CST2611 Study Guide Part 3 - Counterpoint

CST2611
Music Theory
and Composition II
Part 3: Counterpoint
Dr Christo Jankowitz
Department of Art and Music
University of South Africa

Pretoria
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Printed and published by the
University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
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CONTENTS
STUDY UNIT 1 : FOUNDATIONS OF TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT ................................. 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
2. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTES OF COUNTERPOINT IN TWO PARTS ....................... 1
a. Basic Characteristics.................................................................................................. 1
b. How Dyads Suggest Chords ...................................................................................... 3
c. Linear Melodic Figures ............................................................................................... 7
3. MORE ADVANCED COUNTERPOINT IN TWO PARTS ............................................... 9
a. Moving away from a Species Approach to Rhythm: Floridisation ............................... 9
b. Complementary Rhythm .......................................................................................... 11
c. Generating a Sense of Direction: Usable Rhythmic Patterns .................................... 14
d. Chromaticism in Counterpoint .................................................................................. 16
STUDY UNIT 2 : IMITATION AND INVERTIBILITY............................................................ 22
LEARNING OUTCOMES................................................................................................. 22
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 22
2. IMITATION .................................................................................................................. 22
a. Melodic Imitation ...................................................................................................... 23
b. Rhythmic Imitation ................................................................................................... 23
c. Tonal and Real Imitation .......................................................................................... 25
d. Canon ...................................................................................................................... 27
e. Working Method for Composing a Canon................................................................. 28
3. INVERTIBILITY ........................................................................................................... 31
a. Invertible Counterpoint at the Octave and Multiple Octave ....................................... 33
b. Harmony, Vertical Intervals and Pitch-content in Invertible Counterpoint.................. 34
c. Working Method for Composing Invertible Counterpoint........................................... 35
STUDY UNIT 3 : COUNTERPOINT IN THREE PARTS ...................................................... 39
LEARNING OUTCOMES................................................................................................. 39
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 39
2. ATTRIBUTES OF THREE-PART COUNTERPOINT ................................................... 39
a. Hierarchies of Hearing ............................................................................................. 39
b. Hierarchies of Writing – a Practical Consideration .................................................... 41
c. Maintaining Rhythmic Momentum ............................................................................ 42
d. Chord Vocabulary and Root Movements .................................................................. 44
e. Vertical Pitch Spacing .............................................................................................. 45
f. Allocation of Chord Factors ....................................................................................... 49
g. Voice-relationships when Iterating Consonances and Dissonances ......................... 52
h. Third and Sixth Doubling (a legal ‘cheat’!) ................................................................ 54
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i. Methods of Obscuration ............................................................................................ 56

j. Allocating Motives to Voices ...................................................................................... 58
k. Harmonic Counterpoint: Writing a Chorale Prelude .................................................. 60
l. Working Method for Producing a Three-part Chorale Prelude ................................... 60
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STUDY UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF TWO-PART

COUNTERPOINT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Advancing concepts and skills in two-part counterpoint

• Understanding the concepts of floridisation and complementary rhythm
• Understanding how to use chromaticism in two-part counterpoint
1. INTRODUCTION
In the counterpoint section of this course we will be expanding on the knowledge and skill in
counterpoint that you engaged with in CST1511 in a number of ways. This should assist you
to find additional strategies that address how to solve the problem of writing counter melodies
in a number of different contexts. We will start off by advancing our ability to work with two
parts as the aspects learned in this regard will help us when embarking on the situation where
we are writing counterpoint in three independent parts. To proceed, we briefly review what
you were expected to learn in CST1511.
2. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTES OF COUNTERPOINT IN TWO PARTS
a. Basic Characteristics
In the previous course, CST1511, you were introduced to the basic theoretical attributes and
related problems involved when writing a second melody either above or below and existing
melody - this was your introduction into writing counterpoint in two parts. The main points you
were expected to engage with involved the whole concept of two-part counterpoint as being a
combination of two self-sustaining musical lines which are independent from each other in
their individual attributes. However, as the lines need to be able to run at the same time in two
different areas of register they need to be able to produce good harmony when combined.
You were expected to engage with dealing with the attributes of generating a good musical
line whilst simultaneously considering the harmonic results achieved when the two lines are
played together.
This would have revealed that a second (or third) musical line moving in the SAME rhythm
with a main melody would generate a situation where the result would come across only as
block-chord harmony, that is similar to the chorale style you were studying in the Harmony
section of the course. When the second line started to show greater rhythmic differences with
the main melody, a situation was potentially generated where one important melodic line would
also have a counter melody – in essence producing a musical texture with two melodies
occurring at the same time competing for the ear’s attention. However, the presence/absence
of certain attributes could have prevented the second line to be seen as being self-contained
in the melodic sense: A line that continually leaps for instance, would bear a greater affinity in
its character with an arpeggio accompaniment than it would as a counter melody. For this
reason there were certain very specific aspects that needed to be present for the counter
melody to be perceived as such, and there were very specific ways to handle the inclusion of
leaps into a counter-melody.
To obtain viable melodic qualities in the added line (in contrast with mere arpeggiation), it is
imperative to obtain a balance between using steps and leaps in how successive pitches are
placed. Engineering a contrast in the design (and in the directional pull) of the overall shape
(curve) in the parameter of pitch that is produced in the counter melody is absolutely crucial.
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A third, and perhaps most decisive strategy to obtain linear independence between the voices,
is to have rhythmic ideas present in the counter melody that would be contrasting to those
appearing in the existing melody (from this we derive the concept of complementary rhythm
that is discussed later in this unit). When all these attributes were combined, and worked in
balance with each other, there was a very high probability that we would have arrived at
producing a counter melody that would be successful in a number of ways.
In addition to the attributes of melodic curve, complexities relating to directional independence

and the management of rhythmic contrasts, the issue of how the lines would combine
harmonically was dealt with in the previous course. For this there were clear principles taught
about how vertical intervals suggest chords. We will undertake a brief overview of those in
case this important aspect was previously overlooked.
Activity 1.1
Analyse each of the two-part counterpoint passages printed below and point out where
improvements can be made. Mention specifically ‘what’ needs to be altered in each case.
The voice containing the cantus firmus has been indicated in each case.
i.
ii.
iii.
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iv.
v.
b. How Dyads Suggest Chords
To refresh your memory, I give a brief summary below of theoretical information that you
covered in the previous module.
A dyad is a harmonic unit formed using only two pitches. You would have studied these during
earlier stages of learning music theory under the heading of melodic or harmonic Intervals.
When writing two-part counterpoint it is important to understand the harmonic implications of
each type of dyad as these incipient chords evoke by extension the principles of chord
succession.
In two-part counterpoint, chords are most clearly implied with consonant vertical intervals. In
line with this, we find root-position chords suggested by the vertical intervals of a unison,
octave, third, and fifth. In each of the instances seen below the lowest pitch of the interval
would be seen to suggest the root of a particular chord.
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Figure 1.1: Various two-part expressions of Root position triads
There is one exception to this basic premise. Since chords in western music have traditionally
been built by stacking third intervals, each basic triad contains two third intervals: Root and
third, as well as third and fifth as seen below:
Figure 1.2: The two thirds that can suggest a triad
This reveals the possibility whereby an interval of a vertical third could suggest the pitches
comprising the 3rd and 5th of a chord and not those suggesting the root and 3rd of a chord. In
this case one will find that the root of the chord was present either previously or subsequently
in the bar (or passage) and thus the use of the ‘other’ third interval here serves as a
prolongation of the harmony that was initially suggested.
Figure 1.3: How the two third intervals can prolong a harmony
Chords in first inversion are suggested by the interval of a 6th, seeing the lowest pitch of the
interval as being the 3rd of a chord.
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Figure 1.4: How to suggest first inversion chords
The interval of a perfect 4th in turn suggests a chord in second inversion (along with the
expectation that this would resolve in the way one finds in a typical cadential six-four chord
succession).
Figure 1.5: Conventional resolution of a Perfect 4th interval
The implication of a chord in second inversion would be confirmed if the vertical 4th interval is
succeeded by a vertical 6th interval where the bass note remains the same.
Figure 1.6: Resolution of a prolonged perfect 4th interval
It is possible for the vertical interval of a 6th to imply a chord in second inversion in certain
contexts. This situation is ambiguous as it arises mainly from the implied chord structure
suggested by the linear succession of a number of dyads. The ambiguity about chord position
is usually resolved by the subsequent addition of the vertical 4th using the same bass note1.
1The term ‘bass note’ is used here to refer to the LOWEST pitch in an interval/dyad or chord/triad. It
should not be confused with the terms ‘bass voice’, and ‘root of chord’.
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Figure 1.7: Ambiguous and unambiguous expressions of a second inversion chord
The vertical interval of a 7th in turn suggests a seventh chord (quartad) in its root position,
whereas the vertical interval of a 2nd would suggest a seventh chord in its last inversion.
Figure 1.8: Harmonies suggested by a 7th or 2nd interval
The vertical tritone generally tends to suggest either a leading-tone chord or an incomplete
dominant seventh chord (which would be complete if the chord-root follows melodically soon
thereafter). With the addition of the dominant degree a number of harmonies can be
suggested:
Figure 1.9: Harmonies suggested by a tritone interval and essential pitches of a dominant
quartad
Activity 1.2
Write the vertical intervals that fit each of the Roman numbers placed below in at least three
different major and three different minor keys that have two or more sharps in the key
signature.
V, VII, I, IV6, ii, V7, viio7, iii7 , iv, II, IV+, iiio
Activity 1.3
Write the appropriate Roman number for reach of the vertical intervals placed below.
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c. Linear Melodic Figures
The discussion above deals with how a dyad can suggest a chord basis. This relates directly
to the situation when the participating voices combine. When writing counterpoint one must
also understand how a linear succession of melodic pitches suggests a chord basis. This is
an important attribute as it helps one to determine what the pitches are that would need to be
present in a counter melody in order to render a complete sense of the prevailing chord. In the
examples below we can see a number of possibilities for harmonically interpreting a single
line. Of these the first three are more probable than the last option. (The implied chord pitches
in each line are circled for the sake of clarity):
Figure 1.10: Simple scale with implied chord pitches circled
In general we will wish to confine ourselves to the first two options:
1. a scale passage starting on the beat would see the first note in the pattern as belonging
to a chord. All pitches heard thereafter are judged in relation to this.
2. A scale passage starting on the beat sees the second note as belonging to a chord (thus
we find accented passing tones)
This reveals any scalar line to be harmonically ambiguous to a certain extent. The ‘identity’ of
the harmonic unit therefore depends to a large degree on the pitches that appear in the
counterpoint, and especially the CONSONANT vertical intervals (dyads) that are generated at
points where the participating melodic lines co-ordinate rhythmically.
The examples below demonstrate how the identity of a certain chord comes across aurally
when certain pitches are added in a second line to a running scale. The result obtained is quite
ambiguous in the last option (mediant triad). (The implied chord pitches in each line are circled
for the sake of clarity):
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Figure 1.11: Confirmation of implied harmonies provided by lower voice
There are a myriad melodic patterns that suggest a harmony in certain ways. As an aspiring
contrapuntist, the student will be at an advantage if these patterns or melodic characterisations
can be identified and used in the counterpoint exercises in this course. All of the melodic
patterns used by the great contrapuntal composers stem from a specific logic in how the tones
used outline a chord or part thereof and subsequently how the basic chord-basis is ‘confirmed’
by the pitches that appear in the other voices.
It is important to remember that one must harmonise the melodic line using pitches that appear
in the most clearly implied chord. Once control of this basic tenet is achieved, it is possible to
explore more complex situations.
You engaged with these matters when dealing with the strictly controlled conditions with
regards to uses of rhythm as defined by the tenets of species counterpoint in CST1511.
Activity 1.4
Give at least two ways (more if you can) by which each of the melodic patterns printed below
can be harmonised. Write an answer in two staves and provide a Roman number that shows
the intended chord structure.
i.
9
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Activity 1.5
Read Kennan, Counterpoint, 3rd edition, pages 4-48; pages 59-74
3. MORE ADVANCED COUNTERPOINT IN TWO PARTS
a. Moving away from a Species Approach to Rhythm: Floridisation
It is a defining characteristic of strict style cantus firmi (and those used in species counterpoint)
that they were consistently mono-rhythmic (employing a single note-duration throughout).
However, ‘normal’ music does not actually work this way. You should notice that a ‘normal’
melodic line employs a variety of note-durations as part of its rhythmic makeup, even if it is as
simple in concept as the melody to Twinkle Twinkle Little Star.
In more advanced two-part counterpoint it is this particular quality that we will need to be able
to recreate. A line which has variety in its rhythmic values is usually referred to as a florid line.
Producing this type of line simply involves combining all the various species forms within a
single counterpoint line.
Even cantus firmi may assume the rhythmic qualities of a florid line as shown below:
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Figure 1.12: Melodic line showing florid usage of rhythm
Activity 1.6
In each of the musical examples below, identify which rhythmic species is used on each beat.
Where examples are in three parts, make sure you account for each pair of voices. All the
examples are extracted from the Goldberg Variations, BWV 998 by J. S. Bach
i.
ii.
iii.
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iv.
v.
vi.
b. Complementary Rhythm
Understanding that you need to use floridisation and knowing how to decide what to do for
each instance are two different processes. In this we may still be at a loss because ‘what'
helps us to decide what rhythm to be used in a counterpoint? The answer is the concept of
complementary rhythm.
Complementary rhythm expresses the chief principle that underlies each of the various
rhythmic ratios of species-counterpoint with the exception of 1:1 style: if a musical line is
rhythmically inactive in one voice, the opposite voice should be rhythmically active at that
moment, and vice versa. Thus, when a relatively long note-duration (no rhythmic mobility)
occurs in one voice, the responsibility for expressing musical motion in terms of rhythm is
“taken over” by the opposite voice when it iterates shorter note-durations. Similarly, when one
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voice expresses a high degree of rhythmic mobility, the opposite voice would likely have very
little rhythmic mobility.
If we break this down into a very simple rhythmic line it is easy to see how we can add a
rhythmic complement.
Figure 1.13: Line showing various definitions of rhythmic motion
All we need to do is to ‘answer’ rhythmic mobility in one voice, by giving the other voice no, or
very little rhythmic mobility. In places where there is no rhythmic mobility in the one voice, we
have to give the other voice a lot of rhythmic mobility. This yields the following possible result
(compare the rhythm of the two lines by reading VERTICALLY):
Figure 1.14: Two lines with contrasting rhythmic movement
Complementary rhythm can also occur within the bar, looking from beat to beat. In the example
below, a counterpoint has been added in the lower voice using the principle of complementary
rhythm. Observe in particular “how” the rhythmic pulse of the composite unit becomes a
“shared” phenomenon between the voices. In bar 1-3 each minim that appears in one voice,
is ‘countered’ by two crotchets in the other voice (this can also be another rhythmic idea that
generates movement such as four quavers or a crotchet followed by two quavers). When the
opposite voice iterates minims, the remaining voice now offers crotchets to move against that.
This generates an aesthetic result where the voices seem to interact with each other. Observe
how the transferring of rhythmic movement from one voice to the other helps to maintain the
overall musical flow of the passage (via this principle we can see how naturally instances of
1:1, 2:1 and suspensions can be used in the counterpoint)
Figure 1.15: Counterpoint written to show the use complementary rhythm

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Activity 1.7
With reference to the musical fragments printed below and work out what the rhythm of the
counterpoint would be if using the complementary rhythm principle. Write/sketch several
options for each fragment given.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
When you are planning the rhythmic content of the intended counter melody, you must strive
towards obtaining an even balance in the rhythmic motion between participating voices and
within a single line: too little rhythmic activity will yield a result where the flow seems to either
be too static or to be “stunted”. On the other end one will find that a too extreme rhythmic
contrast will tend to produce a composite result where the effect is either too “full”, “uneven”
or “bumpy”.
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c. Generating a Sense of Direction: Usable Rhythmic Patterns
In this CST 2611 course we are modelling our style of writing after features that appear
consistently in the music of J. S. Bach. This has particular bearing upon the rhythmic ideas
one might use.
The first general principle to consider is that much depends on the rhythmic context provided
by the meter.
Simple meters typically make use of binary note divisions and their extensions. This means
that the use of tuplets is generally avoided. Bach occasionally uses triplets at cadence points
and instances where he wishes to achieve a particular rhythmic effect. (A good example in
this respect is the ‘Benedictus’ from the Mass in B minor where we see Galant-style triplet
decorations in the obligato flute part).
To achieve the style characteristics we are recreating in this course, we will avoid rhythmic
patterns which use triplets (or other non-binary divided tuplets) as they can have an effect of
disturbing the rhythmic flow and always have an effect on pitch choices.
If we are using compound meters, then the typical tripartite division of the basic metrical unit
is allowable and the subsequent binary division is normal. In this instance we will avoid duplets
and other tuplets wich ‘disturb’ the general flow of the compound metre. As a result the
following rhythmic patterns are especially common:
When we use rhythm the general principle that we tend to generate movement TOWARDS
the next beat is assumed. We do not want to ‘stop’ or impede the movement towards the next
beat or make movement towards a beat lead to a rest on that beat.
In the discussion below (with examples) we classify various rhythmic figure-types and indicate
whether these are usable or not.
Iambic rhythms (short duration to long duration) are generally avoided:
Figure 1.16: Iambic figures
However, as this type of rhythmic movement is a feature of the Sarabande it should be

mentioned that the restriction applies in this case more specifically to beat divisions.
Anapestic rhythms (two short note durations followed by one longer note duration) can occur
but it has an effect on the free rhythmic flow due to the ‘stop’ (rhythmic ceasura) that occurs:
Figure 1.17: Anapestic figures
The diminution syncopation is generally avoided but can be used in certain contexts:
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Figure 1.18: Diminution syncopation figures
DO NOT have a number of note durations move towards a rest that is placed on a strong
metrical position. This diffuses the momentum generated by the note durations that preceded
the rest and loses the much desired rhythmic sense of direction at the point marked as x:
Figure 1.19: Line showing inappropriate placement of a rest
Thus the rhythm displayed below would be more conducive to generate goal direction at the
point marked as y:
Figure 1.20: Line showing succesful expression of rhythmic direction
One will in general always expect a line to produce a sense of rhythmic direction as displayed
above. Thus the use of rests generally serve at anacruses:
Figure 1.21: Rests in use at anacrusis
In this style of writing the use of dactylic rhythms (one long note duration followed by two or
more short durations) is the most frequent as they generate a clear sense of direction towards
the next beat:
Figure 1.22: Dactylic figures

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Trochaic rhythms (a long note duration followed by a short duration) which can often be
interpreted as dotted rhythms can also be encountered. (Note the use of rests as potential
substitutes for dots):
Figure 1.23: Trochaic figures
Leaps in a continuing line should generally occur FROM strong metrical positions rather than
towards strong rhythmic positions (unless the note-durations exemplify these), especially
when the chords change – excepted is the anacrusis that occurs at the beginning of a
composition or phrase, especially if the music is dance-like like one would find in a Boureè or
Gigue.
When we write counterpoint in this style we stay with beat divisions defined by the context: If
binary divisions are used we remain with those. Do not introduce triplets or other tuplets into
the basic beat and sub-beat divisions. When writing in compound metre use beat divisions
that are common for that metre.
Activity 1.8
Read Kennan, Counterpoint, 3rd edition, pages 74-77.
Activity 1.9
Tabulate (make a list in musical notation) the rhythmic patterns found in bars 1-5 as used in
each voice of the following Chorale preludes from J. S. Bach’s Orgelbuchlein:
i. Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 599;
ii. Christus, der uns selig macht, BWV 620
iii. O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde gross, BWV 622
iv. Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend, BWV 632
v. You can access the volume in which these pieces appear at this URL:
http://ks.imslp.net/files/imglnks/usimg/4/48/IMSLP380369-PMLP08213-
Bach_Orgelbuchlein_Complet.pdf
d. Chromaticism in Counterpoint
The term chromatic (from the Greek word meaning “colour”) is used to describe notes that lie
outside the available pitch-content of a scale established in a particular musical passage.
In most cases the chromatically altered pitches used in the counterpoint are most often one of
the following: either the third of a dominant triad, or a root of a leading-tone triad, or a seventh
of a Dominant-seventh quartad. Other altered tones are the roots of chords which are affected
by pitch usages related to the various forms of the melodic minor scale which often occur in
the context of the use of the harmonic minor scale.
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The technical principle by which chromatically altered pitches are used in free counterpoint is
the same as described in normal voice-leading in harmony: approach and leave a
chromatically altered pitch via stepwise melodic motion, unless if that pitch is approached or
exited by other pitches in the same chord. Even in the latter case, one of the voices will be
found to need to move by step.
We can see how this affects the rendition of a chromatic line as found in the Sinfonia in F
minor BWV 795 by J.S. Bach. Note that all the approaches and exits to chromatically altered
pitches which are found in the Bass voice occur by step. This is the norm for dealing with
chromatically altered pitches: if the same pitch is altered chromatically it needs to be kept in
the SAME voice so as to avoid the unattractive false-relation. In this example we also see
Bach making an exception to this principle at the instance in the Alto voice marked as x: Here
the rather unattractive melodic tritone interval that results from the E-natural acting as
appoggiatura. This unconventional decoration is evidently used for expressive effect
(suggesting an outcry of profound anguish). At the instance marked y we see how the
alteration to the pitch E natural into the pitch E-flat is now approached and exited via stepwise
movement in the melodic line of this part.
Figure 1.24: Extract from Bach's Sinfonia in F minor
The resolution of the chromatically altered pitch should generally always be in line with the
type of alteration that has occurred: If a pitch is raised, it needs to resolve UPWARDs by step;
if a pitch is lowered, it should resolve DOWNWARDS (sufficient exceptions occur in literature
to confirm the basic principle).
Chromaticism appears in free counterpoint for the most part as pitches which suggest the use
of secondary dominant or secondary leading-tone triads/quartads – the exception to this axiom
concerns the dominant and leading-tone triads/quartads of minor keys where chromatically
raised pitches (most often the leading-tone) are inherently present for the tonal centre to be
made clear.
A chromatically raised pitch should be investigated for the possibility that it acts as the third of
a secondary dominant triad/quartad as it can also serve as the root of a secondary leading-
tone triad or quartad. A lowered tone could be regarded as the seventh of a dominant quartad
or either the fifth or seventh of a secondary leading-tone quartad (depending on the suggested
context and appearances of altered pitches in the minor scale taken into account).
Not all pitches that act as the seventh of a dominant or leading-tone quartad or fifth of a
leading-tone triad/quartad appear as lowered tones. Some pitches that appear as part of the
diatonic pitch-content of a prevailing scale may act as either a fifth or seventh of a secondary
leading-tone triad/quartad or as the seventh of a secondary dominant quartad. Much depends
on the given context provided by the scale in which a passage is cast : a pitch that descends
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stepwise to a subsequent scale-tone can act as the seventh of an implied secondary dominant
or leading-tone quartad or the fifth of a secondary leading-tone triad/quartad. In that regard
the identification of a possible instance of chromaticism will rest upon whether the pitch in
question descends the amount of a tone interval or a semitone interval. If the pitch in question
descends as much as a tone interval, the likelihood exists that it may act as a seventh of a
secondary dominant quartad. If the pitch in question descends by a semitone it likely acts as
either the fifth or seventh of a secondary leading-tone triad/quartad.
One would typically find two pitches in this harmonic situation which need to resolve in a
specific manner: a chromatically raised pitch is required to resolve upwards whereas a
chromatically lowered pitch is required to resolve downwards. The principle that governs
chromatic pitches can therefore be stated as follows: all chromatically altered pitches should
resolve in the direction of the alteration. As the behaviour of such pitches is restricted in this
manner we refer to them as tendency-tones.
In two-part counterpoint harmonic tendency-tones often form one (or both) of the pitches that
produce the vertical interval of a tritone (augmented fourth or diminished fifth). The dominant
quartad as well as the leading-tone triad contain this vertical interval and the leading-tone
quartad in the minor key contains two instances of this interval (interlocked). Tritones are as
such regarded as unstable intervals which demand resolution in a specific way. Resolution of
pitches participating in the vertical interval of a tritone ALWAYS occurs in stepwise fashion for
both participating voices:
1. When two voices form the vertical interval of an augmented fourth, the lower voice
resolves downwards by step to the nearest pitch of the prevailing scale and the upper
voice resolves upwards by step to the nearest pitch of the prevailing scale. The
examples below show a chain of implied secondary leading-tone chords onwards from
the second bar of each line. In each case the resolution of the augmented fourth interval
should end up forming the interval of a vertical sixth.
Figure 1.25: Suggested secondary leading-tone chords using an augmented 4th interval
2. When two voices form the vertical interval of a diminished fifth, the lower voice resolves
upwards by step to the nearest pitch of the prevailing scale and the upper voice resolves
downwards by step to the nearest pitch of the prevailing scale. The examples below
show a chain of implied secondary leading-tone chords from the second bar onwards.
The resolution of the diminished fifth interval should end up forming the interval of a
vertical third.
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Figure 1.26: Suggested secondary leading-tone chords using diminished fifth interval
3. Suggesting a secondary dominant triad in a two-part texture requires that both the pitch
that acts as leading-tone as well as the implied chord-root of the secondary tonal area be
present. The examples below show several implied secondary dominant triads onwards
from the second bar of each line:
Figure 1.27: Suggested secondary dominant chords with appropriate chromatic alterations
The Neapolitan sixth chord also occasionally appears in counterpoint. In this instance the
essential pitches that will need to be present are the root of the lowered second degree of the
scale and the third of the chord (as the Neapolitan Sixth chord is typically a major triad). As
stipulated in your study of harmony, this chord customarily appears in first inversion.
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Figure 1.28: Two-part passage showing use of a Neapolitan Sixth chord
Activity 1.10
Work out where on can place a secondary dominant or leading-tone chord in the musical
examples placed below. Then work out a counterpoint for each line that utilises the chromatic
chords that have been decided upon. Investigate whether you can also place a Neapolitan
Sixth chord at strategic places. Write more than one answer for each cantus firmus that has
been provided.
i. Christus, der is mein Leben
ii. Christ, unser Herr, zum Jordan kam
iii. Christus, der uns selig macht
iv. Ershienen is der herrliche Tag

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Activity 1.11
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STUDY UNIT 2:
IMITATION AND INVERTIBILITY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Understanding the use of imitation in two part counterpoint: basic imitation at the
octave and the unison as applied in various contexts including the canon
• Fundamental strategies when approaching the writing of a canon
• Invertible counterpoint
• Fundamental strategies when approaching the writing of invertible counterpoint
1. INTRODUCTION
We will expand our theoretical knowledge of counterpoint in this study unit by looking at two
key techniques: imitation and invertibility. This should lead to the writing of a two-part canon
and passages in Invertible counterpoint.
2. IMITATION
Imitation involves transferring a distinctive rhythmic/melodic idea that appears in one voice in
a particular octave, into a different voice that is situated in a different octave or level of pitch.
The technique of imitation very possibly arose from the children’s game where one child
‘teases’ the other by copying (often in a mocking or playful manner) what the first child has
said.
Imitation has been a key technique of contrapuntal composition from at least as early as the
Renaissance period onwards and is as such a musical device that continually retains its
freshness in any style that it appears. In this course we will practice the use of imitation in two
distinct contexts: the one will require that we compose a short canon and the other is practiced
in the context of writing the exposition for a fugue.
A clear use of the technique of imitation is evident in the opening bars of the Prelude in E-flat
major, from the WTC Book I2 by J. S. Bach:
2The acronym WTC stands for the seminal collection of Preludes and Fugues by J. S Bach known as
The Well Tempered Clavier. A Roman number either I or II placed afterwards refers to the particular
volume of the work.
23
Figure 2.1: Use of imitation In Bach's Prelude in E-flat
Imitation can be used in a variety of contexts and forms. Below we examine sub-categories in
the use of imitation.
a. Melodic Imitation
Melodic imitation occurs when a characteristic pitch-shape idea/figure that is stated in one
voice, is immediately repeated in a subsequent bar or on a subsequent beat by a different
voice (see the example below) either on the same pitch or in a different octave.
Figure 2.2: Melodic imitation in Invention no. 7 in E minor by J. S. Bach
b. Rhythmic Imitation
Rhythmic imitation occurs in instances the melodic contour and interval successions (pitch-
hape) have been altered to such a degree so that only the rhythmic aspect of the idea is
retained/remains recognisable.
24
Figure 2.3: Rhythmic imitation in Menuet in G minor attributed to Bach
Two factors always need to be considered when engaging with an imitative procedure:
• the time-interval that occurs between the initial statement of an idea and its imitation
• the vertical pitch-interval at which the idea is imitated
As we see with reference to Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.3 above, imitation finds a convenient
opportunity to occur where one voice ends on a rhythmic value of little mobility. However,
imitation can also occur whilst other voices engage in counterpoint.
The technical challenge when using imitation is proportionate to the time interval at which the
voices iterate the idea. The shorter the time interval between the statement of an idea and the
imitation thereof, the greater the technical challenge tends to be in order to get the harmonic
aspect to “work” because this can impose limits on the possible pitch-choices that can be
made.
In the extract from the Sonata for Piano in D major K.576 by W.A. Mozart below, we see a
short time-interval of one quaver between the announcement of the melodic idea (right hand
part) and its imitation (left hand part):
Figure 2.4: Imitation in Mozart's Sonata in D, K. 576
From the above we can see that, even though such counterpoint is highly ingenious, the effect
of imitation is somewhat obscured by the extremely short time-interval at which the imitation
occurs. This comes about especially because it forces a metric shift in accentuation of the
imitating voice. Some might argue that imitation needs to be noticeable to be aesthetically of
value. This suggests that it is practical to utilise a slightly longer time-interval. Experimentation
is in this regard the best way to arrive at a suitable solution, but an average of at least two
beats (depending on the length of the beat-unit) can be seen as “workable”.
Melodic imitation between different voices may occur at any vertical pitch-interval (unison,
second, third, fourth etc.) that the implied harmonic structure allows. Use of rhythmic imitation
25
is permissible at any vertical pitch interval since it does not have to deal with the harmonic
implications of pitch-choices.
There are two additional categories of imitation that need mention.
c. Tonal and Real Imitation
Real, or ‘strict’ imitation occurs when the exact melodic structure (in terms of interval size and
interval quality) is reproduced by the imitating voice. This often occurs in the other voice in a
different octave, as we see below:
Real imitation:
Figure 2.5: Real imitation in J.S. Bach's Invention in F major, BWV 779, bars 7 & 8
Tonal (or free) imitation occurs when the melodic shape of the idea is recognisable, but the
exact interval successions are modified (in terms of interval size and quality). The imitating
voice thus does not correspond in all aspects with the material that was given in the
announcing voice.
Tonal imitation:
Figure 2.6: J.S. Bach: Invention in F major, BWV 779, bars 7 & 8 – as originally written
The reason for the use of tonal imitation in Figure 1.6 above becomes apparent upon
examination: The intended harmonic structure of the passage requires that tonal imitation be
applied.
26
Activity 2.1
Identify the use of imitation in the musical examples placed below and then classify each use
as melodic / rhythmic /tonal / real or a combination of these possibilities.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
27
v.
Activity 2.2
Re-examine a number of counterpoint exercises that you wrote when working through the
material for Study-Unit 1 and try to work in instances of imitation.
d. Canon
A canon is a musical composition in which strict imitation is continued either throughout the
entirety of a composition, or in a large section thereof (two bars or longer). When this is done
there is an attractive linear overlap that occurs between the imitating voice and the continuing
announcing voice.
If the line given by the announcing voice carries on in the imitating voice throughout a whole
passage or piece of music WITHOUT any changes being made in the ‘following’ voice, we
have a strict canon. In this type of canon one expects that both the rhythmic and exact
intervallic aspects of the initial idea remain unaltered. If this is applied to a short melodic idea
only or a melodic fragment, we have an instance of canonic imitation instead.
The passage shown below starts off with the dux (Latin for ‘leader’) in the upper voice with the
entry of the comes (Latin for ‘follower’) occurring one bar later. In this instance the canon
continues only for the first four bars of the composition:
Figure 2.7: Canonic imitation in Bach's Menuet in A minor
Canons that continue indefinitely are referred to as being infinite (as one typically finds in a
round such as Three Blind Mice, or Row, Row, Row Your Boat or Frere Jacques). Such canons
do not tend to generate any sense of closure and are able to continue indefinitely or be
repeated indefinitely (hence their naming as being a ‘round’). Canonic compositions which
have clear endings are called finite canons. Several other types of canon also exist which
relate to the form of imitation that the “following voice” engages with. We may encounter a
canon at the inversion (also known as a mirror canon), canon at the retrograde or ‘crab’ canon
(the imitating voice iterates the dux in reverse) and several others.
28
The vertical interval that is formed between the starting pitches of the dux and the starting
pitches of the comes is also usually named as part of the terminology of this form. We speak
for instance, of canon at the unison, canon at the octave, canon at the sixth etc.
At the present stage our focus will be directed at using melodic imitation at the vertical interval
of a unison or the vertical interval of an octave to compose a finite canon for two voices.
Activity 2.3
Read Kennan, Counterpoint, 3rd edition, pages 92-96; pages 107-111.
e. Working Method for Composing a Canon
The most practical series of steps to use when going about the process of writing a canon is
set out below. This process is illustrated with examples extracted consistently from Invention
no. 8 in F major, BWV 779, bars 1-12 by J. S. Bach:
1. Compose the dux only up to the point where the comes is to enter:
Figure 2.8: BWV 779 bar 1
2. Copy this material in the space allocated for the comes at the desired vertical interval:
Figure 2.9: BWV 779 bars 1-2 with imitation written in
3. Continue the dux as a counterpoint to the pitches which now appear as the comes (the
continuation should be logical and promote good musical flow):
29
Figure 2.10: BWV 779 bars 1-2 with BOTH voices now filled in
4. Copy the counterpoint worked out in step 3 above into the space allocated to the comes:
Figure 2.11: BWV 779 bars 1-3 with imitating voice extended
5. Repeat step 3 above to obtain the next bar of the dux:
Figure 2.12: BWV 779 bars 1-3 with both voices filled in
6. Repeat step 4 above to obtain the next bar of the comes:
30
7. Repeat step 3 above to obtain the next bar of the dux:
Figure 2.14: BWV 779 bars 1-4 with both voices filled in
8. Repeat step 4 above to obtain the next bar of the comes:
9. Continue this process until the desired length is obtained.
Activity 2.4
Use each of the openings printed below to write a two-part canon that is the length of
anything between 8 to 12 bars.
i.
ii.
31
iii.
3. INVERTIBILITY
A composer may find the need to write a counterpoint that can achieve good results when it
is used successfully either above or below a cantus firmus. This means that both lines involved
can function as a bass line which possesses sufficient qualities to operate as a main melody.
When musical lines exhibit the necessary features that allow the successful interchange
between voices in a texture to occur, the situation is referred to as being invertible.
The musical passage we see below shows an instance where this is possible: the cantus
firmus in the form of a chorale melody initially appears in the upper part, but the relationship
between the voices is altered when it is repositioned below the counterpoint:
Original:
Figure 2.16: Johann Gottfried Walther: 'Ein Lammlein geht und tragt die Schuld'
Inverted:
Figure 2.17: Johann Gottfried Walther: 'Ein Lammlein geht und tragt die Schuld'
Two voices participating in invertible counterpoint is commonly referred to in certain textbooks

as double counterpoint whereas the participation of three voices in invertible counterpoint is
referred to as triple counterpoint.
Invertibility in counterpoint should not be confused with melodic inversion. In the latter case
the interval successions of a melodic idea are kept exact but the direction thereof (whether
upwards or downwards) is reversed. Doing this effectively produces a mirror of the curve of
the original melody. Using the melody shown below:
32
Figure 2.18: Melody showing direction of successive intervals
To obtain a melodic inversion we reverse the direction each horizontal (or successive)
melodic interval. Thus any movement in the source-melody going down is now going up, and
any movement in the source-melody going up is now going down (or vice versa). This form of
inverting is generally referred to as contour inversion.
Figure 2.19: Melodic directions in Figure 2.18 now inverted
Real inversion means the exact interval sizes as well as the interval qualities have been kept
exact. Tonal inversion (not shown here) means the interval sizes are copied but not their exact
qualities.
When we encounter a scenario where the separate lines of a musical passage have been
“switched around” as we can observe in the example placed below, the concept textural
inversion is mentioned. Below is a clear example of how instances of inversion can be used
to construct a lengthy passage of music:
Figure 2.20: Textural inversion in Fugue in E minor BWV 855 by J.S Bach
Activity 2.5
Identify a number of passages in pieces of music that you know which make use of imitation
and textural inversion. Then write out a catalogue in which you name these pieces with
accompanying musical examples in staff-notation.
33
a. Invertible Counterpoint at the Octave and Multiple Octave
Invertible counterpoint acts as a more specific form of textural inversion. To achieve this type
of inversion a composer needs to transpose one of the pair of voices that participate in a two-
part contrapuntal texture in such a way that it is able to occupy the opposite position to what
it was placed in initially. If both voices operate within the area of a single octave interval, one
of the voices needs to be transposed the distance of an octave or two octaves, sometimes
even three octaves. (Doing this would effectively achieve the desired “switch-around”).
If a pair of voices are spaced more than the distance of a single octave apart it would require
one voice to be transposed by as much as of two octaves (sometimes more) to be able to
achieve successful invertibility. This type of scenario occurs frequently in instrumental
counterpoint written for keyboard instruments due to the nature of the instrument and spacing
of the hands. We can see an illustration of this below in the opening four bars of Invention no.
6 in E major, BWV 777 by J. S. Bach (each voice has been marked as ‘melody a’ or ‘melody
b’).
Original:
Figure 2.21: J. S. Bach: Invention in E major, BWV 777 bars 1-4
When you compare Figure 2.21 above with Figure 2.22 below, you will observe that melodic
ideas labelled as ‘a’ and ‘b’ in Figure 2.21 are now “switched around” in Figure 2.22. This is
an example of invertible counterpoint being at work in which each line is melodic by itself and
the combination of lines in each instance generates satisfying harmony.
Inverted:
Figure 2.22: J. S. Bach: Invention in E major, BWV 777 bars 5-9
Invertibility in this case requires that a single voice be transposed either up or down by the
distance of two octaves (sometimes more). This then constitutes invertible counterpoint at the
double-octave (or triple octave). Occasionally one needs to transpose one voice up a single
octave as well as the other voice down a single octave in order to be able to achieve the
34
desired “position switch”. This situation is also called invertible counterpoint at the double
octave even though each voice has in effect only been transposed by the interval of a single
octave. If only one voice had to be moved by the distance of a single octave, we refer to it as
being invertible counterpoint at the octave.
b. Harmony, Vertical Intervals and Pitch-content in Invertible Counterpoint
To be able to make invertible counterpoint possible in the context of 18th-century harmony, we

need to be cognisant of how the vertical placement of the pitches that occurs between the
counterpoint and the cantus firmus generates harmonic relationships. This simply involves
understanding the manner in which harmonic intervals change when the pitches that form
them are switched around or inverted. This requires that the composer simultaneously
considers both options (“usual” and inverted) for each harmonic interval when placing
successive pitches in the counterpoint.
The table below summarises the changes that occur when the pitch which previously occupied
the lower pitch position of a harmonic interval, is transposed an octave higher into resting in
the upper position. (The table below should be read vertically where Arabic numbers are used
to indicate the relevant interval sizes).
Original 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
becomes
Inverted 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Interchanging the vertical intervals as is shown in the table above would then achieve
counterpoint that is invertible at the octave. For counterpoint that is invertible at the double
octave the change in interval size is identical except that the vertical intervals now become
compound intervals.
When going about the process of choosing pitches for a counterpoint that needs to be
invertible one must be careful when placing pitch-successions that would bring about vertical
intervals of a perfect fourth and perfect fifth. In this instance the placement of a vertical fifth
would invert to a fourth. As the interval of a perfect fourth suggests a triad in second inversion,
the manner by which these intervals are exited should be carefully controlled. These intervals
should resolve via stepwise motion in at least one of the voices. This will render a situation
where the conventional resolution tendency as stipulated by the appearance of a second
inversion triad in harmony needs to be adhered to: the fourth interval needs to progress
downwards via oblique motion (stationary bass note) to the vertical interval of a third. The
fourth may also be “resolved’” if both voices move in stepwise contrary motion.
It is therefore good practice to place vertical intervals such as perfect fourths and fifths on
weak beats or weak parts of a beat preferably as pasting tones. Stated in a different way:
Fifths (and fourths) should be used as if they are dissonances.
In addition to the above, it is useful to be aware of the following:
• Vertical 3rds and 6ths invert well no matter the functional harmonic context
• A rich harmonic vocabulary using quartads is especially useful as restrictions with the
use of second inversion chords are void
• 7-6 suspensions will invert to become 2-3 suspensions
• 5-6 suspensions will invert to become 4-3 suspensions
• it helps to avoid octave leaps as they invert to unwanted unisons
35
The “switch-around” of the pair of voices in invertible counterpoint occurs successfully if the
harmonic basis (thus chord function) has been kept intact, with a minor alteration of chord
inversion being a usual consequence.
Other means of producing invertible counterpoint exist. For the purposes of undergraduate
study students will only be expected to be able to produce work that is invertible at either the
octave or double octave.
c. Working Method for Composing Invertible Counterpoint
In this section we will demonstrate the process of producing a counterpoint that is invertible
using the cantus firmus that is provided below.
Figure 2.23: Cantus firmus.
1. Analysing the content and pitch placement of the cantus firmus above reveals that it is
situated using the first six pitches of the B-flat major scale.
2. In the next step we work out a possible rhythm for the intended counterpoint according to
the principle of complementary rhythm. This will provide us with a structural basis when
engaging with the process that involves deciding how to allocate the various pitches that
define the harmony.
Figure 2.24: Rhythmic sketch for possible counterpoint showing rhythm of cantus firmus
below.
3. To be able to add in the essential vertical intervals that will help to define the harmonic
structure of the passage, we will first need to sketch out the harmonic basis of the
cantus firmus using Roman numerals.
By examining the cantus firmus we see that the first pitch is the fifth note of the scale. This
means placement of the pitch B-flat in the added counterpoint is going to generate an
unwanted fourth interval right away but it will form a ‘usable’ fifth interval when the pair of
voices are inverted.
There are two ways in which one can deal with this problem. The first involves placing the
pitch B-flat that would form the unwanted fourth interval in a metrically weak position either as
second quaver of the bar or second crotchet of the bar so that the effect of the fourth interval
36
is not prominent. A second way out of this problem occurs to us by again looking at the pitch
content of the cantus firmus. We see a B-flat appearing on the first beat of the second bar.
Thus it appears that the entire first bar can be harmonised with the dominant quartad (F A C
E-flat). A pleasing dominant-to-tonic chord progression (V – I) is thus possible moving from
bar 1 to bar 2. If we allocate the dominant chord to the first bar, it gives bar 1 the qualities of
an ‘up-beat’ bar.
Figure 2.25: Cantus firmus with harmony sketched in.
4. Once the matters related above have been considered, we sketch in the skeleton pitches
as suggested by the harmonic basis produced in the previous step:
Figure 2.26: Essential pitches sketched in with cantus firmus.
5. From the above we can see that the intended melodic arc of the counterpoint shows little
directional independence when compared with the cantus firmus at all the places marked
z. We will therefore need to consider alternative pitch choices when working out the
counterpoint as well as possible amendments to the basic harmonic structure we laid out
earlier.
One way to address this problem is to change the ordering of some of the pitches previously
laid out without affecting the intended harmonic structure too badly. This requires that we re-
evaluate the resulting harmonic functions of the pitches we initially chose as articulating a
single chord (or two) at a larger rhythmic level. From this we can see that the entire first bar of
the cantus firmus can be interpreted to suggest a Dominant quartad in B-flat major. Thus it is
possible that harmonic function will not be too adversely affected by reversing the order of
some of the pitches sketched in the counterpoint for this bar.
From this we find that the pitch-ordering shown in the example below accommodates the
needs of a counterpoint to show a contrast between the design of the curve in the cantus
firmus and the indented counterpoint line. This is made clear by the addition of lines which
show the direction (ascending or descending) which each melodic strand takes:
37
Figure 2.27: Cantus firmus with added voice showing contour designs for each.
6. After enacting the decisions made in the previous step, we arrive at the sketch for the
possible counterpoint shown below:
Figure 2.28: Counterpoint with Roman number and vertical interval structure in place.
7. The counterpoint shown in Figure 2.28 above seems a ‘workable’ outcome of the original
intention of producing a counterpoint that is invertible. However, to see if it really ‘work’s’,
we need to invert the two voices to see if a satisfactory harmonic result is achieved in
that formation as well. When we do this, we find that inversion at the octave causes
overlaps between the voices. As a result we need to transpose the counterpoint down
an octave and the cantus firmus up an octave - this therefore generates invertibility at the
double octave.
Figure 2.29: Counterpoint inverted showing Roman numerals and vertical interval structure.
8. Appraising the results now arrived at in Figure 2.29 above, we find that both the original
and the inversion give a satisfactory harmonic richness result except in two places. The
octave interval in bar 1 beat 3 is harmonically not as satisfactory as it could be. Also, the
harmonic changes between the first bar and the first beat of the second bar dilute the
rhythmic accent required at that point.
38
Subsequent versions of this working model would address these concerns…
Activity 2.6
Activity 2.7
Compose a counterpoint for each of the Chorale Phrases placed below that is invertible at the
octave and/or double octave.
i.
ii.
iii.
Activity 2.8
Invert each of the phrases you composed in Activity 2.7 above at the octave or the double-
octave (depending on which one is practical) by writing out the inverted version using
manuscript paper in a grand stave. Add all necessary Roman numerals and indications of
vertical interval structure.
Activity 2.9
39
STUDY UNIT 3:
COUNTERPOINT IN THREE PARTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Understanding fundamental attributes of three-part counterpoint

• Understanding how to approach the writing of counterpoint in three parts
• Understanding the use of third and sixth doubling
• Understanding the use of rhythmic augmentation
• Practice in various techniques that help produce three-part counterpoint
• Practice in writing harmonic counterpoint
1. INTRODUCTION
In this study unit we will be starting off our work in Three-part counterpoint. To engage with
this process we have to examine the fundamental attributes of musical textures when three
voices working in counterpoint are present. Be aware that we will engage with the process of
writing harmonic counterpoint, as discussed, further on.
2. ATTRIBUTES OF THREE-PART COUNTERPOINT
The most salient advantage of any three-part counterpoint passage is that one is able to
produce a greater completeness in the harmony whilst each participating voice still has
enough ‘space’ within which it can move melodically with a relative degree of freedom and
independence. In learning how to write this form of counterpoint we will make use of diverse
strategies, but first we need to understand how important each voice is in the texture.
a. Hierarchies of Hearing
When the human ear encounters a contrapuntal passage in three-parts, it tends to be more
aware of what occurs in the outer voices (Soprano voice and Bass voice) than the middle
voice (either Alto or Tenor depending on allocation in register). The exception to this basic
hierarchy concerns how independent the middle voice is in terms of its rhythm, melodic shape,
registral separation with other voices (i.e. vertical spacing) and how much ‘interference’ comes
from the outer voices.
A factor that directly influences how clearly each of the three voices can be perceived relates
to vertical spacing: More closely spaced textures will tend to draw attention to the voice most
naturally experienced as carrier of the musical interest, the soprano. Wider spacing allows
more freedom of movement for the middle voice which can subsequently allow it to establish
a clearer sense of melodic ‘presence’ of its own. However, as we will see a little later, there
are certain restrictions when it comes to spacing the voices in three-part counterpoint.
40
Activity 3.1
For each of the musical examples placed below, work out the hierarchy of hearing and explain
what the factors are that brings this hierarchy about.
i.
ii.
iii.
41
iv.
v.
b. Hierarchies of Writing – a Practical Consideration
You would have noticed in previous counterpoint exercises that we did all the work using a
cantus firmus (Latin for fixed voice). There is a practical reason for this: a cantus firmus makes
available a number of musical elements which ‘guides’ the writing/addition of additional voices.
If ‘read’ with insight, a cantus firmus offers information about tonality, rhythm, phrase structure,
basic harmonic structure, and melodic curve (which indirectly helps to suggest the curve of
the counterpoints).
When composing your own passages in counterpoint it is easy to get lost in the complexities
involved. The practical way out of this problem is to focus first on writing a single voice (usually
the main line of a passage). This generates a voice that would effectively act as a cantus
firmus to which remaining voices can add counterpoint to. It is useful when writing this ‘leading
voice’ to use harmonic progressions you have designed yourself to guide the pitch-content of
this voice. After you are satisfied with the qualities of this line you can add the counterpoints.
Activity 3.2
Using a simple ii – V – I chord progression (or ii o - V – i; or one you have devised yourself),
construct a number of leading lines using a variety of rhythms in a diverse number of time
signatures that are situated in different major and minor keys. Once you are done add a
second voice in counterpoint for each line produced.
42
c. Maintaining Rhythmic Momentum
When writing a passage in three-part counterpoint it is necessary to maintain the general

musical flow. This much desired attribute comes about from the way that rhythmic momentum
is maintained as each participating voice engages with the contrapuntal fabric. The constant
iteration of a single rhythmic value in one of the participating voices or the rhythmic interaction
of ALL the voices can help maintain the flow of the music. However, as with previous examples
of counterpoint that you studied, the differences in the rhythm of each participating voice is
clearly a primary factor that contributes to the melodic independence of the voices.
For purposes of illustration we examine the opening passage from the Prelude in D, BWV 936
by J. S. Bach:
Figure 3.1: Three-part contrapuntal texture showing varied rhythmic roles of individual voices
Analytical commentary:
The extract above displays a situation where three voices participate in three-part
counterpoint. The two voices designated a) = Soprano and b) = bass respectively, draw the
immediate attention of the ear whilst the middle voice c) = Alto serves subordinately to
complete the composite harmony.
To be able to examine the elements that define the musical momentum in the passage we
undertake a grid analysis. This enables us to look specifically at the movement of rhythm in
each of the voices in particular.
43
BAR 1 2 3 4
QUAVER 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
TOP x x xx x x x x x x x x
(Sopr)
MIDDLE x x x x
(Alto)
BOTTOM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
(Bass)
Table 3.1: Grid Analysis of Bach’s Prelude in D (opening bars)
From the grid above we can see that there is a consistent iteration on each quaver beat in the
bass voice. The other voices iterate rhythms that are multiples or factors of the consistent
quavers. As the quavers are kept constant throughout the passage the character of this voice
is to a degree rhythmically neutral, but one that serves to maintain the overall rhythmic
continuity in this passage. We also see that Bach rhythmically pairs the voices up so that only
two voices co-ordinate harmonically (vertically) at any given time.
By looking into the attributes of each voice separately, we are able to observe a number of
additional attributes:
1. The soprano voice, not being the rhythmically most active voice all the time, seems
however, to present the greatest variety in terms of its rhythmic ideas. We see crotchets
that are tied over in bar 1; a patterning of semiquavers and crotchets in bar 2; two
quavers followed by a quaver rest in bar 3, then an up-beat quaver which establishes a
repeating rhythmic pattern (see bars 3 - 6). This repeating rhythmic pattern changes in
bar 7 to include a tied over crotchet on beat 2. This is succeeded in subsequent bars by
a flow of semiquavers.
2. The melodic profile of the bass voice is stepwise with leaps placed at strategic points to
emphasise key points in the resulting harmonic progression.
3. The middle voice is the one placed most decisively mostly in the background. It is
rhythmically the least active. It divides its rhythmic activity between minims (bars 1 and 2)
and ‘tied over’ minims (see bar 3 beat 2 to bar 4 beat 1, then again bar 4 beat 2 to bar 5
beat 1 etc.). The melodic profile is a descending scale line starting on the pitch F-sharp
in bar 1 which gradually moves down in steps to the pitch G-sharp in bar 7 beat 2. Here
we find an elided cadence point leading to the key of A major (Dominant key) that starts
off in bar 8 beat 1.
Activity 3.3
Make a grid analysis of the first 6 to 7 bars of each of the following pieces from J. S. Bach’s
Goldberg Variations:
44
i. Variation 12
ii. Variation 13
iii. Variation 15
iv. Variation 18
v. Variation 19
You can access a complete score of this work at the following URL:
http://imslp.eu/files/imglnks/euimg/4/4f/IMSLP369673-PMLP02982-Bach_-
_Goldberg_Variations_(Baerenreiter).pdf
Activity 3.4
Make a list of the vertical intervals found at each instance where all three voices co-ordinate
rhythmically in any two of the variations you analysed in Activity 1 above. Use the grid analysis
you produced in the previous task to assist you and be as rigorous as possible.
Activity 3.5
d. Chord Vocabulary and Root Movements
We will concentrate mainly on using tertian constructed chords (or triads), reserving quartads
for use at cadence points (and certain moments of modulation) where an Authentic root-tone
movement is customarily used.
General principles of chord progression as taught to you in your study of Baroque and
Classical harmony will be used to plan harmonic structures of the passages you will write in
three-part counterpoint.
Typical Baroque-style chord progressions are obtainable when chord-roots move in a certain
specific way. A considerable variety in chord3 choices becomes available by mixing any of the
root progressions listed below in the key of choice:
• Chord roots moving a 4th up (like I – IV or i – iv; ii – V or V - iio; iii-vi or III to VI; vi-ii or
VI to iio, etc.)
• Chord roots moving a 3rd down (like I – vi or i - VI, IV – ii or iv to ii. ii – viio or iio - viio
or iio – VII, etc.)
• Chord roots moving a 2nd up (like I – ii or i - iio ; IV – V or iv – V; V – vi or V – VI, viio
– I or viio – I; etc.)
The only exception to these movements all take into account the important position given
to the tonic chord of a key. As this chord is particularly important in the functional
relationships that help generate a sense of tonality, ANY chord is allowed to proceed to
the tonic chord (thus x – I or x – i), and ANY chord may succeed the tonic chord (thus I –
x or I – x). This exception accounts for the numerous musical passages built around chord
3 Included are all the customary uses of chord inversions that you were taught in CST1511.
45
progressions such as I – V – I (or i – V – i); I – viio – I (or i - viio – i); I – ii – I (or i - iio – i);
etc. 4
Activity 3.6
Compose a number of your own cantus firmi in a florid rhythmic style that are cast in a variety
of time-signatures and using a variety of major and minor key-signatures. Make use of
harmonic progressions derived from root movements discussed in section d. above to guide
the construction of each line.
Activity 3.7
Analyse the harmonic structure of the first 6 to7 bars of each of the listed movements from
Bach’s Goldberg Variations, BWV 988. Use Roman numbers in your analyses in each instance
and also mark enrichment tones such as passing notes, neighbor notes, suspensions etc. by
circling them and then naming them.
i. Aria
ii. Variation 2
iii. Variation 7
iv. Variation 21
v. Variation 25
You can access the following URL to obtain the score of this seminal musical masterpiece:
http://imslp.eu/files/imglnks/euimg/4/4f/IMSLP369673-PMLP02982-Bach_-
_Goldberg_Variations_(Baerenreiter).pdf
e. Vertical Pitch Spacing
When it comes to allocating chord factors to voices it is common to find the voices ‘pairing up’.
This arises from the rich body of literature of keyboard music that makes use of three-part
counterpoint. This stipulation is a practical one which rests upon the keyboard player’s ability
to adequately divide the activity of the three (or four) voices between both hands (or ten
fingers). The keyboard player can at most only perform pitches with a single hand which are
within the distance of an octave.
As a result either the top (soprano) and middle (alto) voices will be typically found to be within
a range of an octave with a wider spacing existing between the middle voice and the lowest
voices (tenor and bass). The alternative is to have the bottom voice (bass) and middle voice
(tenor or alto) being placed within the range of an octave with each other and a wider spacing
being allowable between the middle and the top (soprano) voice. If the texture is allocated
appropriately in terms of vertical spacing the keyboardist will be able to ‘divide’ the
responsibility of playing the middle voice between two hands.
4 Included are all the customary uses of chord inversions that you were taught in CST1511.
46
For this module you will be required to write most of your assignments in counterpoint for
performance on a keyboard instrument. We will therefore keep to the spacing stipulations
given above as a basic point of style and practicality.
Activity 3.8
By looking specifically at vertical spacing, rewrite each example printed below (which makes
use of the now obsolete soprano clef) using the treble and bass clefs ONLY. Your notation
needs to reflect the principle of voice-spacing so that each passage can be rendered playable
on a keyboard instrument. Write a paragraph indicating the hand divisions when it is not
evident from the revised notation.
i.
47
ii.
iii.
48
iv.
49
f. Allocation of Chord Factors
Allocation of chord factors to imply specific harmonies are especially important for the bass
voice. When using triads the basic restrictions against the use of second inversion chords (as
taught in CST1511) prevail. In addition, we will also typically use root position chords at
cadence points. Inversions of quartads are by virtue of the added dissonant pitch, not
restricted in its uses. The discussion below shows a number of possibilities when it comes to
the allocation of chord factors to voices. The examples are suggestive to serve as a basis for
further exploration and are by no means comprehensive.
1. Root Position Triads
Root position triads can be indicated by either having all three pitches of a triad present, or
two roots plus a third. Occasionally it is possible to have one root and two thirds of a chord
present – this voicing seems to occur more often at cadence points, or in final bars. The
element that renders the chord in root position is the root of the chord being in the bass voice.
Figure 3.2: Various three-part expressions of a root position triad
2. Triad inversions
As with general harmony, the inversion of a triad is given by the pitch found in the bass voice.
However, in three-part counterpoint a first inversion chord can be suggested by the presence
of two roots and a third, or one each of the chord factors, provided that the third of the chord
is given to the bass voice.
Figure 3.3: Various three-part expressions of a 1st inversion triad
Second inversions of chords need to contain the root, third and fifth of chord with fifth placed
in the bass voice.
50
Figure 3.4: Various three-part expressions of a 2nd inversion triad
3. Quartads
Because this chord-type consist of four factors in its construction it is necessary to leave out
one pitch. The pitch most commonly left out is the fifth but one may occasionally encounter
situations where the third of the chord is omitted. It is important to remember that are the most
essential pitches are the root and seventh of the chord.
Figure 3.5: Various ways to express a three-part Dominant quartad in root position
4. Inversions of Quartads
The pitches that need to be left out depends on what the inversion of the chord is. In any
inversion of quartad the root and seventh are essential pitches. With the presence of the latter,
the third of the chord is more frequently present than the fifth of the chord.
A quartad in first inversion iterates the third of the chord in the bass voice, with the root and
seventh being seen as remaining essential pitches.
51
Figure 3.6: Various ways to express a three-part Dominant quartad in 1st inversion
A second inversion quartad places the fifth of the chord in the bass voice thus making the
presence of root and seventh crucial.
Figure 3.7: Various ways to express a Dominant quartad in 2nd inversion
In a third inversion quartad the essential pitches are the root, third and seventh.
Figure 3.8: Various ways to express a three-part Dominant quartad in 3rd inversion
Any of the omitted pitches may be added linearly in any part if chordal prolongation is desired.
Activity 3.9
52
Activity 3.10
Write out various three-part voicings of the chords listed below in at least three different
major and three different minor keys that have two or more sharps in the key signature.
Experiment with all possible inversions of the chords listed.
V, VII, I, IV7, ii, V7, viio7, iii7 , iv, II, IV+, iiio
g. Voice-relationships when Iterating Consonances and Dissonances
Basic classifications of vertical consonants and dissonances as previously studied in

connection with two-part counterpoint in CST1511 prevail. To this we add that voices which
co-ordinate rhythmically should tend to produce consonant vertical intervals as a norm, as this
will assist the student at this stage in achieving harmonic cohesion in the passages produced.
The following possible ‘distributions’ of consonant and dissonant intervals are often found:
• Soprano and Alto are consonant with each other but generate dissonance with Bass
• Alto and Bass are consonant but dissonant with Soprano
• Occasionally we find a situation where Soprano and Bass are consonant with each
other but form a dissonant with Alto
It seems to be a general principle that dissonances formed when voices move rhythmically at
the same time tend to be restricted to instances in which the two voices move in contrary
motion. Be aware that such vertical dissonances are not kept up for long passages either and
generally tend to be no longer than three to four pitches moving stepwise/scalar manner in
CONTRARY MOTION.
Activity 3.11
Analyse each moment where participating voices coordinate vertically by examining and then
determining the type of harmonic interval formed at each instance of rhythmic co-ordination
between any number of voices.
i.
53
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
54
Activity 3.12
h. Third and Sixth Doubling (a legal ‘cheat’!)
When faced with the problem of expanding an existing two-part texture into three-parts, the
easiest solution is to give the third voice, often the middle voice as it is not perceptually as
‘present’, the pitches needed to generate a complete triad. This can be used in certain
passages but, depending on the pitches given to the outer voices, one may end up sitting with
a situation where the middle voice might tend to consistently iterate a single pitch, or not be
melodically very movable and interesting. An easy way to overcome this problem is to make
use of the technique of third (or sixth) doubling.
This is done by simply copying (or doubling) one of the lines at either the interval of a third or
a sixth. This is a legal ‘cheat’, as the voice that doubles at a third is also producing a melodic
line, even though the element of rhythmic independence is absent. However, this cannot be
done continuously! There has to be variety in using this technique and using other means
of generating counterpoint in three parts.
A very clear use of this technique appears in bars 12-15 of Fugue no. 2 in C minor from WTC
I, by J.S. Bach. The example that is shown below marks instances where third-doubling occurs
using a square marked with an X:
Figure 3.9: Use of third doubling in Bach's Fugue in C minor
It is also possible to make use of sixth doubling, as we can see in bars 9-11 of J. S Bach’s
Fugue no. 6 in D minor from WTC I:
55
Figure 3.10: Use of Sixth doubling in Bach's Fugue in D minor
Use of this rather simple (but highly effective!) doubling technique is so pervasive that one can
relate many passages in three-part (and four-part) counterpoint to some or other use of it.
Activity 3.13
Construct passages in three-part counterpoint by adding third or sixth doublings in creative
ways to the material you produced in Activity 3.2.
Activity 3.14
Construct short passages in three-part counterpoint using each of the chorale phrases printed
below as canti firmi. First add a second (or bass) voice using principles of ‘normal’ two-part
counterpoint, and then add a third (or middle) voice by making use of third or sixth doubling.
Alternatively, first add the second voice as a middle voice and then construct the bass voice
using third doubling.
i.
ii.
56
iii.
i. Methods of Obscuration
When making use of third (or sixth) doubling, a real danger exists where individual voices may
lose their contrapuntal independence. The consistent effect of the third (or sixth) intervals may
also at one point over saturate the tolerance of the ear. As a counter measure to these
problems, a composer ay engage with rhythmic manipulation or melodic decoration whereby
the use of this doubling technique can be ‘obscured’ to the ear.
An ingenious application of ‘obscuration’ can be seen in the entire Variation no. 18 from J.S.
Bach’s Golberg Variations, BWV 988. For purposes of illustration we briefly deconstruct the
entire first phrase.
Bach forms the piece from a simple descending scale-line by doubling it in parallel sixths:
Figure 3.11: Descending line moving in parallel sixths in Bach's canon.
Bach then decorates the line by subsequently adding neighbour-tone decorations. (Observe
the ambiguous situation that is generated in bar 3 with respect to which is the harmony note
and which is the decorative tone):
Figure 3.12: Basic descending line now decorated
To ‘hide’ the appearance of this parallelism, Bach delays the entry, and all subsequent
movement of the soprano voice with the duration of a minim. This means that the soprano
voice is always the same portion of time ‘behind’ the alto voice. By doing this Bach not only
‘forces’ canonic imitation into the line, but the result generates a number of very effective 7-6
suspension-figures as the sixths descend:
57
Figure 3.13: Rhythmic delays applied to descending line moving in sixths
True to the nature of counterpoint, Bach then adds the third voice as a bass-line which moves
first upwards (in contrary motion to the descending pair of upper voices) and then downwards.
The character of this added line is clearly rhythmically contrasting with the upper two voices.
This gives the whole passage as we see below:
Figure 3.14: Complete three-part passage based on previous figures
Another way to ‘hide’ the appearance of this technique is to mask one of the voices via the
use of melodic decorations. In the passage printed below from J. S. Bach’s Fugue no. 11 in F
major, BWV 856 of WTC I, we see third-doubling in bars 68-701. Here the third doubling is
being ‘hidden’ by inverting and extending the changing-tone melodic decoration.
We see the inverted changing-tone decoration:
Figure 3.15: Inverted changing-tone figure
To this figure Bach adds a tonic pedal in the middle voice, and a line moving in quavers in the
bass voice. From this thirds are formed between the soprano and bass voice on each quaver.
The melodic decoration is a subtle way Bach employs to diffuse the attention of the ear away
from these thirds:
58
Figure 3.16: Inverted changing-tone figure with added voices and third doubling in bass
As any use of this doubling technique is most obvious when adjacent voices participate, one
other way to hide it is to place the consonant doubling in alternate voices. Certain passages
in Bach’s Fugue no. 21 in B-flat from WTC I does exactly this. We see below (bars 16-18) that
Bach places adjacent and alternate voices in third and sixth doubling. Bach makes this (and
other passages in this piece) more interesting by also alternating which pair of voices engage
in this form of doubling at a given time. Instances where this technique is used are marked
with an ‘x’ at each pitch:
Figure 3.17: Alternating third and sixth doubling between different voice-pairs in Bach’s Fugue
in B-flat
Activity 3.15
Increase the level of sophistication in the material that you produced in the activities in
Activity 3.13 and Activity 3.14 by using various forms of ‘obscuration’ that will make the use
of third and sixth doublings less ‘obvious’.
j. Allocating Motives to Voices
So far we have mentioned the need to obtain melodic and rhythmic independence between
the participating voices in a contrapuntal texture a number of times. The implication was that
the movement of parts would be free but complementary, yet melodically and rhythmically
distinctive in its own right. A technique used by many composers to ensure that such
independence comes about naturally involves setting the texture up by giving each
participating voice its own motivic identity.
Use of such motives secures the contrapuntal independence of each participating voice as
the motives are ideally expected to show clear rhythmic and melodic contrasts when compared
with each other. A lucid display of this technique can be seen in the Sinfonia in F minor, BWV
59
795, by J. S. Bach. The example below quotes bars 3-51 of this composition. For easy analysis
we labelled each voice as being either a, b, or c.
Figure 3.18: Motivic passage in Bach's Sinfonia in F minor
When we separate the various participating melodic strands we can clearly see that each
displays independence in terms of its melodic curve and rhythmic character. The linear
developments of the motives that appear in each voice also help generate melodic lines which
exhibit contrasting characteristics in the design of each individual curve.
Strand a. makes use of a motive comprising a quaver rest followed by three quavers in a ‘jump
up – step down’ pitch-shape. This is followed in the third iterance that retains the rhythm but
changing the melodic contour to produce a ‘jump up – step up’ pitch-shape that includes the
very unconventional leap of a tritone. This is then tied to a descending scalar line which starts
with two semiquavers that suggest an approaching cadence:
Figure 3.19: Soprano line of passage shown above
Strand b. is characterised by an initial upwards leap the distance of a major third followed by
a descending chromatic line moving consistently in crotchets. A subsequent syncopated figure
takes the line to an approaching cadence:
Figure 3.20: Middle-voice line of three-part passage shown in Fig. 3.18
Strand c. displays the presence of two recurrent motives that are contrasting. The first,
marked as x consists of three ascending scale pitches in a characteristic trochaic rhythm
comprising a semiquaver followed by two demisemiquavers. The second marked as y
comprises the iteration of a descending diminished second interval utilising an anapestic
rhythm which is stated as two semiquavers followed by a quaver.
60
The ordering of the motives is rather interesting: by succeeding x with y in the first iteration,
the transposed re-appearance of y in the subsequent bar is given a new hearing by preceding
it here with the independent figure labelled as z. The transposed re-iterance of x in the second
bar suggests another appearance of y, but it is succeed by four quavers which generate a
cadential figure that ends in C minor.
Figure 3.21: Bass line of three-part passage shown above
Activity 3.16
Write a number of passages in three-part counterpoint using motives in the way that was
illustrated in connection with the examples by Bach shown from Figures 3.18 to Figures 3.20.
Start off by writing a simple chord progression as you did in Activity 3.6 that helps to generate
a ‘leading line’. Then, using that as basis, add two more voices in which each voice consistently
iterates its OWN motives. The three melodic strands need to come together at the end in a
cadence.
k. Harmonic Counterpoint: Writing a Chorale Prelude
There is some debate about what exactly the term ‘harmonic counterpoint’ suggests. In many
online sources it is associated with a basic assumption about how Bach would typically have
approached the writing of counterpoint. In general we may find that such counterpoint is
‘guided’ by using the chorale melody as a cantus firmus. A basic harmonisation of this melody
(stated very often in the soprano voice) is then ‘elaborated’ in the other voices to such a degree
that they assume sufficient melodic independence to generate an impression of voices
operating in counterpoint.
Forming a contrapuntal passage by ‘elaborating’ a basic harmonic skeleton via the addition of
various melodic decorations is a very effective way to develop skill in three-part counterpoint.
To facilitate this process, composers saw it necessary to lengthen the notes of the chorale
melody by using various ratios of rhythmic augmentation. This allowed greater rhythmic
‘space’ for the subordinate voices to become melodic entities, especially if they were iterating
figures constructed from very short note-durations.
For purposes of instruction and illustration we engage briefly with this process with the aim to
produce a section from a modest chorale prelude, written in three-part counterpoint.
l. Working Method for Producing a Three-part Chorale Prelude
1. Select and extract a chorale melody from any of the available sources of such material. For
purposes of our illustration here, we chose the first phrase of the melody entitled: Gelobet
seist du, Jesu Christ, which Bach also harmonised in BWV 314.
61
Figure 3.22: Chorale phrase that forms basis of proposed prelude
2. Sketch in an elementary harmonisation of this melody (remember this can be altered as

needed). Note that the resolution of the second-inversion tonic triad in bar 2 is not
conventionally conceived.
Figure 3.23: Elementary harmonic structure for proposed chorale phrase
3. Rhythmically augment the pitches of the chorale melody by either doubling, tripling or
quadrupling the original note-durations (retain the previously sketched harmonic basis). For
our purposes here we opted for a simple augmentation by just doubling the original note-
durations:
Figure 3.24: Chorale phrase rhythmically augmented
4. Using the basic harmonic framework sketched during step 2 as basis, write in the
pitches that are essential for expressing the chords stipulated (for pedagogical
purposes I have deliberately chosen some chords unconventionally to see what
situations they might lead to – the student is encouraged to do the same).
Figure 3.25: Basic harmonisation of chorale phrase

62
5. Now ‘decorate’ each of the voices, by adding in various passing tones, neighbour
tones and other possible melodic decorations to give the movement of each voice a
clear linear quality. Make sure you maintain the overall flow of the music by allowing
the added voices to interact rhythmically with each other. Remember that a
particular contrapuntal quality can come about from voices which are delayed in their
entrances and which make use of suspensions. These considerations bring about the
result as shown in the example below. Note that in this example we altered some
details in the proposed harmonic structure given in step 3 above, as this allowed the
voices to gain greater melodic freedom. This came about when the melodic
movement of certain voices availed alternative possibilities of iterating important
harmonic pitches.
Figure 3.26: Basic three-part harmonisation now elaborated
6. Make additional edits where the necessary to improve the melodic qualities of the
counterpoint in the passage produced.
We do this by evaluating the melodic features of each added line to try avoid ‘pitch-
hovering’. The bass voice shows in interesting curve and not too evident pitch repetition.
Looking at the alto voice in the example above, we see at each of the instances indicated
by the small letter a, that the pitch F-sharp is consistently returned to, thus reducing the
freely flowing melodic character of the line.
It can potentially enhance the qualities of counterpoint to remove at least one of the
instances where the pitch F-sharp seems to be returned to. Looking at the Alto line, we
see that the first iterance of the F-sharp is logically approached and portrays the qualities
of a peak in the line up to that point. We also see that the use of the pitch F-sharp in the
last bar of the example cannot be avoided as its presence is essential for the harmonic
structure at that point. This leaves the middle portion of the line, which is indicated with a
letter b in the soprano voice. The overall quality of this line can be improved here if we
choose an alternative pitch at this instance. After looking at the decorations we added, it
is emerges that there is a potential stepwise progression towards the pitch D that is
indicated by the asterisk.
To achieve these improvements it becomes necessary to also alter the initial

harmonisation of this melody, as allowing the Alto voice to iterate the pitch D where the
asterisk is placed generates a situation where there will be no third in the harmony present.
By substituting the chord here with a sub-mediant triad (vi), we can potentially generate a
scenario where a chord is formed with one root and two thirds present. For this to work
sensibly in terms of the harmonic syntax, we find that it is also necessary to substitute the
chord at the place maker with the small letter c with a dominant triad (V). All in all, it seems
that harmonising this portion using the chords IV – V – vi not only helps to improve the
63
qualities of the counterpoint, it also generates additional harmonic variety in the

harmonisation of the original chorale melody.
All of these considerations then lead to the ‘improved’ version as shown below:
Figure 3.27: Improvements made to previous example
7. Further evaluation of the result achieved showed that there are opportunities for
generating some rhythmic variety in the Alto line using some syncopation at the instance
marked as x in the example below. This in turn necessitates a slight rhythmic alteration in
the bass voice at the instance marked as y. Further evaluation reveals that the instance
where the double asterisk is placed (implied leading-tone triad in first inversion) generates
yet another opportunity for engaging with practices geared towards improvement (not
illustrated here).
Figure 3.28: Further improvements made to previous example
Activity 3.17
Read Kennan, 3rd edition, pages 250-264
Activity 3.18
Examine the Chorale Preludes from J. S. Bach’s Little Organ Book listed below. In each case
first extract the original melody on which the piece is based from a reliable source and then
trace how it appears in the version by Bach. Then make a Harmonic analysis so that you can
examine how each participating voice generates counterpoint by means of harmonic
decoration.
i. Lob sei dem allmächtigen Gott - BWV 602

64
ii. Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar - BWV 607
iii. Jesu, meine Freude – BWV 610
iv. Jesus Christus, unser Heiland – BWV 626
v. Erstanden is der heilige Christ – BWV 628
vi. Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier – BWV 633
vii. Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein – BWV 641
You can access the volume in which these pieces appear at this URL:
http://ks.imslp.net/files/imglnks/usimg/4/48/IMSLP380369-PMLP08213-
Bach_Orgelbuchlein_Complet.pdf
Activity 3.19
Choose a short Chorale melody (excepting the ones used in the pieces listed above) from any
reliable source and generate a Chorale Prelude written in three-part counterpoint. Use
techniques of rhythmic augmentation and harmonic decoration as illustrated in this section
to assist you.

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CST2611

Department of Art and Music

University of South Africa

© 2020 University of South Africa

i. Methods of Obscuration ............................................................................................ 56

STUDY UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF TWO-PART

• Advancing concepts and skills in two-part counterpoint

2. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTES OF COUNTERPOINT IN TWO PARTS

In addition to the attributes of melodic curve, complexities relating to directional independence

b. How Dyads Suggest Chords

Figure 1.1: Various two-part expressions of Root position triads

Figure 1.2: The two thirds that can suggest a triad

Figure 1.4: How to suggest first inversion chords

Figure 1.5: Conventional resolution of a Perfect 4th interval

Figure 1.6: Resolution of a prolonged perfect 4th interval

Figure 1.7: Ambiguous and unambiguous expressions of a second inversion chord

Figure 1.8: Harmonies suggested by a 7th or 2nd interval

c. Linear Melodic Figures

Figure 1.10: Simple scale with implied chord pitches circled

In general we will wish to confine ourselves to the first two options:

Figure 1.11: Confirmation of implied harmonies provided by lower voice

3. MORE ADVANCED COUNTERPOINT IN TWO PARTS

a. Moving away from a Species Approach to Rhythm: Floridisation

Figure 1.12: Melodic line showing florid usage of rhythm

Figure 1.13: Line showing various definitions of rhythmic motion

Figure 1.14: Two lines with contrasting rhythmic movement

Figure 1.15: Counterpoint written to show the use complementary rhythm

c. Generating a Sense of Direction: Usable Rhythmic Patterns

Iambic rhythms (short duration to long duration) are generally avoided:

Figure 1.16: Iambic figures

However, as this type of rhythmic movement is a feature of the Sarabande it should be

Figure 1.17: Anapestic figures

Figure 1.18: Diminution syncopation figures

Figure 1.19: Line showing inappropriate placement of a rest

Figure 1.20: Line showing succesful expression of rhythmic direction

Figure 1.21: Rests in use at anacrusis

Figure 1.22: Dactylic figures

Figure 1.23: Trochaic figures

i. Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 599;

ii. Christus, der uns selig macht, BWV 620

iii. O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde gross, BWV 622

iv. Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend, BWV 632

Figure 1.24: Extract from Bach's Sinfonia in F minor

Figure 1.28: Two-part passage showing use of a Neapolitan Sixth chord

i. Christus, der is mein Leben

ii. Christ, unser Herr, zum Jordan kam

iii. Christus, der uns selig macht

iv. Ershienen is der herrliche Tag

Figure 2.1: Use of imitation In Bach's Prelude in E-flat

Figure 2.2: Melodic imitation in Invention no. 7 in E minor by J. S. Bach

Figure 2.3: Rhythmic imitation in Menuet in G minor attributed to Bach

Figure 2.4: Imitation in Mozart's Sonata in D, K. 576

There are two additional categories of imitation that need mention.

c. Tonal and Real Imitation

Figure 2.7: Canonic imitation in Bach's Menuet in A minor

e. Working Method for Composing a Canon

Figure 2.8: BWV 779 bar 1

Figure 2.9: BWV 779 bars 1-2 with imitation written in

5. Repeat step 3 above to obtain the next bar of the dux:

6. Repeat step 4 above to obtain the next bar of the comes:

7. Repeat step 3 above to obtain the next bar of the dux:

8. Repeat step 4 above to obtain the next bar of the comes:

9. Continue this process until the desired length is obtained.

Two voices participating in invertible counterpoint is commonly referred to in certain textbooks