See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/316639230

Iron Ore Sintering: Quality Indices

Article  in  Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review · May 2017

DOI: 10.1080/08827508.2017.1323744

CITATIONS READS

6 1,988

5 authors, including:

Daniel Fernández González I. Ruiz-Bustinza

University of Oviedo Spanish National Research Council
34 PUBLICATIONS   104 CITATIONS    51 PUBLICATIONS   216 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Carmen González-Gasca Luis Felipe Verdeja

European University of Madrid University of Oviedo
14 PUBLICATIONS   76 CITATIONS    257 PUBLICATIONS   445 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Education and Science Ministry of Spain (grant MAT2003-00502); ECOS – CONICYT Grant C02.E04 View project

Investigation and evaluation of solar energy as energy source in the treatment of metallurgical by-products (P1701250238). View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Daniel Fernández González on 20 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review
An International Journal

ISSN: 0882-7508 (Print) 1547-7401 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gmpr20

Iron Ore Sintering: Quality Indices

D. Fernández-González, I. Ruiz-Bustinza, J. Mochón, C. González-Gasca & L. F.

Verdeja

To cite this article: D. Fernández-González, I. Ruiz-Bustinza, J. Mochón, C. González-Gasca & L.

F. Verdeja (2017) Iron Ore Sintering: Quality Indices, Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy
Review, 38:4, 254-264, DOI: 10.1080/08827508.2017.1323744

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2017.1323744

Accepted author version posted online: 02

May 2017.
Published online: 02 May 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 34

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=gmpr20

Download by: [UOV University of Oviedo] Date: 20 June 2017, At: 08:06
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW
2017, VOL. 38, NO. 4, 254–264
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2017.1323744

Iron Ore Sintering: Quality Indices

D. Fernández-Gonzáleza, I. Ruiz-Bustinzab, J. Mochónb, C. González-Gascac, and L. F. Verdejaa
a
Grupo de Investigación en Siderurgia, Metalurgia y Materiales, Escuela de Minas, Energía y Materiales, Universidad de Oviedo, C/Independencia,
13, 33004, Oviedo, Asturias (Spain); Unidad asociada al CENIM-CSIC, Spain (www.unioviedo.es/sid-met-mat); bCentro Nacional de Investigaciones
Metalúrgicas (CENIM-CSIC), Avda. Gregorio del Amo, 8, 28040, Madrid, Spain; cUniversidad Europea – Laureate International Universities, Calle Tajo
s/n, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670 Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Sinter plants process a mixture of iron ore fines, recycled ironmaking products, slag-forming agents and Iron ore; reducibility; RDI;
solid fuel (coke) with the finality of obtaining a product with the suitable characteristics (thermal, sintering; softening and
mechanical, physical, and chemical) for being fed to the blast furnace. With this objective a series of melting test; tumbler index
parameters are defined, including the nature and composition of each component of the mixture, and
the conditions of the sintering process. Sinter characterization includes chemical and granulometric
analysis, determination of the mineral phases in its structure, apart from a series of quality indices that
includes reducibility, low temperature degradation, reduction degradation and Tumbler. Operated sinter
plants with the maximum productivity are also important with the purpose of obtaining a sinter with
uniform composition and quality for facilitating the steady state operation of the blast furnace.

1. Introduction plants that produced 27 million tons of pellet annually)

(Remus et al., 2013).
Blast furnace operators require sinter with homogenous and
Sinter quality control and productivity are important
regular properties (thermal, physical, chemical and mechan-
because allow blast furnace operate at low fuel rate, stable
ical) with the purpose of ensuring regular and stable operation
and efficient operation, and economically profitable. In
(Fernández-González et al., 2016a). However, high quality
Table I, it is possible to see the quality requirements for
iron ore resources are expensive and are being depleted as a
sinters to be used as burden materials in the blast furnace
consequence of the demand (Fernández-González et al.,
(Mochón et al. 2014; Cores et al. 2010a). In this paper, the
2016b). Moreover, blends for sintering also include several
main quality indices are reviewed according to the most
iron by-products and wastes that are obtained in the steel
recent research papers. These quality indices allow knowing
factory (mill scale, sludge, LD slag, powders, etc.) (Fernández-
how the sinter product will behave in the blast furnace.
González et al., 2016a; Martín-Duarte, 2015). Consequently,
blends for sintering also include several iron ores, wastes and
by-products that can deteriorate the sinter quality, and for 2. Quality indices
that reason, causing an unstable and irregular blast furnace
Blast furnace operators demand sinters with high cold
operation.
strength (commonly defined by Tumbler index, but also by
Sintering is a process of agglomeration based on the tem-
Micum or Irsid tests (Sancho et al., 2000)), low reduction
perature (1300-1400°C, Eisele and Kawatra, 2003). The objec-
degradation index (RDI) and high reducibility index (RI), as
tive of the sintering process is the agglomeration of a mixture
it is possible to see in Table I. The closest changes in chem-
of iron ore mineral fines (0.5-8 mm, Sancho et al., 2000), by-
istry, the lowest possible fines content and a good average size
products and wastes of the iron and steelmaking industry
(see values in Table I) are also extremely important in order
(mill scale, LD slag, etc., Sancho et al., 2000; Palacios et al.,
to ensure blast furnace stable, homogenous and regular opera-
1998), fluxes, slag-forming elements and fossil fuel (coke). As
tion (Fernández-González et al., 2016a).
a result of the sintering process, a product of 12-35 mm
(Martín-Duarte, 2015) is obtained, having suitable thermal,
physical, chemical and mechanical properties at the least 2.1. Sinter structure
expensive price, to be loaded into the blast furnace
Sinter quality indices are related with sinter structure. Sinter
(Fernández-González et al., 2016a). In the EU-27, 14 countries
structure is formed by original materials unchanged, original
operate 34 iron ore sinter plants with 63 iron ore sinter
mineral constituents that has not changed its structure and
strands, which in the first decade of the 21st century manu-
passed to the solid state by recrystallization, and secondary
factured 130 million tons of sinter annually (6 pelletization
constituents, formed by melting or dissolution during the

CONTACT D. Fernández-González fernandezgdaniel@uniovi.es Grupo de Investigación en Siderurgia, Metalurgia y Materiales, Escuela de Minas, Energía y
Materiales, Universidad de Oviedo, Calle Independencia, 13, 33004, Oviedo, Asturias (Spain).
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 255

Table 1. Sinter quality requirements. morphology, ferrites can be: columnar, needle-shape or
Minimum Maximum dendritic.
value value Typical
Coke consumption (kg · t–1 sinter) 39 54 – – Silicates, which mainly include olivine, fayalite, and
Productivity (t · m–2 per 24h) 26 43 –
Fe total (%) 51 61 >56 calcium silicates (formed by reaction among molten
Basicity Index 1.70 calcium ferrite and silica).
FeO (%) 4.0 11
Al2O3 (%) 0.6 1.8 1.35
MgO (%) 0.7 2.2 1.65
SiO2 (%) 5.3 5.4
Alkalis (%) 0.11
Phosphorus (%) 0.04
2.2. Softening-Melting Test
RDI (% < 3mm) 27 33 <33
Tumbler (% > 6.3mm) 63 79 >74 In an effort to simulate the behavior of iron oxides in the
Reducibility (R60, %) 49 78 cohesive zone of the blast furnace (Figure 1), the softening-
% < 0.125 mm 15 melting test was developed in Japan and in the UK. The
0.2 mm < % < 0.7 mm 18
cohesive zone (or the place where the load formed by coarse
mineral grains, sinter and pellets begin to soft) is one of the
zones that can be found in the blast furnace according to the
sintering process, which can remain dissolved or precipitate.
physical characteristics of the load (Sancho et al., 2000).
For that reason, a sintered product formed by Fe2O3, Fe3O4,
Softening and melting isotherms limit this area (Sancho
FeO, metallic iron, calcium ferrites and silicates is obtained
et al., 2000; Propster and Szekely 1979; Wakayama et al.,
from a mixture composed mainly by Fe2O3 (hematite), CaO,
1979; Busby et al., 1994; Cores et al., 2010b; Verdeja et al.,
SiO2 and Al2O3, where metallic oxides and metallic iron are
2014). For lump iron ores, the softening start temperature (TS ;
bonded by calcium ferrites and silicates (calcium silicates,
temperature of solidus in a phase diagram (Verdeja et al.,
olivine, fayalite, and others). In this way, the sinter structure
2014)) usually varies from 1300°C to 1320°C depending on
consists of:
its composition, basicity and gangue content. The final melt-
ing temperature (TM ; temperature of liquidus, TL , in a phase
– Hematite (Fe2O3), which can be classified in: primary
diagram (Verdeja et al., 2014)) varies between 1350°C and
and secondary or recrystallized. Primary hematite comes
1550°C. The difference between TS and TM should be as small
from the original mineral. Secondary or recrystallized
as possible, and this difference gives a measure of the span of
hematite is obtained by crystallization of a molten
phase through the following options: being directly crys-
tallized, formed by oxidation (of magnetite crystals in
the liquid phase) or synthesized by magnetite oxidation
in solid phase.
– Magnetite (Fe3O4), which can be formed from the
minerals without influence of the subsequent melting
(this kind of magnetite appears in areas with poor sin-
tering) or crystallized from the liquid phase.
– Wustite (FeO), which can be formed by precipitation
from the liquid in low potential of oxygen. The presence
of this compound is usually associated with excess of
coke in the sinter mix, retained grains of carbon or
reduction of magnetite in solid state.
– Calcium ferrites. It is difficult to establish a specific
composition of the ferrites that can appear in the sinter
because of the partial replacement of Ca2+ by Mg2+, Fe2+
by Mn2+, Fe3+ by Al3+ and Si3+, etc. For that reason, the
word calcium ferrites includes several chemical com-
pounds formed by crystallization of the liquid phase,
although the mechanism is not well understood
(Webster et al., 2012). Calcium ferrites are formed in
the iron oxide grain borders as a result of the reaction of
them with the slag rich in CaO, few or nothing of FeO
and variable proportions of SiO2 and Al2O3, following
the next chemical equation:
xSiO2
yFe2 O3
5CaO
zAl2 O3 ðSFCAÞ

where x + y + z ≃ 12, and are known as derived from

CaO·2Fe2O3, with the name Silicoferrites of Calcium and Figure 1. Cohesive zone of the blast furnace defined by the softening-melting
Aluminum (SFCA) (Scarlett et al., 2004). According to the temperatures.
256 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
the cohesive zone in a blast furnace. The narrower the cohe-
sive zone, the easier it is for the gases to flow through the bed,
resulting in better reduction kinetics of the iron oxide. The
difference is preferable to be kept in the range 150-180°C for
optimum blast furnace performance (Ghosh and Chatterjee
2008; although, 140°C was the difference in the case of the
sinter used in the experiments carried out by Slezak et al.,
2014).
Laboratory softening and melting tests involve subjecting
the material to heating and reducing gases while under a
normal load (Loo et al. 2011). There are various methods
used by the iron industry that are shown in IS 9660:2001.
The parameters that are used to define the softening-melting
test are described below (Nandy et al. 2006):
– Softening temperature (TS ), which is the temperature at
which the pressure differential across the bed is 100 mm
Water Column.
– Melting temperature (TM ), which is the temperature at
which the pressure drop across bed again is back to
100 mm Water Column.
– S value (kPa°C) is the area under the curve generated by
plotting pressure differential across the bed ΔP against
temperature and is a measure of bed resistance to gas
flow.
– Residual material is the amount of residue left in the
crucible after test as a percentage of total weight of the
sample minus oxygen associated with iron.
The effect of MgO content (2.98-3.40 wt. %) on softening-
melting behavior of sinters was studied by Liu et al., 2016a.
They observed in sinters made from chromium-bearing vana-
dium-titanium magnetite that with increasing MgO content
in the sinter the softening-melting interval increased, being
located the cohesive zone slightly downward (becoming mod-
erately thicker). The appearance of high-melting-point com-
ponents, which affect negatively the permeability, was found
(Liu et al., 2016a) when great MgO contents. As it was
observed in Table I, MgO content used by Liu et al., 2016a
is higher than typical values of MgO content in sinter (0.7-
2.2%, typical 1.65%). The reason of using low MgO contents is
that when raising MgO content from 1.4 to 2.6% the FeO
content increases and decreases productivity, RI, RDI, and
Tumbler indices (improves RDI by decreasing it) (Umadevi
et al., 2009a).
The effect of Al2O3 content on softening melting properties
of sinters was studied by Ueno et al., 1994. They observed an
improvement of softening-melting behavior when Al2O3 con-
tent is reduced from 1.85% to 1.5%, but also the permeability
of the cohesive zone is improved.
2.3. Tumbler Index (TI)
The cold strength of the sinter is determined by the Tumbler
test (Gupta 2010) (IS 6495:2003; ISO 3271:2015). This para-
meter is related with the tendency to fines formation during
the handling and transportation from the sintering machine
to the blast furnace throat. It has large importance because
Tumbler index informs about the raw materials loss as fines
and the disruptions in the furnace operation. TI depends on
the strength of each single component, the strength of the
bonding matrix components and the ore composition
(Mochón et al. 2014).
The apparatus used for Tumbler test consists of (depend-
ing on the standard, in this case IS 6495:2003) a drum
1000 mm in diameter and 500 mm width fitted with two
lifters of 50 mm size. The drum rotates at 25 rpm. 15 kg
sample are subjected to 200 revolutions. At the end, the
material is screened by 6.3 mm and 0.5 mm size screens and
>6.3 mm and <0.5 mm material is weighed. The indices are
represented as follows:
Tumbler Indexð% > 6:3mmÞ
¼ ½Weight of > 6:3mm fraction in kg=15kg
ðinitial sample weightÞ
100
Abrasion Indexð% < 0:5mmÞ
¼ ½Weight of < 0:5mm fraction in kg=15kg
ðinitial sample weightÞ
100
The cold strength of the sinter calculated by means of the
Tumbler index can be determined by using other indices, such
as Micum or Irsid (Sancho et al., 2000). This strength depends
on the strength of each component, but also depends on the
strength of the bonding matrix components and the ore
composition as it was previously mentioned. As a conse-
quence, the fracture strength order (from highest to lowest)
of the main components of the sinter is: primary (or residual)
hematite, secondary hematite, magnetite and ferrites.
The properties of the matrix formed by vitreous glass,
silicates, olivine and ferrites are also important, being vitreous
glass responsible of sinter strength to decrease due to the
allotropic transformation β-2CaO·SiO2 to γ-2CaO·SiO2 that
begins at 697°C accompanied by a volume change. On the
contrary, ferrites are a strong bonding material that improves
sinter strength (Webster et al. 2012).
D. Zhu et al. 2003, studied the possibility of improving the
sinter strength in sinters with high iron (55.8%) and low silica
(4.38%). Adding serpentine and burning lime into the ore mix
to be sintered and with a deeper sinter bed, it was achieved an
important increase in the amount of magnesium ferrite and
SFCA, which are beneficial for sinter strength (Zhu et al. 2003).
2.4. Low temperature degradation tests
Sinter degradation in the blast furnace happens during reduc-
tion in the low temperature zone, having harmful effects on
burden strength in the furnace. This lowers permeability and
increases coke consumption.
2.4.1. Low temperature breakdown test (LTB)
This test was developed by the British Iron and Steel Research
Association (BISRA) and Luossavaara Kirunavaara AB
(LKAB) and evaluates the abrasion resistance of iron bearing
materials under reducing conditions, simulating those in the
upper zone of a blast furnace stack. Degradation is originated
in the transformation that takes place during the reduction of

hematite to magnetite, as a consequence of the volume
changes that cause structural stress in the sinter (Roller 1986).
2.4.2. ISO low temperature dynamic disintegration test
(ISO 13930:2015)
This test was proposed for determining the dynamic disinte-
gration behavior of sinters during reduction at low tempera-
ture. Linder type apparatus is employed, where 500 g sample
(dry) is loaded. Sample is heated up to 600°C in 45 min and
maintained at 600°C for 60 min. Atmosphere used in test is
20% CO, 20% CO2, 60% N2. Final sample is screened and
fractions >6.3 mm, >3.15 mm and <0.5 mm are calculated
(Sarangi and Sarangi 2016).
LTD dynamic test is used in the determination of the sinter
degradation during reduction at low temperature (Mochón
et al., 2014). This degradation is originated as a result of the
transformation of hematite into magnetite during reduction
processes, which is accompanied by an increase in volume
that causes stress in the sinter structure (Roller 1986). The
burden strength, loss of permeability to reducing gases and
increase in coke consumption are the main consequences of
sinter degradation in the blast furnace during reduction in the
low temperature zone (Kortman and Burghardt, 1977).
2.4.3. ISO low temperature static disintegration test (ISO
4696:2015)
This test was proposed for determining the low temperature
disintegration behavior of sinters by cold tumbling after static
reduction. The information provided by this test can be cor-
related with that of the dynamic test. Vertical tube tumbler
drum is used as apparatus in this test, using a 500 g sample
(dry). Sample is heated up to 600°C in 45 min, and then
maintained at 600°C for 60 min. Gas composition during
test is: 20% CO, 20% CO2, 60% N2. Final sample is screened
and fractions >6.3 mm, >3.15 mm and >0.5 mm are calculated
(Sarangi and Sarangi 2016).
2.5. Reducibility Index (RI)
This parameter gives a measure of the ability of sintered
products for transferring oxygen during the indirect reduction
process in the blast furnace stack. Sinter reducibility is gov-
erned by its porosity and mineralogical composition, as non-
occluded porosity measures the surface available for gas-solid
contact. RI index is related with FeO content in the sinter (the
higher the FeO content the lower the reducibility) because
FeO reacts with SiO2 to form fayalite, which is difficultly
reduced (the higher the amount of calcium ferrites (but also
the richer in Fe2O3 the calcium ferrites the higher the redu-
cibility) and the lower the amount of silicates the higher the
reducibility). The reducibility of mineral phases in decreasing
order is:
Fe2 O3 >CaO
2Fe2 O3 >CaO
Fe2 O3 >2CaO
Fe2 O3 >Fe3 O4
Hematite and magnetite are rapidly reduced to wustite
(FeO). From hematite, FeO is quickly and homogeneously
reduced with some wustite surrounded by metal. From mag-
netite, the reduction process follows the sequence:
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 257
Figure 2. Diagram ΔG°/T for the iron phases in the Fe-O system. (1) ΔG° of the
Fe3O4 (2) ΔG° of the FeO (3) ΔG° of the Fe3O4 obtained from the FeO (4) ΔG° of
the Fe2O3 obtained from the Fe3O4.
Fe3 O4 ! FeO ! Fe. Figure 2 shows the diagram ΔG0 =T for
the iron phases in the system Fe-O. In this case, almost all the
wustite grains are surrounded by metallic iron which delays
the subsequent reaction. The SFCA reducibility is related with
their morphology, porosity and whether there is or not glass
coating (Scarlett et al. 2004; Maeda et al. 2004; Wang et al.
1998). Acicular ferrite (<10 μm) formed at low temperature
(<1300°C) is more reducible. Columnar ferrite (>10 μm)
formed at high temperature (>1300°C) is less reducible. On
its behalf, primary hematite is more reducible than secondary
hematite as a consequence of its intrinsic porosity.
Eight tests have been proposed to calculate reducibility:
Midrex–Linder, HYLSA Batch, VDE (Verein Deutcher Eisen
Huttenleute), Japanese Industrial Standard (JTS), Gakushin,
ISO Relative Reducibility Test, ISI test, and HYL-III test. Most
of them are similar, only Midrex–Linder reducibility test is
different because is done in dynamic condition. In this test, a
500 g sample (10 by 19 mm particles) is charged into a Linder
type rotatory reactor and pre-heated in nitrogen atmosphere up
to 760°C. While rotating at 10 rpm, the sample is isothermally
reduced at 760°C using a composition of 55% H2, 36% CO, 5%
CO2, and 4% CH4, saturated with water at 26°C. The duration
of the test is 300 minutes. The degree of metallization or
reduction and the amount of carbon in the reduced product
are determined by chemical analysis (Sarangi and Sarangi 2016).
ISO Relative Reducibility test is the most important (ISO
7215:2015). This test is based on placing in a vertical tube
reactor suspended from an accurate balance a 500 g sample
made of 10 by 12.5 mm particles. The charge is preheated up
to 950°C in nitrogen. At 950°C, the sample is reduced iso-
thermally until 65% of nitrogen is removed or for 240 min-
utes. The degree of reduction is monitored continuously by
weight loss during the test (Sarangi and Sarangi 2016).
258 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
2.6. Sinter porosity
This parameter is related with the sinter reduction behavior
(Simona et al., 2015). Porosity is calculated by determining
the real density (ρR ) and the apparent density (ρA ) of sinters
before and after reducibility test:


P ¼ ρR  ρA =ρR
Restrepo et al. 2008, studied the changes in the initial pore
structure during reduction tests at 550 and 950°C for hematite
and goethite ores (Restrepo et al. 2008). They observed that
pore diameter should be larger than 0.01 μm for the reducing
gas to have access to the pores and reduce the sinter (Restrepo
et al. 2008). The specific surface area of the sinter decrease,
and as a consequence, its reduction is also reduced when
micro-pores coalesce to pores of higher size (1-5 μm)
(Bristow et al. 1991). In this context, if coalescence of
micro-pores is avoided and the number of pores is increased,
an increase of the surface area is achieved, and reducibility is
considerably improved. Ferrites stabilize micro-pores and
favor an increasing in porosity, thus achieving higher reduci-
bility (Bristow and Loo 1992; Bhagat et al. 2006).
The particle size distribution in coke breeze was observed
that has influence in microporosity of sinter. Bhagat et al.,
2006 observed that by using coke breeze of particle size from
0.25 to 3 mm, the microporosity of the sinter increased from
5.2 to 10.4% (reducibility index also increased from 57.1
to 61.1%).
2.7. Reduction Degradation Index (RDI)
The Reduction Degradation Index (RDI) gives a measure of
the sinter strength after the partial reduction of the material,
and serves information about the degradation behavior in the
lower part of the blast furnace stack. According to Mitra et al.,
2014, this index is calculated by ISO 4696:2015 Part 2 (see
section ISO Low Temperature Static Disintegration Test, that
gives RDI by using ISO standards), IS 10823:1994 and JIS RDI
test. The sinter degradation during reduction at low tempera-
ture (500°C) is determined by the RDI static test IS
10823:1994. Low values are desirable for RDI (see Table I).
500 g sample is subjected to reduction at 500°C for 1 hour,
using a reducing gas of 30% CO and 70% N2. After 1 hour
reduction time, the flow of reducing gas is stopped and the test
portion is cooled down to a temperature below 100°C in the
reduction tube used for the test under a flow of inert gas. The
test portion is removed from the reaction tube and the mass is
determined (m0 ), and is placed in the tumbler drum, which
must rotate for a total of 300 revolutions at a rate of 30 rpm. The
material is removed from the drum and screened on 6.3 mm,
3.15 mm and 500 μm sieves, recording each fraction retained on
6.3 mm (m1 ), 3.15 mm (m2 ) and 500 μm (m3 ). RDI is calculated
as percentage by mass with the following formula:
RDI ð%<6:3mmÞ ¼ ½ðm0  m1 Þ=m0 
100
RDI ð%<3:15mmÞ ¼ ½ðm0  ðm1 þ m2 ÞÞ=m0 
100
RDI ð%<500μmÞ ¼ ½ðm0  ðm1 þ m2 þ m3 ÞÞ=m0 
100
RDI (% <3.15 mm) is commonly used. Secondary hematite
is the main responsible of a poor sinter RDI, because of the
observation of cracks around the narrow neck regions of such
hematite. Cracks also appear in the transformation of hematite
into magnetite during the reduction processes at 450-650°C.
Pimenta and Seshadri in 2002, discovered that sinter struc-
ture depends on the maximum temperature reached in the
bed, and that secondary hematite (formed by recrystallization
during the sintering of primary hematite) is found at high
temperatures (Pimenta and Seshadri 2002). It has been
observed that Al2O3 tends to be concentrated in the secondary
hematite when the transformation of Fe2O3 (primary) into
Fe2O3 (secondary). Increasing Al2O3 and TiO2 concentration
in sinter is harmful for the RDI.
2.8. Granulometric distribution
Sinter cake is crushed and screened at the end of the machine.
The 12-35 mm is sent directly to the blast furnace hoppers.
The <5 mm fraction is called return fines and is recycled to
the sinter plant hoppers (Martín-Duarte, 2015).
The productivity of the sinter machine is related with the
return fines, because a high fraction of fines indicates a low
fraction of raw materials agglomerated. A reduction of the
return fines percentages means an increase in the strength of
the sintered product as a consequence of low sinter strand
speed and high coke content in the mix. On the contrary, an
increase in return fines percentage indicates a lack of coke in
the mix, irregular combustion and moisture changes in the
mix that implies a decreasing of the productivity. It is impor-
tant to keep a balance between the generation and recycling of
return fines for the suitable operation of the sintering process
(Cores et al. 2010a):
0:95 < Return Fines Generated=Return Fines Returned < 1:05
Some modifications were carried out to avoid excessive
crushing of the product sinter as it leaves the strand. In this
way, the Kawasaki Steel Corporation (KSC) has improved
productivity by using a smaller screen aperture for return
fines at its plants of Chiba (Obata et al. 1991). Screening
sizes and types have also been changed at Chiba (Obata
et al. 1991) and productivity has risen by 2%.
Harsha Nistala et al., 2015 studied the generation of fines
during transportation by using a different method from
Tumbler index (used to know the degradation produced dur-
ing handling and transportation of the sinter, Sancho et al.,
2000). They used customized drop and vibration tests, con-
sidering sinter size, drop height and conveying time, to simu-
late the different steps involved in transportation. Harsha
Nistala et al., 2015 observed that the contribution of various
size fractions of sinter to the generation of return fines could
be ordered in growing importance as follows: 5-10 mm >
20-30 mm ≃30-40 mm > 10-20 mm.
3. Chemical composition and quality indices
As sintered product is the main burden material for the blast
furnace (65-90%, Poveromo 2006) a stable chemical

composition is desirable (Fernández-González et al., 2016a).
This aspect will require suitable characteristics with reference
to softening and melting temperatures, liquidus temperature
and viscosity, which will ensure stable operation of the blast
furnace.
A high iron content, low gangue content (responsible of
slag), and basicity (between 1.6 and 2.1) are important from
the compositional point of view (see in Table I the sinter
quality requirements). Higher hematite contents than magne-
tite contents improve sinter reducibility and sinter quality in
general. Sinter structure improves with higher level of primary
or residual hematite and ferrites than secondary or precipi-
tated hematite. The optimal structure obtained in the sinter-
ing process is the hematite nucleus surrounded by an acicular
ferrite lattice (Bolukbasi et al., 2013).
3.1. FeO content
FeO content is an important variable in the sintering process
as it is an indicator of the thermal state of the sintering
process. FeO content gives information about sintering con-
ditions, in particular the coke rate (Loo 1992). RDI, which is a
measure of sinter strength after its partial reduction, accord-
ing to Table I is convenient to be lower than 33, because
higher percentages would cause problems of sinter degrada-
tion in the blast furnace. According to Sancho et al., 2000 RDI
is related to FeO content in the sinter, and according to
Kumar et al., 1995 RDI improves by 8 points (lowers) when
FeO content is increased in the sinter by 2% (see in Figure 3 a
real example of how sinter RDI changes as a function FeO
content). The problem is that increasing FeO content also
deteriorates reducibility as it was studied by Nandy et al.,
2006. Nandy et al., 2006 studied the FeO content (10-12.1%)
in sinters used by Tata Steel. They observed that when FeO >
12.1% (with 1.77% MgO, 2.4% Al2O3 and 10% CaO and 2.2
basicity index), there is not smooth blast furnace operation, as
reducibility impairs (problems of gas permeability), affecting
coke rate and deteriorating blast furnace productivity. Nandy
et al., 2006 verified that when MgO content is reduced from
Figure 3. Relation between RDI (%<3 mm) and %FeO.
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 259
1.77% to 1.48% the furnace behavior changed. On its behalf,
Bolukbasi et al., 2013 observed that when FeO content was
lower than 8%, the reducibility improved (on the contrary, as
it was checked by Nandy et al., 2006, increasing FeO content
deteriorated the reducibility), although increasing FeO con-
tent improved RDI as it was also observed by Kumar et al.,
1995.
FeO in iron ore sinter is directly related to its magnetite
content (Umadevi et al. 2012). Sinter productivity reaches
maximum values when sinter FeO values of 8.6-9.88% (coke
rate: 55-85 kg·t–1 of sinter), because of the improvement in
sinter bed permeability, sufficient time and temperature avail-
able (Umadevi et al. 2012). Sinter strength also reaches max-
imum values when sinter FeO values of 8.6-9.88%, because of
the presence of more acicular SFCA phase (fine acicular SFCA
minimizes the number of cracks and large pores and also
improves cold crushing strength) (Umadevi et al. 2012).
Sinter RDI (desired <27%) decreases when increasing FeO,
and is also related with magnetite phase (less hematite in the
sinter matrix reduces the sinter degradation at lower tempera-
ture and lesser RDI) (Umadevi et al. 2012). Sinter reducibility
(desired >65%) decreased with increasing FeO content
because of the decrease in hematite and acicular calcium
ferrite phases, and the increase in magnetite phase and colum-
nar ferrite phases, which has lower reducibility (Umadevi
et al. 2012).
3.2. Al2O3 content
Sinter RDI is deteriorated with the presence of alumina (Lu
et al. 2007), as RDI rises when Al2O3 content is increased
(Figure 4). Hsieh 2005 observed that sinters made from dense
low alumina iron ores presented high Tumbler strength and
low coke rate, but RDI was not simply related to the alumina
level of iron ore (according to Hsieh 2005 a high alumina ore
may produce sinter with very low or very high RDI). Hsieh
2005 results contrast information showed in Figure 4 and
Figure 4. Relation between RDI (%<3 mm) and %Al2O3.
260 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
authors like Kumar et al., 1995. Blast furnace industrial opera-
tion shows that within 10-10.5% CaO an increase of 0.1% in
Al2O3 raises RDI by 2 points (Kumar et al. 1995). Alumina
promotes the formation of SFCA (beneficial for sinter
strength) but the presence of a high alumina content in the
lattice of ore components is the main cause of the lower
strength (Sinha and Ramna 2009).
Yu et al. 2015 studied the effects of Al2O3 in sinter redu-
cibility (Yu et al. 2015). They observed that when Al2O3
contents in sinter ore was 2.5%, the reducibility of sinter ore
is the highest (Yu et al. 2015). Higher alumina contents
caused that reducibility indices of sinter were gradually
decreased because many open voids are formed by deteriora-
tion of liquidity first and the pores closed then (Yu et al.
2015). Results are contradictory in comparison with those
ones obtained by Umadevi et al. 2009b, which showed that
an increase in the alumina content from 2 to 5.5% raised the
sinter RI from 58% to 64% (Umadevi et al. 2009b).
Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010 studied the effect of
increasing Al2O3 content from 1.7 to 2.9% while keeping
SiO2 and MgO contents constant. They observed that the
total amount of SFCA increased while decreased all other
phases (spinel, total hematite, crystalline silicates and glass).
In this context, Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010 observed a
general deterioration in sinter chemical and physical proper-
ties (Tumbler index and reducibility decreased, and RDI
decreased) even when the SFCA phase increased.
3.3. Sinter MgO content
MgO allows for obtaining an optimum blast furnace slag (flow-
ability and desulphurization), and is added as dolomite or
dunite, directly or through sinter. An increase in the use of
dolomite (containing CaO and MgO) or other MgO-bearing
materials with low SiO2 (such as dunite) was observed in the
last years as a consequence of the necessity of consuming iron
ores of low quality (low grade and high SiO2), which rises SiO2
content in sinter mixture and then in the slag. Zhang et al., 2013
studied the optimal usage of dolomite in the sintering process
by mixing dolomite with magnetite concentrate before granu-
lation. MgO content improves RDI as it is possible to see in
Figure 5, but Zhang et al., 2013 observed an increase in fluidity
of the bonding phase and sinter strength. MgO has varying
effect on sinter reducibility at different silica contents. This
question has been studied by Umadevi et al. 2014a, in sinters
of JSW Steel Limited. They performed sintering experiments to
evaluate the influence of MgO on microstructure and reduci-
bility of low (4.5%) and high (6.3%) silica iron ore fines with
MgO additions from 1.4% to 3.2% (Umadevi et al. 2014a). It
was found that reducibility decreased with increasing MgO
addition as a consequence of an increase in magnetite/magne-
sio spinel phase and silicate/slag phase (Umadevi et al. 2014a).
Lu et al. 2007, determined that the addition of MgO to the
raw mix improves RDI, because MgO stabilizes magnetite and
thus decreases the hematite content. It was determined that
replacing CaO with MgO in the form of dolomite for basi-
cities of 1.6-1.9 leads to a slight reduction in sinter strength,
reducibility and productivity (Panigraphy et al. 1984;
Panigraphy et al. 1985).
Figure 5. Relation between RDI (%<3 mm) and %MgO.
Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010 studied the influence of
MgO, SiO2 and Al2O3 contents in sinter. The presence of the
spinel phase ((Fe2+,Mg)(Fe3+)O4) and glass amount increased
in the sinter when MgO content raised from 1 to 3% (while
keeping the SiO2 and Al2O3 contents constant). The problem
is that Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010 observed that SFCA
phase content decreased, and SFCA is a desirable bonding
phase that plays an important role in sinter strength and
reducibility (Jeon et al., 2015). Consequently, Kalenga and
Garbers-Craig, 2010 observed a deterioration in reducibility.
Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010 also observed an increase in
Tumbler index and coke rate with increasing MgO content,
while they observed that RDI decreased when MgO content
was raised from 1 to 2%, but RDI increased when MgO
content was increased up to 2.8% in low silica-low alumina
sinter.
Bhagat 2015 studied the variation in MgO content and how
it affects coke breeze consumption, productivity, and Tumbler
index. Bhagat 2015 observed that MgO content could be
varied from 1.5% to 2.5% without affecting productivity and
Tumbler index, while coke breeze consumption is reduced
from 8 wt. % to 4 wt. %. This contrasts with the conclusions
reached by Umadevi et al., 2009c, when they increased MgO
content from 1.4 to 2.6%. They observed that increasing the
MgO content in the sinter means that a higher temperature is
required for melt formation, and the fluxed composition with
MgO plays the role of refractory phase, and in this context,
the heat consumption raised and productivity is reduced.
Umadevi et al., 2009c observed that an increase in MgO
content improved RDI (lowers) as a consequence of the
reduction in the amount of hematite and ferrite phases and
the rise in magnetite phase with a lower degradation behavior.
As it was commented in this section, the effect of MgO
content in RDI is not clear, several authors have found that
RDI improved when MgO content was increased (Umadevi
et al., 2009c; Lu et al. 2007; Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010),
others did not observed changes as Bhagat 2015, and Yadav

et al., 2002 observed that an increase in MgO also raised RDI.
Yadav et al., 2002 also observed that raising MgO content
(1.75-3.25%) caused the plant productivity to decrease. They
verified that Tumbler index increased under that conditions,
but when MgO content was higher than 4%, the formation of
a vitreous matrix with low formation of bonding phases
caused the decrease of Tumbler index. Bolukbasi et al., 2013
as Umadevi et al., 2009c, Lu et al. 2007 and Kalenga and
Garbers-Craig, 2010 also observed that RDI improved when
MgO content in the sinter was between 1.2 and 1.7%. The
reason suggested by Bolukbasi et al., 2013 was that MgO
stabilizes magnetite and thus decreases hematite content,
and so causing a lower stress in the sinter during the reduc-
tion of hematite to magnetite in the blast furnace.
3.4. Alkalis content
Alkalis (K and Na compounds, Kobayashi et al., 1979) enter in
the blast furnace with the charge materials (should be limited
to 2.5-3.0 kg alkalis/ton pig iron, Kurunov et al., 2009 or 2.5-
8.5 kg alkalis/ton pig iron, Besta et al., 2014, depending on the
blast furnace and operating conditions), in the following
percentages according to Gridasov et al., 2016: sinter (0.1%
Na2O and 0.08% K2O in sinter composition, according to
Besta et al., 2014), 32-58%; coke ash, 21-33%; pellets (1.2%
Na2O and 1.5% K2O in pellet composition, according to Besta
et al., 2014), 16-37%). They have effects that deteriorate the
blast furnace performance by decreasing the hot strength of
the coke, aggravating sinter RDI (Figure 6), weakening the
refractory lining and facilitating the formation of slag crusts,
scaffolding and burning of the tuyeres (Kurunov et al., 2009).
Li et al., 2013 studied the removal behavior of potassium
and sodium oxides by pre-reduction sintering (process devel-
oped in Japan with the purpose of reducing energy consump-
tion and CO2 emissions, where iron ore fines are made into
ore blocks directly reduced on the sintering machine). Li
et al., 2013 observed that the potassium and sodium removal
Figure 6. Relation between RDI (%<3 mm) and %(Na2O+K2O).
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 261
is influenced by coke powder content, carbon species, coke
powder adding methods, etc. They could check that when
coke rate was 12% and 5% dosage of CO supplied in the
sintering ratio, the removal ratio of K2O and Na2O was
69.00% and 32.79% respectively, with a metallization ratio of
4.65%. In the same line, Liu et al., 2016b used reductive
sintering technology (efficiently use of the carbon by carbon
direct reduction, which produces CO used as indirect reduc-
tion agent) with the purpose of removing alkali metals (potas-
sium and sodium). Liu et al., 2016b achieved removal ratios
for Na and K of 20.37% and 63.73%, respectively, lower than
obtained by Li et al., 2013.
Research was carried out with the purpose of evaluating
the effect of chlorine and alkalis on sinter properties during
reduction (Lectard et al. 2003). The presence of alkalis favors
the reduction of hematite to magnetite because of the catalytic
action of the alkali (Lectard et al. 2003). Chlorine compounds
are unfavorable as they are deposited on the sinter surface and
inhibit its reaction (Lectard et al. 2003).
3.5. Basicity (CaO Content/SiO2 Content)
In a general way, sinter reduction degradation behavior (RDI)
is considered dependent on the basicity in a relation similar to
that one showed in Figure 7. According to Higuchi et al., 2006,
an optimization in the CaO/SiO2 ratio in the range 1.5-2.0
accompanied by an increase in the Fe content and a decrease
in the Al2O3 content is effective for improving the sinter high
temperature reducibility. Fan et al., 2012 also observed an
improvement in sinter reducibility (41.45 to 74.36%) when
sinter basicity was increased from 0.6 to 2.22. Similar results
(improvement) were observed for RDI (%<3mm) by Fan et al.,
2012 as this parameter changed from 16.8 to 11.7 in the same
interval of basicity variation, although the RDI value is low if
compared with that one showed in Table I.
The basicity index has importance in the mineralogical
structure, and for that reason in the hardness and reducibility
Figure 7. Relation between RDI (%<3 mm) and CaO/SiO2.
262 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
Figure 8. Basicity influence over sinter strength.
of the sinter. Figure 8 shows how basicity influences over
sinter strength. The effects of limestone in sinter can be
summarized in: reduction reactions in solid phase are
favored, as the decomposition of calcium carbonate reduces
the potential of oxygen in the fumes, but also the heating rate
(and consequently reaction time increases); on the contrary,
the decomposition of these carbonates lowers the thermal
level of the flame front, and the incorporation of Ca2+ ions
to the liquid phase increases the potential of oxygen (both
effects increase the Fe3+/Fe2+ relation, and consequently the
formation of wustite and magnetite is prevented, and appear
new crystalline structures (calcium ferrites and silicates)).
The resistance to physical degradation decreases until reach-
ing a minimal value in the interval 1.2-1.3 (Figure 8), when
the strength increases. The presence of multiphase structure
is responsible of that question, being critical in the range
1-1.5 as a consequence of the appearance of calcium and
ferric silicates, which have different thermal expansion coef-
ficient and melting point that cause internal stresses (respon-
sible of cracks) with the problem of giving sinter with less
strength. Bolukbasi et al., 2013 concluded in their research
work that a higher basicity promoted the optimum structure
formed by hematite nucleus surrounded by an acicular fer-
rite, obtaining a sinter with a good strength and reducibility.
In this way, CaO forms compounds of low melting point in
the presence of iron oxides (Fe2O3·CaO (1205°C) and
FeO·CaO (1120°C)). These compounds favor the formation
of the primary melt, which is necessary to be minimal with
the purpose of achieving a strong sinter. On its behalf, SiO2
forms compounds with FeO and CaO with low melting point
(FeO·SiO2 (1180°C), 2FeO·SiO2 (1205°C) and FeO·SiO2·CaO
(1223°C)). The primary melt formation temperature drops
when silica content and basicity are increased. This question
is favorable for the subsequent assimilation reaction at the
liquid-solid interface between the fines and the nuclei parti-
cles. Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010 observed that when
SiO2 content in the sinter was increased from 5.1 to 5.7%
(with Al2O3 and MgO contents constant) the amount of
spinel and total hematite remained unchanged. The total
amount of SFCA increased and the glassy phase decreased
with also increasing MgO contents, while the quantity of
crystalline silicates increased but only for 2 and 2.8% MgO
when SiO2 content was increased. With regard to the
properties, Kalenga and Garbers-Craig, 2010 observed that
reducibility decreased with increasing SiO2 content when
there was 1% MgO in the sinter, as long as for 2 and 2.8%
MgO reducibility remained constant. Kalenga and Garbers-
Craig, 2010 also observed that RDI increased when SiO2
increased and MgO content was 1 and 2%, while decreased
when MgO content was 2.8%. Abrasion index decreased
when increasing SiO2 content, while Tumbler index
increased with increasing SiO2 content in sinters with 1
and 2% MgO, decreasing when 2.8% MgO. Finally, Kalenga
and Garbers-Craig, 2010 observed that coke rate increased
when increasing SiO2 content.
Experiments at the Chusovoi Metallurgical Plant and
Nizhniy Tagil Metallurgical Combine (NTMC) showed that
a change in the basicity of the individual components of the
iron-bearing portion of the charge increased the furnace pro-
ductivity and reduced the consumption of coke (Savelev et al.
1981). The effect of basicity on sinter strength concur that
there is a minimum value for basicities in the range 0.6-1.4
consequence of the sintered product structures.
Umadevi et al., 2014b studied the basicity of the iron ore
fines with high alumina (4-6%) at JSW Steel. Studies were
carried out on low and high alumina iron ore fines to know
the influence of sinter basicity. They found that sinter pro-
ductivity and RDI decreased and TI increased when sinter
basicity was increased (Umadevi et al. 2014b) for both low
and high alumina sinter. However, low alumina sinter pre-
sented higher productivity and strength, and lower RDI as a
consequence of the presence of higher amount of silico fer-
rites of calcium and aluminum (SFCA) and magnetite phase,
and lower pore phase than high alumina iron ore sinter
(Umadevi et al. 2014b).
4. Conclusions
A review of the quality indices that are used in the definition of
the sinter was presented in this paper. These quality indices
inform the blast furnace operators about the characteristics of
the sinter. Softening-melting test, low temperature degradation
test (LTD), reduction degradation index (RDI), tumbler index
(TI), reducibility index (RI), porosity, mineralogy, and compo-
sition are the main quality indices as they inform about ther-
mal, mechanical, physical and chemical properties of the sinter.
A good quality sinter is achieved by controlling all these
indices, and in this way, stable, homogeneous, regular and
economically profitable blast furnace operation is reached.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Education,
Culture and Sports via an FPU (Formación del Profesorado
Universitario) grant to Daniel Fernández González (FPU014/02436).
The authors wish to thank the CENIM-CSIC for their cooperation in
conducting the investigation.
References
Besta, P., Samolejova, A., Lenort, R., Janovska, K., Kutac, J., and Sikirova,
A., 2014, “Alkaline carbonates in blast furnace process.” METABK, 53,
pp. 549–552.

Bhagat, R. P., Chattoraj, U. S., and Sir, S. K., 2006, “Porosity of sinter and
its relation with sintering indices.” ISIJ International, 46, pp. 1728–
1730.
Bhagat, R. P., 2015, “Reduction of solid fuel consumption in sintering of
Indian iron ore.” Science of Sintering, 47, pp. 205–213.
Bolukbasi, O. S., Tufan, B., Batar, T., and Altun, A., 2013, “The influence
of raw material composition on the quality of sínter.” Natural and
Science, 11, pp. 37–47.
Bristow, N. J., Goss, J., and Waters, A. G., 1991, “Influence of structural
changes on the reducibility of iron ores.” Iron Steelmaker, 18, pp. 61–79.
Bristow, N. J., and Loo, C. E., 1992, “Sintering properties of iron ore
mixes containing titanium.” ISIJ International, 32, pp. 819–828.
Busby, N. J., Fray, T. A. T., and Goldring, D. C., 1994, “Nature of
cohesive zone in blast furnace.” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 21, pp.
229–236.
Cores, A., Babich, A., Muñiz, M., Ferreira, S., and Mochón, 2010a, “The
influence of different iron ores mixtures composition on the quality of
sinter.” ISIJ International, 50, pp. 1089–1098.
Cores, A., Saiz de Ayala, J., Mochón, J., Ruiz-Bustinza, I., and Parra, R.,
2010b, “Situación estimada de la zona cohesiva en el horno alto.”
Revista de Metalurgia de Madrid, 46, pp. 293–307.
Eisele, T. C., and Kawatra, S. K., 2003, “A review of binders in iron ore
pelletization.” Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review,
24, pp. 1–90.
Fan, J., Qiu, G., Jiang, T., Guo, Y., Yang, Y., and Cai, M., 2012, “Studies
on alternative blast furnace burden structure with high proportion of
sinter.” Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on High-
Temperature Metallurgical Processing, TMS (The Minerals, Metals
& Materials Society), pp. 59–66.
Fernández-González, D., Martín-Duarte, R., Ruiz-Bustinza, I., Mochón,
J., González-Gasca, C., and Verdeja, L. F., 2016a, “Optimization of
sinter plant operating conditions using advanced multivariate statis-
tics: Intelligent data processing.” JOM, 68, pp. 2089–2095.
Fernández-González, D., Ruiz-Bustinza, I., Mochón, J., González-Gasca,
C., and Verdeja, L. F., 2016b, “Iron ore sintering: Raw materials and
granulation.” Mineral Processing and Extrative Metallurgy Review, 38,
pp. 36–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2016.1244059.
Ghosh, A., and Chatterjee, A., 2008, Ironmaking and Steelmaking: Theory
and Practice, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited, p. 161.
Gridasov, V. P., Logachev, G. N., Pishnograev, S. N., Pavlov, A. V.,
Gostenin, V. A., and Chevychelov, A. V., 2016, “Behavior of alkalis
in blast furnace.” Metallurgist, 59, pp. 761–765.
Gupta, R. C., 2010, Theory and Laboratory Experiments in Ferrous
Metallurgy, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
Harcha Nistala, S., Sinha, M., Kumar Choudhary, M., Bose, G., and
Sinha, S., 2015, “Study of generation of sinter return fines during
transportation.” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 42, pp. 226–232.
Higuchi, K., Orimoto, T., Koizumi, F., Furuta, H., Takamoto, Y., Sato, T.,
and Shinagawa, K., 2006, “Quality improvement of sintered ore in
relation to blast furnace operation.” Nippon Steel Technical Report, 94,
pp. 36–41.
Hsieh, L., 2005, “Effect of raw material composition on the sintering
properties.” ISIJ International, 45, pp. 551–559.
IS 10823:1994. Methods for Determination of Thermal Degradation
Index (TDI) and Reduction Degradation Index (RDI) of Iron
Oxides, Lump Ores, Sinter and Pellets. http://www.bis.org.in
IS 9660:2001. Methods for Determination of Softening-Melting
Characteristics of Iron Ore/Lumps/Pellets/Sinter. http://www.bis.org.in
IS 6495:2003. Method of Tumbler Test for Iron Oxides: Lump Ores,
Sinter and Pellets. http://www.bis.org.in
ISO 3271:2015. Iron ore for blast furnace and direct reduction feedstocks.
Determination of the tumble and abrasion indices. http://www.iso.
org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:3271:ed-5:v1:en
ISO 4696-1:2015. Iron ores for blast furnace feedstocks. Determination of
low-temperature reduction-disintegration indices by static method.
Part 1: Reduction with CO, CO2, H2 and N2. http://www.iso.org/
obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:4696:-1:ed-3:v1:en
ISO 4696-2:2015. Iron ores for blast furnace feedstocks. Determination of
low-temperature reduction-disintegration indices by static method.
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 263
Part 2: Reduction with CO and N2. http://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:
std:iso:4696:-2:ed-3:v1:en
ISO 7215:2015. Iron ores for blast furnace feedstocks. Determination of
the reducibility by final degree of reduction index. http://www.iso.org/
obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:7215:ed-4:v1:en
ISO 13930:2015. Iron ores for blast furnace feedstocks. Determination of
low-temperature reduction-disintegration indices by dynamic
method. http://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:13930:ed-3:v2:en
Jeon, J., Kim, S., and Jung, S., 2015, “Utilization of magnetite concentrate
as an additive in adhering fines of quasi-particle and its effect on
assimilation behavior.” ISIJ International, 55, pp. 513–520.
Kalenga, M. K., and Garbers-Craig, A. M., 2010, “Investigation into how
the magnesia, silica, and alumina contents of iron ore sinter influence
its mineralogy and properties.” The Journal of the Southern African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 110, pp. 447–455.
Kobayashi, K., Miura, Y., and Okamoto, A., 1979, “Behavior of alkali
compounds in the sintering process.” Tetsu-to-Hagane, 65, pp. 1355–
1364.
Kortman, H. A., and Burghardt, A., 1977, “Test methods for evaluating
iron ores, pellets and sinters.” Conference Proceedings of
Agglomeration 77: 2nd International Symposium on Agglomeration,
AIME (American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
Engineers), pp. 219–242.
Kumar, C. U., Ramana, R. V., Ali, S., and Das, A. K., 1995, “Quality of sínter
in the light of blast furnace performance.” Tata Search, pp. 20–25.
Kurunov, I. F., Titov, V. N., Emel’yanov, V. L., Lysenko, S. A., and
Arzamastsev, A. N., 2009, “Analysis of the behavior of alkalis in a
blast furnace.” Metallurgist, 53, pp. 533–542.
Lectard, E., Hess, E., and Lin, R., 2003, “Behavior of chlorine and alkalis
in the blast furnace and effect on sinter properties during reduction.”
METEC Congress 03, 3rd Intenational Conference on Science and
Technology of Ironmaking, Düsseldorf, 16-20 June, pp. 521–526.
Li, Q., Jing, Z., Yang, Y., Jiang, T., Li, G., and Chen, X., 2013, “Research
on removal of potassium and sodium by pre-reduction sintering.”
Conference Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on
High-Temperature Metallurgical Processing, TMS (The Minerals,
Metals & Society), pp. 67–74.
Liu, Z., Chu, M., Wang, H., Zhao, W., and Xue, X., 2016a, “Effect of
MgO content in sinter on the softening-melting behavior of mixed
burden made from chromium-bearing vanadium-titanium magne-
tite.” International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, 23,
pp. 25–32.
Liu, C., Li, G., Wang, R., Yu, Z., Li, Q., Jing, Z., and Zhang, Y., 2016b,
“Enhancing the removal of sodium and potassium of sinter by co-
containing flue gas circulation sintering process.” Conference
Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on High-
Temperature Metallurgical Processing, TMS (The Minerals, Metals
& Materials Society), pp. 361–368.
Loo, C. E., Matthews, L. T., and O’Dea, D. P., 2011, “Lump ore and sinter
behavior during softening and melting.” ISIJ International, 51, pp.
930–938.
Lu, L., Holmes, R. J., and Manuel J. R., 2007, “Effects of alumina on
sintering performance of hematite iron ore.” ISIJ International, 47, pp.
349–358.
Maeda, T., Nishioka, K., Nakashima, K., and Shimizu, M., 2004,
“Formation rate of calcium ferrite melt focusing on SiO2 and Al2O3
component.” ISIJ International, 44, pp. 2046–2051.
Martín-Duarte, R. M., 2015, Optimización de las Condiciones de
Operación de una Planta de Sínter y Localización del Parque de
Minerales por Medio de Estadísticas Multivariantes Avanzadas y
Lógica Difusa, PhD. Thesis, University of Oviedo.
Mitra, D., Kumar, D., Prasad, D., and Ambastha, R., 2014 (Patent
Number: 263349; Indian Patent Application Number: 1479/KOL/
2008; Name of Patentee: Tata Steel Limited), “Method of
Determination of Sinter Reduction Degradation Index (RDI) Using
Magnetic Property of Iron Ore Sinter”.
Mochón, J., Cores, A., Ruiz-Bustinza, I., Verdeja, L. F., Robla, J. I., and
García-Carcedo, F., 2014, “Iron ore sintering. Part 2. Quality indices
and productivity.” DYNA Colombia, 81, pp. 168–177.
264 D. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ ET AL.
Nandy, B., Chandra, S., Bhattacharjee, and Ghosh, D., 2006, “Assessment
of blast furnace behavior through softening-melting test.” Ironmaking
and Steelmaking, 33, pp. 111–119.
Obata, H., Takahashi, H., Nakamura, M., Natsumi, T., and Komamura,
K., 1991, “High productivity operation at Chiba No. 4 sinter plant.”
ISIJ International, 31, pp. 478–486.
Palacios, J. M., Arana, J. L., Larburu, J. I., and Iniesta, L., 1998, La
Fabricación del Acero, Madrid: UNESID, Unión de Empresas
Siderúrgicas.
Panigraphy, S. C., Verstraten, P., and Dilewijins J., 1984, “Influence of
MgO addition on strength characteristics of iron ore sinter.”
Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 11, pp. 17–22.
Panigraphy, S. C., Riguad, M. A. J., and Dilewijins J., 1985, “Effect of
dolomite addition on the properties of sintered ore produced from
high iron ore of alumina.” Steel Research, 56, pp. 35–41.
Pimenta, H. P., and Seshadri, V., 2002, “Characterization of structure of
iron ore sinter and its behavior during reduction at low tempera-
tures.” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 29, pp. 169–174.
Poveromo, J. J., 2006, Agglomeration processes-pelletizing and sintering,
in Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets and Uses, (J.
E. Kogel, N. C. Trivedi, J. M. Barker, and S. T. Krukowski, eds),
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., (SME), Littleton.
Propster, M. A., and Szekely, J., 1979, “Gas flow through cohesive zone of
blast furnace.” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 5, pp. 209–220.
Remus, R., Aguado, M. A., Roudier, S., and Delgado, L., 2013, Best
Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Iron and Steel
Production. Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU (Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control), Seville (Spain): European
Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective
Technological Studies.
Restrepo, O. J., Vásquez, C. F., and Bustamante, M. O., 2008., “Influencia
del pH en las propiedades pigmentarias de la goetita sintética.” Dyna
Colombia, 75, pp. 163–170.
Roller, P. W., 1986, “The theoretical volume decrease on reduction of
hematite to magnetite.” Transactions of the International Steel
Institute of Japan, 26, pp. 834–835.
Sancho, J. P., Verdeja, L. F., and Ballester, A., 2000, Metalurgia Extractiva.
Volumen II. Procesos de Obtención, Madrid: Síntesis, pp. 55–82.
Sarangi, A., and Sarangi B., 2016, Alternative Routes to Iron Making,
Second Edition, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
Savelev, S. G., Kamenev, R. D., and Chichyants, G. A., 1981, “Improving
sinter production by optimizing sinter basicity.” Metallurgist, 25, pp.
329–332.
Scarlett, N. V. Y., Pownceby, M. I., Madsen, I. C., and Christensen, A. N.,
2004, “Reaction sequences in the formation of silico-ferrites of cal-
cium and aluminum in iron ore sinter.” Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions B, 35, pp. 929–936.
Simona, J., Pavlina, P., and Silvie, B., 2015, “Porosity of metallurgical
sinter as indicator of iron ore reducibility.” Conference Proceedings of
METAL 2015, June 3–5, 2015, Brno (Czech Republic).
Sinha, M., and Ramna, R. V., 2009, “Effect of variation of alumina on the
microhardness of iron ore sinter phases.” ISIJ International, 49, pp.
719–721.
Slezak, W., Korolczuk-Hejnak, M., Migas, P., and Karbowniczek, M.,
2014, Determining the softening range of burden materials for the
blast furnace. ” Conference Proceedings METAL 2014 (23rd
View publication stats
International Conference on Metallurgy and Materials), May 21-23,
Brno, Czech Republic.
Ueno, H., Yamaguchi, K., Orimoto, T., Okuno, Y., Matsunaga, S., Oda,
H., Amano, S., and Nose, M., 1994, “ Influence of Al2O3 on the
reduction-meltdown behavior of sínter in blast furnace.”
Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Science and
Technology of Ironmaking, pp. 217–222.
Umadevi, T., Neson, K., Mahapatra, P. C., Prabhu, M., and Ranjan, M.,
2009a, “Influence of magnesia on iron ore sinter properties and
productivity.” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 36, pp. 515–520.
Umadevi, T., Deodar, A. V., Mahapatra, P. C., Prabhu, M., and Ranjan,
M., 2009b, “Influence of alumina on iron ore sinter properties and
productivity in the conventional and selective granulation sintering
process.” Steel Research International, 80, pp. 686–692.
Umadevi, T., Roy, A. K., Mahapatra, P. C., Prabhu, M., and Ranjan, M.,
2009c, “Influence of magnesia on iron ore sínter properties and
productivity—Use of dolomite and dunite.” Steel Research
International, 80, pp. 800–807.
Umadevi, T., Karthik, P., Mahapatra, P. C., Prabhu, M., and Ranjan M.,
2012, “Optimization of FeO in iron ore sinter at JSW Steel Limited.”
Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 39, pp. 180–189.
Umadevi, T., Brahmacharyulu, A., Sah, R., Mahapatra, P. C., and Prabhu,
M., 2014a, “Optimization of MgO addition in low and high silica iron
ore sinter to improve sinter reducibility at JSW steel limited.”
Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 41, pp. 270–278.
Umadevi, T., Rameshwar, S., and Mahapatra, P. C., 2014b, “Influence of
sinter basicity (CaO/SiO2) on low and high alumina iron ore sinter
quality.” Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 123, pp. 75–85.
Verdeja, L. F., Sancho, J. P., Ballester, A., and González, R., 2014,
Refractory and Ceramic Materials, Madrid: Ed. Síntesis, pp. 125–129.
Wakayama, S., Kanayama, Y., and Okuno, Y., 1979, “Characteristics and
control of burden distribution in the blast furnace.” Ironmaking and
Steelmaking, 6, pp. 261–267.
Wang, S., Gao, W., and Kong, L., 1998, “Formation mechanism of
silicoferrite of calcium and aluminum in sintering process.”
Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 25, pp. 296–301.
Webster, N. A. S., Pownceby, M. I., Madsen, I. C., and Kimpton, J. A.,
2012, “Silico-ferrite of calcium and aluminium (SFCA) iron ore sinter
bonding phases: new insights into their formation during heating and
cooling.” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 43B, pp. 1344–
1357.
Yadav, U. S., Pandey, B. D., Das, B. K., and Jena, D., 2002, “Influence of
magnesia on sintering characteristics of iron ore.” Ironmaking and
Steelmaking, 29, pp. 91–95.
Yu, W., Zuo, H., Zhang, J., and Zhang T., 2015, “The effects of high
Al2O3 on the metallurgical properties of sinter.” in Characterization of
Minerals, Metals and Materials 2015, New Jersey: TMS-Wiley, pp.
419–425.
Zhang, G., Wu, S., Chen, S., Zhu, J., Fan, J., and Su, B., 2013,
“Optimization of dolomite usage in iron ore sintering process.” ISIJ
International, 53, pp. 1515–1522.
Zhu, D., Qui, G., Fan, X., Hu, Y., Xiao, L., Tian, F., Chen, W., and Clout,
J., 2003, “Mechanism of high iron and low silica sintering and its
potential industrial applications.” METEC Congress 03, 3rd
International Conference on Science and Technology of Ironmaking,
Düsseldorf, 16-20 June, pp. 133–137.