4…2,0)d, mm. (4.7)
In high-speed diesel engines, it decreases to:
Н = (0,8…1,7)d, mm. (4.8)
The piston pin axis is located between the middle of the piston trunk part and its
center of gravity. The distance between the axis of the finger and the lower edge of
the piston can be determined by the ratio:
Нп = (0,30…0,75)d, mm. (4.9)
The wall thickness of the trunk part of the piston S1 is:
S1 = (0,3...0,5)S, mm; (4.10)
where S – thickness of the cylindrical part of the piston crown, mm.
For four-stroke:
S = (0,05...0,08)d, mm. (4.11)
For two-stroke
S = (0,25...0,35)d, mm. (4.11а)
The width of the groove of the sealing ring a is
а = (0,5…1,0)в, mm, (4.12)
where в – radial thickness of the ring, mm
в = (0,04…0,085)d, mm . (4.13)
The width of the jumper between the grooves d1 is determined by the ratio:
d1 = (1…1,3)в, mm. (4.14)

4.1.2 Strength calculation of piston

 In the process, the piston is under the influence of pressure forces of gases and
high temperature. As a result, mechanical and thermal stresses arise in it.
Mechanical stresses in the bottom of the piston reach the maximum value at the
highest combustion pressure рz. Methods for the exact calculation of stresses so far
are not meant by the complexity and transience of the processes taking place.
Therefore, the calculation is carried out according to approximate calculated ratios.
In this case, the bottom of the piston, which does not have internal ribs, is
considered as a plate of constant thickness, embedded along the contour and
loaded uniformly (Fig. 4.4).

Figure 4.4 – Piston fiction scheme

The largest stresses along the embedment contour in the radial direction σх are
determined by the equation:
3 r2
σ x =ξ⋅ ⋅ 2⋅p z ,
4 δ МPа, (4.15)
where ξ – coefficient taking into account the elasticity of the seal. With a tight
seal, it is assumed to be equal to one;
δ – piston bottom thickness, mm;
рz – maximum combustion pressure, MPa;
r – distance from the center of the plate to the pinching point, mm. r=(d-2S-
2в)/2 for a four-stroke engine and r=(d-2S)/2 for a two-stroke.
Normal stresses in the tangential direction σу are determined by the equation:
3 r2
σ y= μ 2 p z ,
4 δ МPа , (4.16)
where μ – Poisson's ratio taken for iron and steel 0.3, for aluminum alloys 0.26.
Since σх is larger than σу, further calculation of the strength of the piston bottom
is carried out by the value of σх.
σх and σу in the center of the bottom are smaller than the contour in size and
equal to each other. Their value is determined by the equation:
2
3( r
σ x =σ y = 1+ μ ) 2 p z
min 8 δ , МPа. (4.17)
Temperature stresses at the bottom of the piston arise from axial and radial
temperature differences. The heat load is determined by the amount of heat Q,
abstracted to the coolant:
Q=νN e ge Q н
ц , kJ/h, (4.18)
where ν – proportion of the total amount of heat removed through the bottom (ν =
0.04 ... 0.08 when cooled with oil, ν = 0.1 ... 0.15 when cooled by water with a
piston);
Ne
ц – cylinder power, kW;
ge – specific effective fuel oil consumption, kg/(kW×h);
Qн – low heat value of the fuel, kJ/kg.
The specific heat load is defined as:
Q
q=
F п , kJ/(m2×h), (4.19)
where Fп – piston bottom area, m2.
In four-stroke aspired diesel engines q = 315000…630000 kJ/(m2×h).
For an approximate calculation of temperature stresses at the periphery and in
the center of the bottom, the equation is used:
α⋅E q⋅δ
σt= ⋅
2⋅( 1−μ ) λ , МPа, (4.20)
where α – coefficient of linear expansion, 1/°С, used for pistons made of cast iron
equal to 1.07×10-5, and from aluminum alloys 2.2×10-5;
E – modulus of elasticity, MPa, taken for pistons made of cast iron equal to
9.8×104, and from aluminum alloys 7.35×104;
μ – Poisson's ratio, equal to 0.3 cast iron and 0.26 aluminum alloy;
 q – specific heat load, kJ/(m2×h);
λ – coefficient of thermal conductivity, kJ/(m×h×°C), for cast iron it is equal to
189, for aluminum alloy 609;
δ – bottom thickness, m
Next, the total mechanical and thermal stresses are determined, and a
comparison with the magnitude of permissible stresses is made.
Wherein
σ x +σ t ≤|σ| . (4.21)
Since the stresses at the periphery of the bottom are larger than at the center, the
stress value σx for the periphery is taken into account.
Allowable stress (MPa) for the bottoms of the pistons of various metals are
equal to:
- for cast iron pistons 147...196;
- for steel 196...392;
- for aluminum alloys 78...117.
 CONCLUSIONS

During the course work was studied the structure, the principle of diesel engine.
The calculations of the processes on the basis of which the design calculation of
the most widespread diesel engine has been made.
In particular, during the course work was solved the following tasks:
- development of skills of independent work with manuals, technical guides in
the course of calculations;
- creative skills of independent decision of technical tasks and ability to use
scientific and technical literature;
- fixed and deepened theoretical knowledge;
- a sketch of a section of a diesel engine for a given variant is executed.
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1. Marcos F.G. Modern Marine Engineers Handbook and Review Guide. –

191 p.
2. Kuiken K. Diesel Engines. – Onnen, Target Global Energy Training 2008,
part I – 509 p., part II – 442 p.
3. Wharton A.J. Diesel Engines. – Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 3 rd
ed., 1991. – 129 p.
4. Mollenhauer K., Tschoeke H. Handbook of Diesel Engines. – Heidelberg,
Springer, 2010. – 636 p.
5. Sanyal D.K. Principles and Practice of Marine Diesel Engines. – Mumbai,
Bhandarkar Publications, 2005. – 483 p.
6. Pulkrabek W. W. Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion
Engine. – New Jersey, Prentice Hall. 1994. – 426 p.
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developed according to the curriculum and the higher standard education
bachelor's degree, branch of knowledge: 27 Transport, Education program
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