Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Course Contents
1.1 MEANING OF CIM
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO CIM
1.3 BENEFITS OF CIM
1.4 CIM WHEEL
1.5 EVOLUTION OF CIM
1.6 TYPES OF MANUFACTURING
SYSTEM
1.7 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT IN CIM
1.8 EXPERT SYSTEM
1.9 PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT
1.10 IMPACT OF CIM ON
PERSONAL
1.11 ROLE OF MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERS
1.12 MEANING OF CAM
1.13 OBJECTIVE OF CAM
1.14 SCOPE OF CAM
1.15 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT IN
CAM
The middle term, integrated, in CIM is very appropriate. It brings home the point that integration of
all the resources-capital, human, technology, and equipment-is vital to success in manufacturing.
Implicitly, CIM discourages any haphazard application of computers, and other technologies, that
results in isolated islands of automation. Integration is achieved through timely and effective
communication, which CIM relies on heavily. Since the computer is the basis of integration, commu-
nication within the context of CIM is strongly computer-oriented.
Although computers and computer communications have been with us since the 1950s; CIM is
relatively new. It began to draw attention only in the 1980s. Why this late? For two reasons. First, until
recently computers had been too expensive to be cost-effective in manufacturing. Only business
functions, such as accounting and payroll, and to some extent inventory management, could justify
the high costs. The low cost and improved capabilities of today's computer systems have changed that.
The second reason for the delayed "birth" of CIM and its slow progress is the sheer complexity of
integration, arising from the large number of tasks that interact in discrete manufacturing in today's
sophisticated market.
Integrated manufacturing by itself is not a new concept. But CIM-which orchestrates the factors of
production and its management-is. CIM is an umbrella term under which all functions of
manufacturing and associated acronyms, such as computer-aided design and computer-aided
manufacturing (CAD/CAM), flexible manufacturing system (FMS), and computer-aided process
planning (CAPP) find a place.
Discrete manufacturing has always presented a challenge because of the large number of factors
involved and their interaction. CIM is being projected as a panacea for this type of industry, which
produces 40% of all goods. Process industries, where volume is high enough to justify hard or
dedicated automation, may also benefit from CIM.
One needs to think of CIM as a computer system in which the peripherals, instead of being printers,
plotters, terminals, and memory disks, are robots, machine tools, and other processing equipment. It
is a little noisier and a little messier, but it's basically a computer system.
-Joel Goldhar, dean, Illinois Institute of Technology
CIM is a management philosophy, not a turnkey computer product. It is a philosophy crucial to the
survival of most manufacturers because it provides the levels of product design and production control
and shop flexibility to compete in future domestic and international markets.
-Dan Appleton, president, DACOM, Inc
CIM is an opportunity for realigning your two most fundamental resources: people and technology.
CIM is a lot more than the integration of mechanical, electrical, and even informational systems. It's
an understanding of the new way to manage.
-Charles Savage, president, Savage Associates
CIM is nothing but a data management and networking problem.
-Jack Conaway, CIM marketing manager, Dee
The preceding comments on CIM have different emphases. For example, Goldhar considers CIM a
computer system, whereas both Appleton and Savage see it as a management objective. In Conway's
view, CIM is data management and communications. Although these individuals view CIM
differently, the underlying message is the same: orchestrated use of the various resources improves
productivity and quality.
An attempt to define CIM is analogous to a group of blind persons trying to describe an elephant by
touching it; each has a different description depending upon the body part touched. Nevertheless,
several definitions of CIM have been attempted. The one put forward by Shrensker (1990) for the
Computer and Automated Systems Association of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers
(CASA/SME) is perhaps the most appropriate. According to him, "CIM is the integration of the total
manufacturing enterprise through the use of integrated systems and data communications coupled with
new managerial philosophies that improve organizational and personnel efficiency."
The CIM wheel depicted in Figure 1.1 is the expanded version of an earlier model. The outer rim was
added in 1985 to emphasize the need of including both management and technology functions within
the scope of CIM. As the wheel illustrates, CIM is broad enough to encompass all aspects of the
manufacturing enterprise and its management, including those of personnel and finance.
Computer-integrated manufacturing continues to evolve so that any claim that a "true" CIM plant
exists is debatable. Progress in this direction has been phenomenal, however, and several full-blown
CIM plants will probably be operating by the turn of the century. Today, numerous companies market
an array of products that, when put together intelligently, can convert an average manufacturing
facility into a CIM operation.
Primary factors that have led to the development of the CIM concept and associated technologies
include the following:
3. Manufacturing challenges, such as global competition, high labor cost, regulations, product
liability, and demand for quality products
4. The capability-to-cost attractiveness of microcomputers.
Continuous-flow operations, used to manufacture "mature" products in large volumes, are relatively
easier to control and operate, since production uses dedicated machines. These operations are usually
fully automated, with operators minding the machines. From an integration point of view, the
production task is simpler, since processing requirements (one sequentially following the other) are
such that integration is built in at the equipment design stage itself. The need for flexibility is just not
there. As technology improves, newer machines with built-in automation replace the old ones. Thus,
while the term CIM may be new to process industries, integrated manufacturing based on the CIM
concept certainly is not.
The term discrete-parts manufacturing denotes operations involving products that can be counted. The
output of process-type industries is also counted eventually: for example, sugar in terms of number of
sacks or tons. What distinguishes discrete manufacturing from process industries is the potential
flexibility of its output. When demand falls in process industries, operations are simply phased out.
Discrete-type operations, on the other hand, are cost-effective to modify for other products needed by
the market.
A special feature of discrete manufacturing is that the end product, generally made of several
components, can be disassembled and reassembled; an example is a bicycle. It is not essential for the
end product to comprise several components. For example, a discrete manufacturing facility that
machines only connecting rods of different shapes and sizes for automobile manufacturers produces a
single-part end product. Whether single- or multiple-part, a product must be designed, raw materials
procured, machines set up, tools sharpened, operators trained, and a host of other steps taken before
actual production can begin. All this is, in essence, preparation for production. The preparation-for-
production cost is normally the same whether one unit or hundreds of units are produced. Since it is
independent of the number of units actually produced, this cost is fixed. Obviously, the burden of the
fixed cost on each unit grows as batch size (number of units in the batch) declines. In mass production,
where batch size is large, fixed cost per unit is obviously low. At the other extreme, in job shops with
a batch size of one or two, the fixed cost per unit is relatively high.
1.6.2 Variety and Volume
Another way to look at manufacturing facilities is according to variety and volume. A low-variety,
high-volume operation is easier to manage, since dedicated automation is possible. A high-variety,
low-volume operation, on the other hand, is more difficult to operate and manage. Based on volume
and variety, discrete manufacturing is of three types:
Mass production
Batch production
Job shop
Mass Production. In mass production of discrete parts or assemblies-for example, bolts or ballpoint
pens-the production volume is high. Therefore, special purpose, dedicated equipment can be
employed. Machines are considered dedicated when they are tailored to specific products. Examples
of mass-produced goods include bicycles, washing machines, and video games. A mass-production
facility is termed a transfer line when products are assembled while conveyor systems transfer them
from one end of the plant to the other. A good example of a transfer line is an automobile-production
facility.
Batch Production. In batch production of parts or assemblies, the volume is lower, and the variety
higher, than in mass production. When the end item is an assembled product, the producer may make
some parts in house and buy others from vendors. Batch production is sometimes referred to as a
midvolume, midvariety operation. The limited volume does not justify very specialized production
machines; general-purpose machines are used instead. This does not, however, alter the shop-floor
goal of keeping the machines running and the operators busy. An enormous amount of coordination
among various production functions is essential to optimize use of the resources. In this type of
application, CIM technologies such as cellular manufacturing or robotics hold promise to deliver the
economies of mass production while still coping with variety. Batch production, and to some extent
mass production, of discrete products provides all the challenges under CIM. In batch production,
goods are manufactured in batches that may be repeated as required. As Figure 1.2 shows,
manufacturing directly contributes 30% to the GNP in industrialized economies. Batch production
accounts for 40% of this or 12% to the GNP. Also note that three-quarters of batch production involves
batch sizes of 50 or less. Thus, a typical manufacturing facility produces small batches.
Figure 1.2 Importance of batch production and small batch sizes to GNP
Job Shop Production. The job shop represents the most versatile production facility. Within the
limitations of the machines and the operators, it can manufacture almost any product. With a low
production volume, sometimes as low as 1 to 10 units, the cost of product design and set up is relatively
high. Production facilities for aircraft, ships, or special machine tools are examples of job shops. NC
and CNC technologies can significantly improve the productivity of job shops.
Which of the three discrete-manufacturing facilities is suitable for a product depends on two factors:
variety and volume. How many different products (including their models, if significantly different)
are to be produced? How many of each product (i.e., of each variety) is to be produced during a given
period of time? Note that the term volume actually means quantity-the number of units. On the basis
of volume and variety, the three types of manufacturing facilities just discussed can be represented
graphically as shown in Figure 1.3. The overlaps emphasize the fact that their boundaries are not rigid.
The actual values on the volume and variety axes depend on the complexity of the product.
Disjunctive. In the disjunctive pattern, a single raw material is progressively processed into its various
components as end products. Examples of disjunctive facilities are slaughterhouses, lumber mills, and
oil refineries.
Sequential. In sequential facilities, too, there is only one raw material as input. But, unlike disjunctive
operations, which separate the raw material into components, it is progressively modified to become
the end product. An example is a supplier's production facility that machines castings for the
automobile manufacturer.
Locational. Locational patterns involve buying, storing, and eventually distributing manufactured
goods without any substantial physical modification in the product. An example is the company that
buys a product in large quantities and distributes it in small packets under its own brand name. This
pattern suits bulk materials, such as sugar or rice.
From a production viewpoint, the combinative pattern is the most, complex. CIM is targeted primarily
at this pattern, although CIM concepts apply to the other three as well.
CIM can offer significant benefits for both types of operations. To-order companies can respond
rapidly to meet the needs of consumers, while to-stock companies can produce economically in smaller
batch sizes, thus lowering thc capital investment in finished-goods inventory.
1.6.5 Size
It is sometimes convenient to classify manufacturing companies on the basis of size, with criteria such
as number of employees, annual sales turnover, net worth, and so forth.
Whether a company is small or large is often determined by the number of employees. While there is
no standard cut-off number, the following categorization is usually practiced: small, below 100;
medium, 100 to 499; large, 500 or more.
Contrary to the general perception that only large companies can afford modern facilities, the level of
modernization and the sophistication of technology used are independent of the company size.
Metal forming
Metal cutting
Assembly
Material handling
Inspection, testing, gauging
Others, such as casting, welding, riveting, brazing, heat treatment, washing stations, plastic molding,
etc.
1.7 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT IN CIM
CIM is not just a technology, it is a philosophy, a concept. Its reverberations spread throughout the
entire organization. It may require dismantling some of the usual procedures and practices. CIM may
bring departmental or group politics out into the open, since it may require demolishing the turfs that
have developed over the years (logically, not physically). Responses such as "we never did it this way
before" must be questioned.
The effects of this potential upheaval require full involvement by senior management; approving funds
for CIM projects is not enough. CIM implementation, especially in the beginning, cannot be left to the
middle and lower management.
The most important contribution senior managers can make to CIM is their wholehearted commitment.
The chief executive officer must be involved directly or through immediate subordinates. A strong
commitment ultimately creates a ripple effect that permeates throughout the entire organization. Such
an atmosphere promotes rapid transition toward CIM by simplifying the tasks of middle and lower
management.
An expert system is basically a computer program designed to emulate an expert-hence the name
expert system. Expert systems apply facts stored in the computer and rules of thumb to help users
solve decision-making problems. In its simplest form, an expert system consists of a knowledge base
and an inference engine. The knowledge base is filled with facts and rules of thumb a human expert
would use. The inference engine comprises the techniques of retrieving and using this knowledge.
Expert systems enable the users to capture the knowledge of experts in a series of statements, for
example: "When condition P exists, I do Q." Once expertise has been stored in the computer, the
system can help users solve problems in that area by suggesting likely outcomes or actions for a given
set of conditions. The knowledge base can be created in two ways:
1. A set of IF-THEN-ELSE rules can be entered, in which case the expert system is called a rule-
based system.
2. The program can contain a series of CONDITION-RESULT combinations. Such systems are
useful in finding patterns in a set of data, for example in machine diagnostics to relate
symptoms with causes. The knowledge is manipulated either by backward chaining or forward
chaining. Also called goal-driven, backward chaining works with the given results to determine
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Karan J Santoki
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.11
Computer Aided Manufacturing (2171903) 1. Computer Aided Manufacturing
the likely initial conditions. The forward chaining starts with the given conditions to predict
the possible results by going through the decision tree. A decision tree is a list of all possible
options in making a decision; it resembles a tree with trunk and branches.
In most cases, expert systems are developed by the users themselves, resulting in powerful tools called
shells. Like other software, modern expert systems are also user-friendly. As an example, one system
can translate the user request "Show me the names and salaries of employees in the quality control
department who got a raise in 1994" into a format it understands: SELECT name salary FROM
employee WHERE department QC (quality control) AND raise 1994.
Harrington (1985) identified some of the changing skills of people working in CIM environments. For
example, operators of NC machines need additional skills in part programming and CNC technology.
Jobs of expediters are being eliminated altogether. Reading inspection instruments is less demanding
since they have digital readouts and can print out the inspection results. As another example, cost
estimating has been computerized to the point that anyone with keyboarding skills and some training
can carry out this function.
Even areas that normally require higher skills have changed. For example, a designer's creativity and
skills are challenged by CAD workstations that instantly test their ideas on design improvement.
Knowledge-based software systems can even assess the quality of the designer's creativity by
evaluating the manufacturability of an idea. Moreover, in CIM, designers need to know more about
manufacturing, for example, part programs not just for machining but also for assembly, CMM inspec-
tion, or robotized packaging.
Most of all, management may need to undergo a cultural change. To begin, the president and CEO
must believe in CIM. Their primary task is convincing other board members of CIM's leverage. Since
CIM affects all three functions of management-planning, implementation, and control-change is
required throughout the organization. Managers must switch from hard copy reports to electronic mail.
The real-time environment under CIM demands faster turnarounds on decision making, which
becomes a group activity. Meetings may be sudden, short, and highly focused, since the input
information for the meeting will be clear, concise, and current.
CIM demands that specialists understand functions outside their areas. Specialists need to generalize
more, and generalists need to specialize more. Under CIM, jack-of-all-trades but master of none will
give way to jack-of-all-trades and master of some. This may initially be difficult, but knowledge-based
computer systems smooth the transition by providing a helping hand.
Thus, the skills and practices of the past undergo profound change with CIM. As Harrington (1985)
explains: "Indeed, it is safe to say that the impact of computer integrated manufacturing will be greater
on the people involved than on the technology itself". The transition from conventional practices to
those required under CIM benefits from training and retraining of the people affected.
REFERENCES:
S. Kant Vajpayee “Principles of Computer-Integrated Manufacturing” Prentice Hall of
India Private Limited.
Mikell P.Groover “CAD/CAM Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing” Prentice Hall
of India Private Limited.
Course Contents
2.1 NC CONTROLLERS
2.2 TYPES OF CNC
2.3 EVOLUTION OF
CONTROLLERS
2.4 ADVANTAGE AND
DISADVANTAGE OF NC, CNC
& DNC
2.5 COMPONENTS OF NC/CNC
SYSTEMS
2.6 NUMERICAL CONTROL
PROCEDURE
2.7 CLASSIFICATION OF NC
SYSTEM
2.8 AXIS DESIGNATION IN
NC/CNC MACHINES
2.9 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
OF CNC MACHINE
2.10 NC/CNC TOOLING
2.11 FUNDAMENTALS OF
PART PROGRAMMING
2.12 COMPUTER AIDED
PART PROGRAMMING
2.13 SUB ROUTINE,
CANNED CYCLE AND DO
LOOPS.
2.14 APT
2.15 PART PROGRAMMING
2.1 NC CONTROLS
Numerical control (NC) is the technique of giving instructions to a machine in the form of a code
which consists of numbers, letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks and certain other symbols.
Controlling a machine tool by means of a prepared program is known as numerical control.
NC equipment has been defined by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) as:
“A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical data at some point. The
system must automatically interpret at least some portion of this data".
Instructions are supplied to the machine as blocks of information. A block of information commands
sufficient to enable the machine to carry out one individual machining operation. Each block is given
a sequence number for identification.
A set of instructions forms an NC program. When the instructions are organized in a logical manner
they direct the machine tool to carry out a specific task. It is thus termed as part program.
In a typical NC system, the numerical data which is required for producing a part is maintained on a
punched tape and is called the part program. The part program is arranged in the form of blocks of
information, where each block contains the numerical data required to produce one segment of the
work piece. The punched tape is moved forward by one block each time the cutting of a segment is
completed.
Preparing the part program for a NC machine tool requires a part programmer. The part programmer
must possess knowledge and experience of tools, cutting fluids, machinability data and fixture design
techniques.
Part programmers must be familiar with the function of NC machine tools and machining processes
and have to decide on the optimal sequence of operations. Part programs are written manually or by
using a computer-aided language, such as automated program tool (APT).
9. Laser/Arc/Plasma Cutting
10. Co-ordinate Measuring Machines
11. Grinding Machines
• Surface Grinder
• Cylindrical Grinder
• Centreless Grinder
12. Tool and Cutter Grinder
13. CNC Boring and Jig Boring Machines
14. Press Brakes
15. CNC Transfer Lines, SPM's
16. Electrochemical Milling Machines
17. Abrasive Water Jet Cutting Machines
18. Flow Forming Machines
19. Roll Forming Machines
20. Turret Punch Press
Size and reliability still remained as problems with NC controls which used discrete semiconductors.
Also, the electronics were sensitive to heat, and fans or air conditioners were required in the cabinets
to operate under factory conditions.
Around 1965, integrated circuits were introduced for use in NC controls. This type of electronic
hardware brought significant improvements in size and reliability. The number of separate components
could be reduced by 90%. There were corresponding savings in cost to the user. The trend toward LSI
(large-scale integrated) circuits has allowed more control features to be packaged into smaller control
cabinets. Among these features are circular and hyperbolic interpolation routines, inch-to-metric
conversions, and vector feed rate computations.
The next development in NC control marked the introduction of digital computers in NC controller
technology. This constituted a fundamental change in NC evolution. All of the previous controls were
made up of hard-wired components. The functions that were performed by these control systems could
not be easily changed, due to the fixed nature of the hard-wired design. Digital computers, on the other
hand, are based on a different approach. In this new approach, the control functions were programmed
into the computer memory and could be changed by altering the program.
DNC was the first of the computer control systems to be introduced, around 1968. In the evolution of
computer technology, the computers of that era were quite large and expensive, and the only feasible
approach seemed to be to use one large computer to control a number of machine tools on a time-
shared basis. The advantage of DNC was that it established a direct control link between the computer
and the machine tool, hence eliminating the necessity for using punched tape input. The tape and tape
reader were turning out to be the least reliable components in the conventional NC systems.
With the recognized trend toward smaller, less expensive computers, it soon became practical to apply
a single small computer to one machine tool. This concept came to be called computer numerical
control (CNC). The CNC systems were first commercially introduced around 1970, and they applied
the soft-wired controller approach to good advantage. One standard computer control unit could be
adapted to various types of machine tools by programming the control functions into the computer
memory for that particular machine. Today, because of the advantages of CNC, very few conventional
hard-wired NC systems are sold in the United States.
Advances in computer technology have continued to provide smaller and smaller digital control
devices which have greater speed and capacity at lower cost. This has permitted the machine tool
builders to design the CNC control panel as an integral part of the machine tool rather than as a separate
stand-alone cabinet. This reduces floor space requirements for the machine. The VLSI (very large
scale integrated) circuits used in these controllers are advantageous to the machine tool designer and
to the machine user. Fewer components in the controller means it is easier and less expensive for the
machine tool builder to fabricate. Fewer circuit boards, which are readily replaced, reduce the burden
on the user for maintenance and repair.
information needed for machining the component. The part programme is fed to the machine control
unit through some input medium. Various types of input media are:
Punched Cards
can be accessed at random. The data transfer rate in case of magnetic disks is much faster than
magnetic tape. The magnetic tapes and disks can store more data compared to other input media. But
the data stored on magnetic tapes and disks can be corrupted if these are brought into magnetic fields.
Punched Tape
Programme Reader
Programme reader is a device used to read the coded instructions from the programme of instructions.
Programme readers are classified on the basis of programme input medium as:
into a hopper and when the command to read is given, a lever pushes a card from the bottom of stack.
Generally, the card is moved lengthwise over a row of 80 reed brushes. These brushes read the
information punched along the bottom row of the card. If a hole is punched in a particular row, a brush
makes electrical contact through the hole in the card generating a signal which is used by the computer.
The next row is then read, and this process continues until all rows have been read, after which the
next card is moved into position on the brushes. Faster card readers use photoelectric cells under the
12 punch positions along a column and an illuminating source above the card. As each column on the
card is passed over the 12 photoelectric cells, whether or not a given position is punched is determined
by the presence or absence of electric signal from the corresponding photocell. Card readers operate
at speeds ranging from 12 to 1000 cards per minute.
1. Process planning
This step is referred to as process planning and it concerned with preparation of route sheet.
Route sheet is a listing of sequence of operations along with required machining data like
speeds, feeds, depth of cut tools used etc.
It is called a route sheet because it also lists the machines through which the part must be routed
in order to accomplish the sequence of operation.
2. Part programming
Part programming have knowledge about the machining process and they have been trained to
programme for numerically controlled machine tools.
They are responsible for planning the sequence of operation performed by NC.
There are two ways to develop programme for numerical control machine.
1) Manual part programming.
3. Tape preparation
A punched tape is prepared from the part programmer’s process plan.
In manual part programming the punched tape is prepared directly from the part programme
menu script.
In computer assisted part programming, the computer interprets the list of part programming
instructions performs the necessary calculation to convert this into a detailed set of machine
tool, motion commands and then controls a tape punching device to prepare the tape for
specific NC machine.
4. Tape verification
After the punched tape has been prepared some method is usually provided for checking the
accuracy of the tape.
Sometimes the tape is checked by running it through a computer programme which plots the
various tool movement on paper.
In this way major errors in tape can be checked.
Acid test of tape involve trying out on the machine tool to make a part.
Foam or plastic material is sometimes used for this tryout.
Programming errors are not uncommon and it may require two or three attempts before the
tape is supposed to be correct and ready to use.
5. Production
Final step in the NC procedure is to use the part programme in production.
This involve ordering the raw material, specifying and preparing the tooling.
The operator function during production is to load the raw material and establish the starting
position of the cutting tool relative to workpiece.
When machining of part is completed the operator remove it from machine and load the next
part.
Point-to-Point
Point-to-point machines move only in straight lines. They are limited to drilling, reaming, boring, etc.
and straight milling cuts parallel to a machine axis. When making an axis move, all affected drive
motors run at the same speed. When one axis motor has moved the instructed amount, it stops while
the other motor continues until its axis has reached its programmed location. The point-to-point
positioning NC system is illustrated in Figure 2.7.
The simplest example of a point-to-point (PTP) NC machine tool is a drilling machine. In a drilling
machine, the work piece is moved along the axes of motion until the center of the hole to be drilled is
exactly beneath the drill. Then the drill is automatically moved towards the work piece, the hole is
drilled and the drill moves out in a rapid traverse feed. The work piece moves to a new point and the
above sequence of actions are repeated.
Straight-cut NC
Straight-cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to one of the major axes at
a controlled rate suitable for machining. It is, therefore, appropriate for performing milling operation
to fabricate work pieces of rectangular configurations. With this type of NC system it is not possible
to combine movements in more than a single axis direction. Therefore, angular cuts on the work piece
would not be possible. An example of straight-cut operation is shown in Figure 2.8. An NC machine
capable of straight-cut movements is also capable of PTP movement.
Continuous Path
A continuous path machine has the ability to move its drive motors at varying rates of speed while
positioning the machine which facilitates cutting of arc segments and angles. The most common type
of continuous path operations are milling and lathe operations. In continuous path machine, the tool is
cutting while the axes of motion are moving, as for example, in a milling machine. All axes of motion
might move simultaneously, each at a different velocity. When a non-linear path is required, the axial
velocity changes, even within the segment. For example, cutting a circular contour requires a sine rate
change in one axis, while the velocity of the other axis is changed at a cosine rate. In contouring
machines, the position of the cutting tool at the end of each segment together with the ratio between
the axial velocities determines the desired contour of the part and at the same time the resultant feed
also affects the surface finish. Figure 2.9 shows continuous path NC system for 2D operations.
Absolute Programming
Absolute positioning is another type of programming system. In this system, the tool locations are
always defined in relation to point zero. The position commands are given as absolute distances from
the reference point. The reference point can be defined outside the work piece or at a corner of the
work piece. The reference point or point zero could be fixed or floating. When the point zero is fixed,
the origin is always located at the same position on the machine table. All locations must be defined
by positive x and y coordinates relative to that fixed origin.
When the point zero is floating, the operation can set the point zero at any position on the machine
table. This point zero is decided based on part programming convenience.
Incremental Programming
Incremental positioning is a programming system used to define the position of the tool in NC
machines. In an incremental system, the next tool location must be defined with reference to the
previous tool location. The dimensional data applied to the system will be a distance increment
measured from the preceding point at which the axis of motion was present.
The open-loop NC systems are of digital type and use stepping motors for driving the slides. A
stepping motor is a device whose output shaft rotates through by a fixed angle in response to an input
pulse. The stepping motors are the simplest way for converting electrical pulses into proportional
movement. Each pulse drives the stepping motor by a fraction of one revolution called the step angle.
Since there is no feedback from the slide position, the system accuracy is solely dependent on the
ability of the motor and accuracy of the mechanical parts.
The closed-loop control measures the actual position and velocity of the axis and compares them with
the help of a comparator. The comparator is a device that compares the output signal with the signal
received from the feedback device. The difference between the actual and the desired values is the
error. The control system is designed in such a way as to eliminate or reduce to a minimum, the error,
namely the system is of a negative feedback type.
In NC system both the input to the control loop and the feedback signals may be a sequence of pulses.
Each pulse representing one BLU, i.e., 0.01 mm. The digital comparator correlates the two sequences
and gives, by means of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), a signal representing the position error of
the system and the output of DC drives the DC motor. A closed loop system uses position sensors
attached to the machine table to measure its position relative to the input value for the axis.
The main axis of movement and the direction of movement along these axis is identified as follows:
X-axis: The X-axis is always horizontal and is always parallel to the work holding surface. If the Z-
axis is vertical, as in vertical milling machine, positive X-axis (+X) movement is identified as being
to the right, when looking from the spindle towards its supporting column.
If Z-axis is also horizontal as in turning centres, positive X-axis motion is to the right, when looking
from the spindle towards the work piece.
Z-axis: The Z-axis of motion is always the axis of the main spindle of the machine. It does not matter
whether the spindle carries the workpiece or the cutting tool. If there are several spindles on a machine,
one spindle is selected as the principal spindle and its axis is then considered to be Z-axis. On vertical
machining centres, the Z-axis is vertical and on horizontal machining centres and turning centres, the
Z-axis is horizontal. Positive Z movement (+ Z) is in the direction that increases the distance between
the workpiece and the tool. Convention of designating the Z-axis on milling, drilling and turning
machines is shown in Figure 2.11.
Y-axis: The Y-axis is always at right angles to both the X-axis and Z-axis. Positive Y-axis movement
(+ Y) is always such as to complete the standard 3-dimensional co-ordinate system.
Rotary axis: The rotary motion about the X, Y and Z-axis are identified by A, B, C respectively.
Clockwise rotation is designated positive movement and counter-clockwise rotation as negative
movement. Positive rotation is identified looking in + X, + Y and +Z directions respectively.
other related problems, the design of CNC machine should be such as to minimize the friction between
the sliding surfaces.
Higher cutting speeds and feeds and improved tooling used in CNC machines subject the machine tool
to high multidirectional forces. Also the set-up time and the change-over time between the jobs are
considerably reduced in CNC machines and most of the time of the machines is spent in actually
cutting the material.
Higher percentage of cutting time will results in faster wear of slideways, guideways, lead screw and
gears, etc. The higher percentage of cutting time means higher rates of metal removal requiring an
efficient system for removal of swarf from the machining area. In addition, safety of the operator
working on the machine is very important in CNC machines.
In order to take care of above and many other factors, there is a need for special consideration to be
given to the design of CNC machine tools in the following areas:
To meet the requirements of high precision, repeatability and high efficiency, the numerically
controlled machine tools should have a structure that is correctly designed to withstand normal weight
distribution. The higher cutting speeds and feeds in CNC machines result in rapid acceleration and
deceleration of the slides and the machines are subjected to fluctuating and variable forces during the
machining operations. The machine structure should not bend due to the heavy cutting forces.
All the parts of the machine structure should remain in relative relationship regardless of the magnitude
and direction of the stresses developed due to these forces. Another source of inaccuracy in the CNC
machines is the thermal distortion of the machine structure. The design of machine tool structures
should be such that the thermal distortion is minimum. The machine tool should be protected from
external heat sources and the internal heat sources e,g., head-stock motor should be placed centrally
so that thermal effects are equally distributed. The machine tool should be provided with an efficient
and foolproof lubrication and cooling system. Also the machine structure design should be such that
removal of swarf is easy and the chips, etc. do not fall on the sideways.
(3) Spindle
At the high cutting speeds and high material removal rates, the spindle carrying the work piece or the
tool are subject to deflection and thrust forces. To ensure increased stability and minimize torsional
strain, the machine spindle is designed to be short and stiff and the final drive to the spindle is located
as near to the front bearing as possible. The rotational accuracy of the spindle is dependent on the
quality and design of bearings used. The ball or roller bearings are suitable for high speeds and high
loads because of low friction, lower wear rate and lesser liability to incorrect adjustment and ease of
replacement when necessary. For efficient service and accuracy the bearings should be of high quality.
The vibrations and noise in the spindle can be reduced by using toothed belts and accurate and
balanced gears. Adequate supply of lubricants should be ensured to the spindle bearings.
In addition there may be some more motors in the CNC machine for services such as coolant pumps,
swarf removal, etc.
Spindle Drive
In CNC machines, large variation in cutting speed is required. The cutting speed may vary from 10
meters per minute to 1000 meters per minute or more. The cutting speeds are provided by rotation of
the main spindle with the help of an electrical motor through suitable gear mechanism. The multi-
change gear boxes with fixed speed ratios used in conventional machine tools are not suitable for CNC
machine tools. To obtain optimum cutting speeds and feeds, the drive mechanism should be such as
to provide infinitely variable speeds between the upper and the lower limits. The infinitely variable
speed systems used in CNC machines employ either electrical motors (A. C. or D. C.) or fluid motors.
Axis Drive
All the axis in a CNC machine are controlled by servomotors. The movement along the different axis
is required either to move the cutting tool or the work material to the desired positions. In order to
accomplish accurate control of position and velocity, stepper motors are used for axis drive. The
principal of working of a stepper motor is that on receiving a signal i.e. pulse, from the control unit,
the motor spindle will rotate through a specified angle called step. The step size depends on the design
of the motor and lies between 1.8 degree and, 7.5 degree, which means that one rotation of the spindle
can be divided into 200 parts. If a single pulse is received from the control system the motor spindle
will rotate by one step. The control unit generates pulses corresponding to the programmed value of
movement required of the tool or work. The rate of movement of tool or work is controlled by the
speed at which the pulses are received by the stepper motor. The distance travelled by the carriage is
calculated by the known value of lead of the axis lead screw and by counting the number of pulses.
The rate at which pulses are sent to the stepper motor is accurately governed by the control system.
Hence there is no need of providing positional or velocity feedback system. The use of stepper motor
considerably simplifies the system as feedback devices are not used. The cost of the machine tool is
also less. However stepper motors are suitable only for light duty machines due to low power-output.
(iii) Reversibility: The ball screw and nut assembly is reversible which makes it possible to back
drive the unit i.e., by applying axial force to either nut or screw, the unconstrained member
can be made to rotate.
(iv) No Stick-Slip: Stick-slip is the phenomenon which occurs when small movements between
two lubricated elements are required. The lubricating medium tries to cause the mating
elements to stick to each other to resist motion and results in a jerky motion as the mating
elements try to stick and then slip during their relative movement. Since the sliding metal to
metal contact is substituted by rolling contact, the stick-slip phenomenon is eliminated in the
ball screw and nut assembly.
Perimeter Guards: The overall guards or perimeter guards serve as an enclosure for the machine tool.
The perimeter guards protect the operator against flying swarf and from any accident by hitting against
the moving components when the machine is working. The access to the machine is provided through
large sliding doors for setting up the machine and for loading/unloading of the work piece. The doors
have various types of inter-lock switches fitted on them. If the door is opened when the machine is
working, the control unit will flash a warning signal, or activate an auditory signal like a buzzer. On
some machines the power to the machine may be cut off if the doors are kept open beyond a certain
period of time. During set-up period, the warning signal can be cancelled by the operator. The guards
are fitted with transparent windows so that the machining area is visible from the operator side.
Pressure Mats: The pressure mats are used on milling, drilling or grinding machines where the
machine table can move to the either side of the machine. Since the tables move at a rapid rate, it may
cause some accident if the operator is standing too close to the machine. The pressure mats are placed
around the machine and if someone crosses the mat, a warning signal is generated.
Light Barrier: Light barriers are also provided on milling, drilling and grinding machines. The light
barrier consists of a light source, usually infra-red, sending a beam to light sensitive cell. If anything
obstructs the light beam, a warning signal is generated. The light barriers are placed around the
machine. They can be made inactive by the operator, if required.
Programming Formats
Format is the method of writing the words in a block of instruction. The following are the three
programme formats being used for part programming:
(a) Fixed block format
(b) Tab sequential format
(c) Word address format
The numerical control systems are designed to understand and work with one type of programme
format but control systems which can understand and work with more than one type of format are also
being used in CNC machines.
All these problems have been overcome and part programming has been considerably simplified with
the use of computer aided part programming, where the computer generates the part programme
required to machine the component. The process of generating part programmes in computer aided
part programming is partly done by part programmer and partly by the computer.
The part programmer's job in the computer aided part programming is first to define the geometry of
the component from the component drawing. The geometry or shape of the component is split into
simple elements like points, lines, arcs, full circles, distances and directions and these elements are
assigned specific numbers to identify their position. The geometry of elements of the component is
defined using simple abbreviated English like terms having specific meaning which is understood by
the computer and control system. The instructions to define a point and straight line may be written
as:
(e) Such system can deal with many axes for simultaneous movement.
(f) If new machines are added, only a post processor may be needed to integrate the new machines
with the existing system.
2.13.1 Subroutines
Subroutine also called subprogram are a powerful time saving technique.
The subroutine provide the capability of programming certain fixed sequence or frequently
repeated patterns.
Subroutines are in fact independent programmes with all the features of a usual part
programme.
Subroutines are stored in the memory under separates programme number.
Whenever a particular feature is required within the programme the associated subroutine is
called for execution.
The subroutine may be called any time and repeated any numbers of time.
After execution of subroutines the control return to main programme. To describe and use a
subroutine, the following information is required in the form of codes and symbols.
Identification (start) of subroutine.
End of subroutine.
A mean of calling a subroutine.
Here we will use letter L followed by a number i.e L221, to identify the start of a subroutine.
L221 means start of subroutines No. 221, Miscellaneous code M17 will indicate the end of
subroutine.
The subroutine can be called anywhere in the main programme by just giving the subroutine
number preceded by letter L.
2.13.2 Do-loops
The ability to write the programme with loops enable the programmer to instruct the control
unit to jump back to an earlier part of the programme and execute the intervening programme
blocks a specified numbers of time.
The DO-LOOPS statement is given in the main programme itself and it is necessary to give
following information on the form of symbols or codes.
Start the Loop.
Number of repeats of the Loop.
End of the Loop.
DO-LOOPS is used for repetitive programming in cases such as Turning & Milling operation
where it is not possible to remove the entire material in the single pass and more than one cut
have to be taken to machine the component to require size or where uniform repetition is
required like cutting uniformly spaced grooves in a shaft or drilling of a pattern of hole in plate.
2.14 APT
APT stands for automatically programmed tools. This is the most widely used and most
comprehensive part programming language available. APT is a three-dimensional system which can
be used to control up to five axes. In programming using APT, it is assumed that the workpiece remains
stationary and cutting tool does all the moving. The APT part programme consists of four types of
statements.
(i) Geometry statements: These are also called definition statements and are used to define
geometric elements like point, circle, arc, plane, etc.
(ii) Motion statements: The motion statements are used to define the cutter path.
(iii) Post processor statements: These statements are applicable to specific machine tools and are
used to define machining parameters like feed, speed, coolant on/ off, etc.
(iv) Auxiliary statements: These are miscellaneous statements used to identify the part, tools,
tolerances, etc.
3) Part Programming for Turning Raw material ( ø 20mm facing & step turning )
6) Part Programming for Turning in system, Raw material ( ø20mm facing, ø15mm taper
turning )
8) Circular Interpolation
9) Write part programme for milling, thickness of plate 10mm, T01 facing, T02-ø7mm, T03 –
ø13mm.
REFERENCES:
B. S. Pabla, M. Adithan “CNC Machines” 3rd ed. New Age International Publishers.
Lalit Narayan “CAD/CAM ” Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, Page 275.
n production system and CIM” (2nd Edition), Page 762.
Course Contents
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO PLC
3.2 RELAY DEVICE COMPONENT
3.3 PROGRAMMABLE
CONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE
3.4 PROGRAMMING A
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER
3.5 TOOLS FOR PLC LOGIC DESIGN
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A manufacturing system consists of a group of machine along with material handling, storage, and
control devices. To automate the system, two factor must be considered: the control of the equipment
and the flow of information.
Today, the word automation usually implies a system controlled by computers. However, this is not
the only form of automation used in modern industry. Along with sophisticated computer controls,
there are conventional control devices, such as mechanical controllers with cam and linkages, relay
panels, NC controllers, and programmable logic controllers.
The first category of switches is easy to understand. A non-locking switch simply returns to its initial
state.
In the second category a normally open switch contact is made by physically depressing the switch
(“make contact”). Normally closed switches operate in the opposite manner, Contact is actively
interrupted (broken).
In the third category a single throw switch ha two states, on and off. There are some switches that have
three states a release and two operating positions. In this case it can select either a neutral circuit or
connect to one of two circuits. This kind of switch is called a double throw or multiple throw switch.
In the fourth category a multiple throw switch has several states. These switches all have a single pole
(moving part) and subsequently are called single pole switches. In order to close (or break) two or
more contacts at the same time, multiple pole switches are necessary. The most widely used multiple
pole switch is the double pole switch.
The last category is more complex. For some circuit contact can be made or broken several times in
succession. There are two types of transfer contacts in which “makes” and “breaks” can be combined.
A “break-before make,” or interrupt transfer, contact does as the name suggests it break one contact
before another is made. When the switch is operated, there is a certain amount of time when the
common spring is in contact with neither contact. Thus a break-before make results. A “make-before
–break,” or continuity transfer, contact provide the same function as a transfer contact. However,
continuity always exists for one or the other contact.
3.2.2 Relays
A switch whose operation is activated by an electromagnet is called a relay. The contact and
symbology for relay is usually the same as for switches. A small current passes through the magnet,
causing the pole to switch. Usually the magnet is rated between 3 to 100 volts and a few hundred
milliamps. Therefore it is operated at very low power (current and voltage). A circuit carrying a much
heavier rating can be switched using a relay, however the two circuit are totally separated.
When a relay operates, the contacts do not all open or close instantaneously. There may be a delay of
several milliseconds between the operations of two contacts of the same relay. In the design of a relay
circuit, this delay must always be taken into account.
On the basis of the preceding discussion, it is clear that a relay is really a magnet operated contact
switch. The contact switch inside a relay also can be classified by the number of poles and throws.
Although most relays are single throw, it is very common to have multiple-pole relays.
3.2.3 Counters
On the basis of their structure, counters can be classified as mechanical or digital. Mechanical counters,
such as an odometer, usually give readings as their output. Because mechanical counters are generally
not used in a relay panel circuit. Digital counters output in the form of a relay contact when a
preassigned count value is reached. A digital counter consists of a count register, an accumulator, and
a relay contact. The count register holds the preassigned count value.
The accumulator is used to either increment or decrement a count each time an input pulse is received.
When the accumulator value equals the register value, the relay contact is activated. The operation of
a counter can be best shown by a timing diagram. The preassigned count register value is 5. There are
up counters and down counters. An up counter counts starting from zero and increments the value
when there is an input.
A down counter, on the other hand counts down from an initial value. They both serve the same
purpose, to count a certain number of inputs and then output to a relay contact.
3.2.4 Timers
A timer, as its name implies, is used for some timing purpose. It consists of an internal clock, a count
value register and an accumulator. In process control, a significant number of operations must be
timed. For example, in a chemical process, the curing of certain products, and the mixing of chemicals
and so on all require a certain period of time to complete. In process control, synchronization of
operations is also essential. There are two ways to synchronize operations, namely event triggered
synch and time controlled synch. Even triggered synch can be achieved by using sensors and switches
to detect the event. For time-controlled synch, each operation is given a fixed time period to finish
therefore, a clock or timer is necessary.
Like a general purpose computer a programmable controller consists of five major parts are the CPU
(processor), memory, input/output, power supply and peripherals.
The microprocessor based PLC has significantly increased the logical and control capacities of
programmable logic controllers. High end PLC system allows the user to perform arithmetic and logic
operations, move memory blocks, and interface with computers, a local area network, and function
and so on.
3.3.2 Memory
The memory of the PLC is important because the control program and the peripheral status are stored
there. Memory size in a PLC is measured in either bits, bytes or words. Because many words of
memory are required, it is usually measured in “k” increments (where 1k = 1024).
Although several types of memory are used in modern PLCs, memory can be classified into two basic
categories volatile and non-volatile. Volatile memory loses state when power is remove. This may
seem perfectly appropriate. However, you must remember that the program is stored in memory, and
if the power fails, the program must be rekeyed or reread into memory, a potentially time consuming
activity. Non-volatile memory, on the other hand, maintains the information in memory even if the
power is interrupted.
is transmitted to the appropriate output module, which converts the signal to the appropriate response
domain (115 VAC, 230 VAC, 24 VDC).
Normally, a peripheral interface adapter is used to transfer the status of the input peripherals to some
prespecified memory location. The user defines the location of the peripheral on the I/O housing in
the program. Each I/O location is assigned to a specific memory location. This makes accessing input
by the CPU a task of loading the content of a specific memory into a storage register. Output changes
are equally easy for the CPU to perform. The content of a particular memory location are then altered.
Due to the electrical difference between the CPU and the external I/O peripheral, the I/O points and
the internal memory are actually electrically isolated. In a more advanced design, a separate I/O
processor is used to bring the external I/O status to an internal memory location
I/O module are typically housed in a rack separate from the PLC. Light indicators are usually included
in the I/O module to provide the current state. In addition, each module is normally fused and isolated
from the processor.
3.3.5 Peripherals
A number of peripheral devices are available. They are used to program the PLC, prepare the program
listing, back up the program and display the system status. Old PLCs may still have handheld
programmers and CRT programmers, today they have been replaced by a PC-based software
programming environment. Following is a partial list of peripherals.
1 Operator console
2 Printer
3 Simulator
4 EPROM loader
5 Network Communication Interface
6 PC-based programming software
A ladder diagrams consists of two rails of the ladder and various control circuits or rungs. Each rung
starts from the left rail and ends at the right rail. We can consider that the left rail is the power wire
and the right rail is the ground wire. Power flows from the left rail to the right rail, and each rung must
have an output to prevent a short. The output is connected to physical devices, such as motors, lights,
and solenoids. To control the output, some switches are used on the rung to from the AND and OR
logic. Different rungs are not connected except through the rails. Each rung can contain only one
output. Functionally, the components in a ladder diagram consists of those used internally to construct
the logic, such as some relays, timers, and counters, and those used to connect to the physical devices,
such as switches and motors. The internal components are the ones replaced by a programmable logic
controller.
3.4.2 Logic
By using serial and parallel connections, various types of logic can be represented in a ladder diagram.
The logic states of a component are either on or off. The ladder diagram takes the input state from the
input module and output results to the output module.
1 Basic logic
(a) AND logic
(b) OR logic
(c) Combined AND and OR logic
2 Relays
3 Timers and counters
Structured text is a strongly typed language. That means that all variables used in the program have to
be declared before they can be used. The language also provides the following functionalities:
1) Assignments
2) Expressions
3) Statements
4) Operators
5) Function calls
6) Flow control, such as conditional statements and iteration statements.
In this section, two analytical tools for PLC logic design are introduced. The PLC logic design
problem takes the description of a control problem and converts it into a PLC program. However,
the solution is not always obvious. Foe very simple problems, the problem description can be
translated directly into a ladder diagram or other PLC programs. When problems are more
complex, this translation is either very difficult or produces, inefficient program. The two tools
introduced in this section can help organize the problem description and convert the description
and convert the description into logic statements. Since there is a one-to-one correspondence
between logic statements and ladder diagrams, PLC programs can be written easily.
1) Design using a truth table
2) Control using a state diagram
REFERENCES
Course Contents
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 PART FAMILIES
4.3 PART CLASSIFICATION AND
CODING
4.4 THREE PARTS CLASSIFICATION
AND CODING SYSTEMS
4.5 GROUP TECHNOLOGY MACHINE
CELLS
4.6 BENEFITS OF GROUP
TECHNOLOGY
4.7 THE PLANNING FUNCTION
4.8 RETRIEVAL-TYPE PROCESS
PLANNING SYSTEMS
4.9 GENERATIVE PROCESS PLANNING
SYSTEMS
4.10 BENEFITS OF CAPP
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts are identified and grouped
together to take advantage of their similarities in manufacturing and design. Similar parts are
arranged into part families. For example, a plant producing 10,000 different part numbers may be
able to group the vast majority of this part into 50 or 60 distinct families. Each family would possess
similar design and manufacturing characteristics. Hence, the processing of each member of a given
family would be similar, and this results in manufacturing efficiencies. These efficiencies are
achieved in the form of reduced setup times, lower in-process inventories, better scheduling,
improved tool control, and the use of standardized process plans. In some plants where GT has been
implemented, the production equipment is arranged into machine groups or cells in order to facilitate
work flow and parts handling.
In product design, there are also advantages obtained by grouping parts into families. For example, a
design engineer faced with the task of developing a new part design must either start from scratch or
pull an existing drawing from the files and make the necessary changes to conform to the
requirements of the new part. The problem is that finding a similar design may be quite difficult and
time consuming. For a large engineering department, there may be thousands of drawings in the files
with no systematic way to locate the desired drawing. As a consequence, the designer may decide
that it is easier to start from scratch in developing the new part. This decision is replicated many
times over in the company, thus consuming valuable time creating duplicate or near-duplicate part
designs. If an effective design retrieval system were available, this waste could be avoided by
permitting the engineer to determine quickly if a similar part already exists. A simple change in an
existing design would be much less time consuming that starting from scratch. This design-retrieval
system is a manifestation of the group technology principle applied to the design function. To
implement such a system, some form of parts classification and coding is required.
Figure 4.1 Two parts of identical shape and size but different manufacturing requirements
Figure 4.2 Thirteen parts with similar manufacturing process requirements but different design
attributes
4.2.1 GT Layout
The various machine tools are arranged by function. There is a lathe section, milling machine
section, drill press section, and so on. During the machining of a given part, the work piece must be
moved between sections, with perhaps the same section being visited several times. This results in a
significant amount of material handling, a large in-process inventory usually more setups than
necessary, ling manufacturing lead times, and high cost. Figure 4.4 shows a production shop
supposedly equivalent capacity, but with the machines arranged into cells. Each cell is organized to
specialize in the manufacture of a particular part family. Advantages are gained in the form of
reduced work piece handling, lower setup times, less in-process inventory, less floor space and
shorter lead times. Some of the manufacturing cells can be designed to form production flow lines,
with conveyors used to transport work parts between machines in the cell.
The biggest single obstacle in changing over to group technology from a traditional production shop
is the problem of grouping parts into families. There are three general methods for solving this
problem. All three methods are time consuming and involve the analysis of much data by properly
trained personnel. The three methods are:
1 Visual inspection
2 Production flow analysis (PFA)
3 Parts classification and coding system
The visual inspection method is the least sophisticated and least expensive method. It involves the
classification of parts into families by looking at either the physical parts or photographs and
arranging them into similar groupings. This method is generally considered to be the least accurate
of the three.
The second method, production flow analysis, was developed by J. L. Burbidge. PFA is a method of
identifying part families and associated machine tool groupings by analyzing the route sheets for
parts produced in a given shop. It groups together the parts that have similar operation sequences and
machine routings. The disadvantage of PFA is that it accepts the validity of existing route sheets,
with no consideration given to whether these process plans are logical or consistent. The production
flow analysis approach does not seem to be used much at all in the United States.
The third method, parts classification and coding, is the most time consuming and complicated of the
three methods. However, it is the most frequently applied method and is generally recognized to be
the most powerful of the three.
Many parts classification and coding systems have been developed throughout the world, and there
are several commercially available packages being sold to industrial concerns. It should be noted
that none of them has been universally adopted. One of the reasons for this is that a classification
and coding system should be custom-engineered for a given company or industry. One system may
be best for one company while a different system is more suited to another company.
Parts classification and coding systems divide themselves into one of three general categories:
Systems in the first category are useful for design retrieval and to promote design standardization.
Systems in the second category are used for computer aided process planning, tool design and other
production related functions. The third category represents an attempt to combine the functions and
advantages of the other two systems into a single classification scheme. The type of design and
manufacturing parts attributes typically included in classification schemes are listed in Table 4.1. It
is clear that there is a certain amount of overlap between the design and manufacturing attributes of a
part.
1. Hierarchical structure
2. Chain-type structure
3. Hybrid structure, a combination of hierarchical and chain type structures
With the hierarchical structure, the interpretation of each succeeding symbol depends on the value of
the preceding symbols. Other names commonly used for this structure are monocode and tree
structure. The hierarchical code provides a relatively compact structure which conveys much
information about the part in a limited number of digits.
In the chain-type structure, the interpretation of each symbol in the sequence is fixed and does not
depend on the value of preceding digits. Another name commonly given to this structure is
polycode. The problem associated with the polycodes is that they tend to be relatively long. On the
other hand, the use of polycode allow for convenient identification of specific part attributes. This
can be helpful in recognizing parts with similar processing requirements.
To illustrate the difference between the hierarchical structure and the chain-type structure, consider a
two-digit code, such as 15 or 25. Suppose that the first digit stands for the general part shape. The
symbol 1 means round workpart and 2 means flat rectangular geometry. In a hierarchical code
structure, the interpretation of the second digit would depend on the value of the first digit. If
preceded by 1, the 5 might indicate some length/diameter ratio, and if preceded by 2, the 5 might be
interpreted to specify some overall length. In the chain-type code structure, the symbol 5 would be
interpreted the same way regardless of the value of the first digit. For example, it might indicate
overall part length, or whether the part is rotational or rectangular.
Most of the commercial parts coding systems used in industry are a combination of the two pure
structures. The hybrid structure is an attempt to achieve the best features of monocodes and
polycodes. Hybrid codes are typically constructed as a series of polycodes. Within each of these
shorter chains, the digits are independent, but one or more symbols in the complete code number are
used to classify the part population into groups, as in the hierarchical structure. This hybrid coding
seems to best serve the needs of both design and production.
Scope and application: What departments in the company will use the systems? What specific
requirements do these departments have? What kinds of information must be coded? How wide a
range of products must be coded? How complex are the parts, shapes, processes, tooling, and so
forth?
Costs and time: The Company must consider the costs of installation, training, and maintenance for
their parts classification and coding system. Will there be consulting fees, and how much? How
much time will be required to install the system and train the staff to operate and maintain it? How
long will it be before the benefits of the system are realized?
Adaptability to other systems: Can be classification and coding system be readily adapted to the
existing company computer systems and data bases? Can it be readily integrated with other existing
company procedures, such as process planning, NC programming, and production scheduling?
Management problems: It is important that all involved management personnel be informed and
supportive of the system. Also, will there be any problems with the union? Will cooperation and
support for the system be obtained from the various departments involved?
There are three parts classification and coding systems which are widely recognized among people
familiar with GT:
1. Opitz system
2. MICLASS system
3. CODE system
Figure 4.6 Form code (digit 1 through 5) for rotational parts in the Opitz system
The workpart attributes coded in the first 12 digits of the MICLASS number are as follows:
One of the unique features of the MICLASS system is that parts can be coded using a computer
interactively. To classify given part design, the user responds to a series of questions asked by the
computer. The number of questions depends on the complexity of part. For a simple part, as few as
seven questions are needed to classify the part. For an average part, the number of questions ranges
between 10 and 20. On the basis of responses to its questions, the computer assigns a code number to
the part.
The CODE number has eight digits. For each digit there are 16 possible values (zero through 9 and
A through F) which are used to describe the part’s design and manufacturing characteristics. The
initial digit position indicates the basic geometry of the part and is called the Major Division of the
CODE system. This digit would be used to specify whether the shape was a cylinder, flat piece
block, or other. The interpretation of the remaining seven digits depends on the value of first digit,
but these remaining digits form chain-type structure. Hence the CODE system possesses a hybrid
structure.
The second and third digits provide additional information concerning the basic geometry and
principal manufacturing process for the part. Digits 4, 5, and 6 specify secondary manufacturing
processes such as threads, grooves, slots and so forth. Digits 7 and 8 are used to indicate the overall
Size of the part (e.g., diameter and length for a turned part) by classifying it into one of the 16 size
ranges for each of two dimensions. Figure 4.7 shows a portion of the definitions for digits 2 through
8, given that the part has initially been classified as a cylindrical geometry (Major Division 1 for
concentric parts other than profiled).
Part families are defined by the fact that their members have similar design and manufacturing
attributes. The composite part concept takes this part family definition to its logical conclusion. It
conceives of a hypothetical part that represents all of the design and corresponding manufacturing
attributes possessed by the various individuals in the family. Such a hypothetical part is illustrated in
Figure 4.8. To produce one of the members of the part family, operations are added and deleted
corresponding to the attributes of the particular part design. For example, the composite part in
Figure 4.8 is a rotational part made up of seven separate design and manufacturing features. These
features are listed in Table 4.2.
A machine cell would be designed to provide all seven machining capabilities. The machine,
fixtures, and tools would be set up for efficient flow of work- parts through the cell. A part with all
seven attributes, such as the composite part of Figure 3.8, would go through all seven processing
steps. For part designs without all seven features, unneeded operations would simply be canceled.
In practice, the number of design and manufacturing attributes would be greater than seven, and
allowances would have to be made for variations in overall size and shape of parts in the part family.
Nevertheless, the composite part concept is useful for visualizing the machine cell design problem.
The organization of machines into cells can follow one of three general patterns:
The single machine approach can be used for workparts whose attributes allow them to be made on
basically one type of process, such as turning or milling. For example, the composite parts could be
produced on a conventional turret lathe with the exception of the cylindrical grinding operation.
Even the grinding operation could be set up on the lathe with a little trouble.
The group machine layout is a cell design in which several machines are used together, with no
provision for conveyorized parts movement between the machines. The cell contains the machines
needed to produce a certain family of parts, and the machines are organized with the proper fixtures,
tools, and operators to efficiently produce the parts family.
coding system may save several hours of the designer’s time. IF the exact part design cannot be
found, perhaps a small alteration of the existing design will satisfy the function. Use of the
automated design-retrieval system helps to eliminate design duplication and proliferation of new
parts designs.
Other benefits of GT in design are that it improves cost estimating procedures and helps to promote
design standardization. Design features such as inside corner radii, chamfer, and tolerances are more
likely to become standardized with GT.
Tooling and Setups
GT also tends to promote standardization of several areas of manufacturing. Two of these areas are
tooling and setups.
In tooling, an effort is made to design group jigs and fixtures that will accommodate every member
of a parts family. Work holding devices are designed to use special adapters which convert the
general into one that can accept each part family member.
The machine tools in a GT cell do not require drastic changeovers in setup because of the similarity
in the work parts processed on them. Hence, setup time is saved, and it becomes more feasible to try
to process parts in an order so as to achieve a bare minimum of setup changeovers. It has been
estimated that the use of GT can result in 69% reduction in setup time.
Material Handling
Another advantage in manufacturing is reduction in the workpart move and waiting time. The group
technology machine layouts lend themselves to efficient flow of material through the shop. The
contrast is sharpest when the flow line cell design is compared to the conventional process type
layout.
Production and Inventory Control
Several benefits accrue to a company’s production and inventory control function as a consequence
of GT.
Production scheduling is simplified with GT. In effect, grouping of machines into cells reduces the
number of production centers that must be scheduled. Grouping of parts into families reduces the
complexity and size of the parts scheduling problem. And for those work parts that cannot be
processed through any of the machine cells, more attention can be devoted to the control of these
parts. Because of the reduced setups and more efficient materials handling with machine cells,
production lead times, work-in process and late deliveries’ can be reduced. Estimates on what can be
expected are provided by DeVries.
70% reduction in production times
62% reduction in work-in-process inventories
82% reduction in overdue orders.
Employee Satisfaction
The machine cell often allows parts to be processed from raw material to finished sate by small
group workers. The workers are able to visualize their contributions to the firm more clearly. This
tends cultivate an improved worker attitude and higher level of job satisfaction,
Another employee-related benefit of GT is that more attention tends to be given to product quality.
Work part quality is more easily traced to a particular machine cell in GT. Consequently, workers
are more responsible for the quality of work they accomplish. Traceability of part defects is
sometimes very difficult in a conventional process-type layout, and quality control suffers as a result.
Process Planning Procedures
The time and cost of the process planning function can be reduced through standardization
associated with group technology. A new part design is identified by its code number as belonging to
a certain parts family, for which into computer software to form a computer-automated process
planning system.
4.7 THE PLANNING FUNCTION
Process planning is concerned with determining the sequence of individual manufacturing operations
needed to produce a given part or product. The resulting operation sequence is documented on a
form typically referred to as a route sheet. The route sheet is a listing of the production operation and
associated machine tools for a work part or assembly.
Closely related to process planning are the functions of determining appropriate cutting conditions
for the machining operations and setting the time standards for the operations. All three functions—
planning the process, determining the cutting conditions, and setting the time standards—have
traditionally been carried out as tasks with a very high manual and clerical content. They are also
typically routine tasks in which similar or even identical decisions are repeated over and over.
Today, these kinds of decisions are being made with the aid of computers.
In one case, a total of 42 different routings were developed for various sizes of a relatively simple
part called an "expander sleeve." There were a total of 64 different sizes and styles, each with its
own part number. The 42 routings included 20 different machine tools in the shop. The reason for
this absence of process standardization was that many different individuals had worked on the parts:
8 or 9 manufacturing engineers, 2 planners, and 25 NC part programmers. Upon analysis, it was
determined that only two different routings through four machines were needed to process the 64
part numbers. It is clear that there are potentially great differences in the perceptions among process
planners as to what constitutes the "optimal" method of production.
In addition with problem of variability among planners, there are often difficulties in the
conventional process planning procedure. New machine tools in the factory render old routings less
than optimal. Machine breakdowns force shop personnel to use temporary routings, and these
become the documented routings even after the machine is repaired. For these reasons and others, a
significant proportion of the total numbers of process plans used in manufacturing are not optimal.
Figure 4.10 will help to explain the procedure used in a retrieval process planning system. The user
would initiate the procedure by entering the part code number at a computer terminal. The CAPP
program then searches the part family matrix file to determine if a match exists. If the file contains
an identical code number, the standard machine routing and operation sequence are retrieved from
the respective computer files for display to the user. The standard process plan is examined by the
user to permit any necessary editing of the plan to make it compatible with the new part design.
After editing, the process plan formatter prepares the paper document in the proper form.
If an exact match cannot be found between the code numbers in the computer file and the code
number for the new part, the user may search the machine routing file and the operation sequence
file for similar parts that could be used to develop the plan for the new part. Once the process plan
for a new part code number has been entered, it becomes the standard process for future parts of the
same classification.
Figure 4.10 Information flow in a retrieval-type computer aided process planning system
In Figure 4.10 the machine routing file is distinguished from the operation sequence file to
emphasize that the machine routing may apply to a range of different part families and code
numbers. It would be easier to find a match in the machine routing file than in the operation
sequence file. Some CAPP retrieval systems would use only one such file which would be a
combination of operation sequence file and machine routing file.
The process plan formatter may use other application programs. These could include programs to
compute machining conditions, work standards, and standard costs. Standard cost programs can be
used to determine total product costs for pricing purposes.
A number of retrieval-type computer-aided process planning systems have been developed. These
include MIPLAN, one of the MICLASS modules, the CAPP system developed by Computer-Aided
manufacturing International, COMCAPP V by MDSI, and systems by individual companies. We
will use MIPLAN as an example to illustrate these industrial systems.
3. Reduced turnaround time: Working with the CAPP system, the process planner is able
to prepare a route sheet for a new part in less time compared to manual preparation. This leads to an
overall reduction in manufacturing lead time.
4. Improved legibility: The computer-prepared document is neater and easier to read than
manually written route sheets. CAPP systems employ standard text, which facilitates interpretation
of the process plan in the factory.
REFERENCES:
Mikell P. Groover “Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing” 3rd ed. Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, Page 518.
Groover and Zimmers “CAD/CAM ” Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, Page 275.
Course Contents
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FMS
5.2 COMPONENTS OF FMS
5.3 NEED OF FMS
5.4 GENERAL FMS
CONSIDERATION
5.5 OBJECTIVE OF FMS
5.6 CELLULAR VERSUS
FLEXIBLE
MANUFACTURING
5.7 TYPES OF FMS
5.8 ADVANTAGES OF FMS
5.9 TOOL MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
5.10 FLEXIBILITY IN FMS
5.11 FMS LAYOUT
5.12 AUTOMATIC GUIDED
VEHICLE
5.13 ASRS
5.14 WORKPIECE HANDLING
SYSTEM
5.15 FLEXIBLE FIXTURING
Table 5.1 machine utilization based on the general trend in the industries
Machine
Automation
Utilization
Basic CNC: Manual tool and work loading. 50%
Basic CNC with automatic work holding and work piece storage, manual loading. 60%
Complete machine automation: Automatic work and tool handling, tool monitoring, 75%
work piece inspection, work and tool storage.
Integration of group machines similar to that shown in third type. 80%
Flexible Manufacturing System: Automated Work piece Movement between 90%
machines.
Thus it can be seen that the full utilization (90% with the rest allocated for maintenance) can be
achieved in FMS by properly integrating all the required functions. A large number of definitions have
been provided for FMS as follows:
"A series of automatic tools or items of fabrication equipment linked together with an automatic
material handling system, a common hierarchical digital preprogrammed computer control, and
provision for random fabrication of parts or assemblies that fall within predetermined families."
"A FMS group of NC machine tools that can randomly process a group of parts, having automated
material handling and central computer control to dynamically balance resource utilization so that the
system can adopt automatically to changes in part production, mixes and levels of output."
"FMS is a randomly loaded automated system based on group technology manufacturing linking
integrated computer control and a group of machines to automatically produce and handle parts for
continuous serial processing."
"FMS combines microelectronics and mechanical engineering to bring the economies of scale to batch
work. A central online computer controls the machine tools, other workstations, and the transfer of
components and tooling. The computer also provides monitoring and information control. This
combination of flexibility and overall control makes possible the production of a wide range of
products in small numbers."
"A process under control to produce varieties of components or products within its stated capability
and to predetermined schedule."
"A technology which will help achieve leaner factories with better response times, lower unit costs,
and higher quality under an improved level of management and capital control."
Thus it can be seen that a true FMS can handle a wide variety of dissimilar parts, producing them in
small numbers even one at a time, in any order, as needed by making use of all the computer controlled
equipment (workstations and material handling) with the help of a central computer control of all the
equipment within. Typical costs associated with various types of manufacturing systems are shown in
table:
5.2.1 Workstations
The workstations vary according to the type of part being produced. In metal cutting systems, the
machines are usually computer numerically controlled (CNC) horizontal spindle machining centres,
if prismatic work pieces are to be produced, or turning centres if rotational work pieces. Some systems
consist of both types of machines, when work pieces involving both types of operation are required.
Other systems include single-purpose machines, as opposed to machining centres which are designed
to perform a range of processes. In addition to metal working machines, there may also be gauging
machines or other types of inspection machines. There are systems for sheet-metal operations, P.C.B
manufacture and assembly operations.
5.2.4 Pallets
Work pieces are normally held in pallets of some sort for transport and locating on machine tables.
Two types are common: one type of pallet serves just as a carrier for a batch of small parts, to facilitate
and reduce the frequency of movements, perhaps by a robot. This type is common in systems which
use conveyors and gantry robots, but are also used in AGV systems. The other type of pallet is one on
which one or more parts are accurately located and which is itself moved onto the machine table and
held in position while machining operations are performed on the parts.
5.2.5 Fixtures
Fixtures are used to locate parts precisely on pallets. They are usually specific to one type of part so
that each part requires a different fixture. In some cases, however, several types of part may be
sufficiently similar to make use of the same fixture. The fixtures may be permanently bolted on the
pallets, or they may be removed from the pallet when a part requiring a deferent fixture is to be
produced into the system and placed on the pallet.
5.2.6 Tools
Most operations require some form of tooling specific to the particular operation being performed
typically cutting tools in machining centers. Machining centers have tool magazines in which a set of
tools can be held so that any operation on a range of work pieces can be performed. Tools have to be
changed, because of their tool life or because the part to be worked requires tools which are not
currently in the tool magazine.
Thirty-four percent of the total time is lost due to vacations and holidays. Twelve percent is lost while
machines are being set up for the next operation or parts are being loaded or unloaded. About 5 percent
of the time is lost due to process difficulties or unforeseen material, tooling, or quality-control
problems.
This leaves only 6 percent of the total time for actual production. The batch manufacturer's capital
investment for equipment and facilities is working, trying to pay for itself, less than one hour in
seventeen. Similar studies indicate that in a typical manufacturing operation a part moving through a
metal-cutting operation would be on an individual machine tool only 5 percent of its total time in
manufacturing, as depicted in Figure 5.2. And, when a part is on a particular metal-cutting machine
tool, only 1.5 to 2 percent of the part's total manufacturing time is a cutter in the work, actually
performing work and adding value. The other 95 percent of the time the part is either moving through
the shop or waiting in queue for the next operation.
These examples indicate the underutilization of equipment and gross inefficiencies existing in a vast
majority of manufacturing industries.
Figure 5.1 Breakdown of 8760 available hours in a calendar year to manufacturing operation
Figure 5.2 Breakdown of the time spent by an average part in the shop
Flexible manufacturing affords users the opportunity to react quickly to changing product types,
mixes, and volumes while providing increased utilization and predictable control over hard assets.
Although FMS provides users with many benefits, they are not easy to justify. Limitations and
alternatives must be weighed and compared to determine if FMS is the best or even the right approach
to productivity and profitability improvements. The once traditional accounting and cost justification
practices have become outdated and have lost their applicability to many factory automation programs
and projects. The rules for staying competitive have changed. The measurements must also change.
i. Cells lack central computer control with real-time routing, load balancing (software), and
production scheduling logic. They are generally controlled by cell controllers or by their own
independent but interfaced machine controllers. An FMS will almost invariably be connected
to a higher-level computer within the manufacturing operation. In many cases it is tied directly
to the corporate computing system, which may also be running the MRP (material
requirements planning) system, the inventory control system, and sometimes the CAD
(computer-aided design) system in design engineering.
ii. Cells are typically tool capacity constrained. Both single and multi-machine cells are limited
by the total number of unique and redundant cutting tools that occupy available tool pockets.
This limits the part spectrum that could be run through a cell at a given time without stopping
the equipment and manually exchanging tools to accommodate different work-pieces. An FMS
with automated tool delivery and tool management can automatically transfer, exchange, and
migrate tools through centralized computer control and software independent of equipment
activity. With a cellular application, the cutting tool count must be minimized to offset the
limited tool buffer storage of the machine. Parts must be closely scrutinized and part prints
sometimes changed in order to match the part family tool range with the available tool pockets.
iii. Cells generally have less flexibility than an FMS and are restricted to a relatively tight family
of parts. As long as the part family remains unchanged and design-stable, the automated cell
can operate very efficiently. An FMS, on the other hand, has greater depth and breadth of
flexibility due to the range of parts in varying lot sizes that can be accommodated in the system,
random machine scheduling, and automated material flow and movement. In some multi-
machine cells, parts are passed in sequence from one machine to another. Whether material
handling is automated or not, this type of cell configuration can present problems when some
CELL FMS
Low Flexibility High Flexibility
Small stored part program inventory and Large stored part program inventory and
accessibility accessibility
Limited on-line computing power and decision- High on-line computing power and decision-
making software making software
Low to moderate equipment and resource costs High equipment and resource costs
Limited flexibility and variety of parts produced High flexibility and variety of parts produced
Low to medium preparation and implementation High preparation and implementation
requirements requirements
Benefits narrow but easily identified and quantified Benefits broad but hard to identify and
quantify
Moderate justification complexity and difficulty Difficult and complex justification process
with mid-management approval required with high-level approval required
Moderate level of management commitment and High level of management commitment and
support required support required
Low staffing and training impact High staffing and training impact
Moderate effect on other internal operations and High effect on other internal operations and
organizations organizations
Low to moderate risk and complexity, minimal High risk and complexity, many facility
facility changes changes or new facility required
Short planning to implementation cycle Long planning to implementation cycle
The term cell can be used to refer to a machine grouping that consists of either manually operated or
automated machines or combinations of the two. The cell may or may not include automated material
handling and it may or may not be computer controlled.
The term flexible manufacturing system generally means a fully automated system consisting of
automated workstations, automated materials handling and computer control.
The term manufacturing cell is used largely in connection with group technology but both cells and
FMS rely on a GT approach in their design. A distinction between a FMC and FMS is in the number
of machines in the grouping. A grouping of four or more machines in a system and three or fewer
machines constitute a cell. For example, a grouping of several machines served by a robot and capable
of processing a family of parts is commonly called a flexible manufacturing cell.
A flexible manufacturing system can be described as being either a dedicated FMS or a random order
FMS. A dedicated FMS is used to produce a much more limited variety of part configurations. The
geometry differences are minor and the product design is considered stable. Therefore, the machine
sequence is identical or identical for all parts processed on the system. This means that a flow line
configuration is generally most appropriate and that the system can be designed with a certain amount
of process specialization to make the operations more efficient. Instead of using general-purpose
machines, the machines can be designed for the specific processes required to make the limited part
family.
The random-order FMS is the more appropriate type under the following conditions: (a) The part
family is large. (b) There are substantial variations in the part configurations. (c) There will be new
part designs produced on the system and engineering changes in parts currently made on the system
and the production schedule is subject to change from day to day. To accommodate these variations
the random-order FMS must be more flexible than the dedicated FMS.
It is equipped with general-purpose machines to deal with the variations in product and is capable of
processing parts in various sequences (random order).
A classification in flexible machining systems is based on the part geometry being processed.
Machined parts can usually be divided into either two categories: prismatic parts are cube like and
require milling and related machining operations to shape them. Round parts are cylindrical or disk
shaped and require turning and related rotational operations.
A turning centre fitted with a gantry loading and unloading system and pallets for storing work pieces
and finished parts is a typical flexible turning cell. Automatic tool changers, tool magazines, block
tooling, automatic tool offset measurement, and automatic chuck change and chuck jaw change make
the cell more productive. One or two horizontal machining centers with modular fixturing, multiple
pallets, advanced tool management system, robots or other material handling systems to facilitate
access of the jobs to the machine is a flexible machining cell.
compensated for by central or decentralized work piece buffer stores. Flexibility is applied by usage
of CNC control, flexible transport system and by adapting to changes in the volumes in the product
mix, machining process and sequences.
But with a number of machine tools, the problem gets compounded further. Also in FMS, when-ever
the part spectrum to be manufactured gets changed, the tooling required may have to be altered
accordingly. Hence more and varied solutions have been tried by various machine tool manufacturers.
The basic concept in all the systems is to get a secondary (auxiliary) tool storage from where the
required tools can be transferred to the main i tool magazine where and when necessary without much
effort and loss of cutting time.
In the conventional method of tool changing where the machine tool will have to stop for the complete
tool magazine refurbishing with new tools or for single tool exchange. Such storage units as drums,
chains, discs and other forms are used. There is a limit to the maximum number of tools available at
the machine tool in this form. The limit may be of the order of 120 or so. Refurbishing of the entire
tool magazine is normally done during the start of the shift. Care has to be taken to see that the tools
loaded complete all the machining till the end of the scheduled period. There is no secondary tool
storage system available close to the machine tool.
In the second case, the traditional system is modified slightly. The tool magazine is split into two or
more smaller magazines, so that the machine tool can be running while one of the tool magazines is
being replenished. Sometimes the second and subsequent tool drums (discs or chains) carry special
tooling required less often for special jobs. One of the disadvantages is that if a job requires more tools
than can be accommodated in the small capacity of the drum or disc, more frequent disc transfers
would be required. This would make the tool change time small, but would increase the cost of tools
in the system higher than in the previous case. Hence this method is not widely practiced.
In the third system, an entire tool magazine is swapped for replenishment so that tool resharpening
and replacement into the magazine can be done in the tool crib. An automated guided vehicle carries
the tool magazine from the machine tool to the tool crib. Though this reduces tool changeover time,
the additional cost of a replaceable tool magazine and the system of transporting it to the tool crib and
back, makes it a more expensive proposition. However, it is possible to reduce the total number of
tools in the system by making for a tool magazine with fewer tools.
Another method used by a number of machine tool manufacturers is to cheek the tool length or tool
offset at the end or beginning of the cut using the tool probes described earlier. This value is compared
with the tool values stored for the new tool. If the difference is more than a certain value (typically 1
mm), it is considered as tool breakage. This type of system is simple, but can detect tool breakages
only after a cut. Any tool breakage during cutting remains unnoticed. However this system does reduce
the effective damage caused by broken tools.
Machine flexibility:
This defines the capability of the machines to a wide range of production of operations and part cycles
that may require. This may be characterized by having a low setup or change over time, ease of
machine programming, sufficiently large tool storage capacity and the skill and versatility of machine
operators.
Production flexibility:
This aspect refers to the range of part styles that can be produced in the system. This is dependent on
the machine flexibility and the range of machine flexibilities.
Mix flexibility:
This is the ability with which the product mix in a given system can be changed. This depends to a
great extent of the parts in the mix, the relative work content times of parts produced and the machine
flexibility.
Product flexibility:
This is the ease with which changes in product designs can be accommodated in the system. This will
depend on how closely the new part design matches the existing part family, the ability for off-line
part program preparation and the machine flexibility.
Routing flexibility:
This specifies the capacity to produce parts through alternative workstation sequences in response to
equipment breakdowns, tool failures, and other interruptions. This is facilitated by the similarity of
parts in the mix, similarity of workstations, duplication of workstations, cross-training of manual
operators and the availability of common tooling.
Volume flexibility:
This is the ability to produce parts in high and low total quantities of production depending upon the
market demand. This will depend upon the level of manual labor performing production and amount
invested in capital equipment.
Expansion flexibility:
This is the ease with which the system can be expanded to increase total production quantities, should
the need arise. This can be examined by the expense of adding workstations, ease with which layout
can be expanded, type of part handling system used and the ease with which properly trained workers
can be added.
Figure 5.5 FMS Ladder Layout Figure 5.6 Open Field FMS Layout
In this system there are multiple loops for appropriate arrangement of all the facilities as shown in
Figure 5.6. This type of system is generally suitable for a large group of parts to be machined. The
facilities may consist of a number of workstations with different varieties. The material handling is
provided with AGVs along the guide path.
A typical Automated Guided Vehicle System AGVS with a pallet and work piece mounted is shown
in Figure 5.7. These are basically driver less vehicles and work generally in fixed routes that are laid
on the factory floor. The AGVS are used for work piece distribution and transferring from stores to
shop/assembly line. They are sometimes also called as robocarts. The main components of an AGV
based material handling system are:
Figure 5.7 The Automated Guided Vehicle System (AGVS) with a Work Piece
The vehicle, which is used to support and move the material from one point to the other without
the help of a driver or operator. The main parts of an AGV are
(a) Structure
(b) Drive system
(c) Steering mechanism
Typical speeds are 50 meters per minute. They are used in warehousing and distribution systems.
Typical path of a unit load vehicle is shown in Figure 5.9. These systems have bi-directional mobility,
and operate independently. As a result they allow for good system versatility for product movement.
staging area where the necessary parts are placed on a tray on-board on the vehicle. The vehicle then
moves to the assembly area where the assembler completes the assembly operation taking the parts
on-board. When the assembly is completed, the vehicle is released and proceeds to the next parts
staging area.
The same process may be repeated a number of times, before the completion of the assembly. The
typical layout is shown in Figure 5.10. AGVS assembly systems allow flexibility in assembling
operation by providing for parallel operation. It is possible to track individual parts and measure work
rates.
5.12.2 GUIDANCE
AGV is operated with onboard batteries and moves generally in a fixed path. One of the important
elements in the AGV is the guidance control. The various guiding principles used in AGV control are
given in Table. The actual use of a particular guidance method mainly dependent upon application,
environment and need. The wire guidance is the most commonly used method in the manufacturing
shops.
The principle of wire guidance is given in Figure 5.11. The control wire is embedded in the factory
floor along which the AGV is to traverse. For this purpose a rectangular slot is cut into the concrete
floor and the wire is placed in position with the rest of the slot being filled with epoxy as shown in
Figure 5.11.
The wire is actually in segments depending upon the actual path to be taken as shown in Figure 5.11.
The transfer of AGV from one loop to the other is done with the help of the circular transfer elements
present in the path.
Each of the travel is identified by a particular frequency, and the wire that forms the part will be
energized to that frequency. The onboard controller of the AGV will be adjusted for this frequency.
The sensor coils present in the AGV sense the presence of the magnetic field and accordingly steer
the AGV along the path. The two coils placed at equi-distance on either side of the coil help in
maintaining the movement of the vehicle along the wire. If the AGV has to follow a different path
then its frequency needs to be adjusted for that frequency.
Another form of the AGV is a rail-guided vehicle or RGV, which travels on fixed rails laid out as
shown in Figure 5.14. This type of vehicle is used for short travel distances and heavy work pieces.
There are not as flexible as the wire guided and therefore are used exclusively in flexible
manufacturing systems involving smaller number of machine tools. Whereas the wire guided AGVs
are used in all most all types of applications including assembly and storage.
Since the AGVs are used for many applications, the type of work handling system to be provided
depends upon the application. Figure 5.7 shows a typical example where the pallet is directly mounted
on the AGV and is the most common form used in machining systems. Other designs involve the
provision of lift platform, telescopic loading fork, etc.
Automated Storage and Retrieval System (AS/RS) play a central role in the automated factory. The
AS/RS not only control inventories, but also keep track of parts and materials in process or transit. In
other words, the AS/RS has the ability to know where everything is, on a real time basis, even as the
material moves within the factory. The importance of it for management to make manufacturing
decisions based on accurate real time information, can be understood from the fact that in-process
materials rarely spend more than 5% of their time being worked on, and that the remaining 95% is
spent in transit or storage. Thus, it becomes easier to visualize the role of materials handling and
storage system within an automated factory.
An AS/RS sometimes also referred to as automated warehouse, is a combination of equipment and
controls, which handles the stores and retrieves material faster and with greater safety and efficiency
than conventional material handling and storage systems. It contains several rows of storage racks and
storage and retrieval devices (stacker cranes). The system can be linked to other external devices such
or Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV) for transferring material (in trays or pallets) to the shop floor
or palletizing stations. Typical AS/RS is shown in Figure 5.15.
The supporting transportation will transport the pallets from P and D station to its destination. The
major components of an AS/RS are:
Figure 5.16 Physical Arrangement of the Aisle and Storage Structures in an Automatic and Retrieval
Systems
The modern S/R machine runs on a floor-mounted rail and guided at the top. It comes in a wide variety
of sizes and configurations, because its design is a function of the load it carries and the task performs.
Speed is generally determined by the system's throughput requirements (i.e., how many loads need to
be stored and retrieved in an hour). Travelling speeds sometimes exceed 150 m/min while hoisting
speeds can be as high as 50 m/min.
The most common storage structures are free-standing and installed inside a building. Specifications
differ, depending on type of load to be stored and system configuration. Today an increasing number
of systems are rack supported: that is, the rack storage structure supports the building itself. This type
of system can be over 30 metres tall and is popular because it reduces construction tine and cost.
Figure 5.17 Physical Layout of Automatic Storage and Retrieval System Linked with AGV for
Further Movement
(d) System Controls
The system controls encompass two functions, the control of equipment and the control of data. This
computer control system may also perform tasks like inventory control, data automation, networking
control and is frequently linked to an even larger corporate management information system computer.
Reduced inventories
Less energy consumption
Reduced pilferage
Less product damage
Improved working conditions
Easier housekeeping
Less equipment damage
Improved customer service
Better management control
The fixtures may even be permanently fixed to the pallets which in turn may also have the provision
for automatic clamping actuated hydraulically or pneumatically. Several setup stations may be
combined to constitute a central clamping and unclamping station. When the work pieces have
relatively low weight and size, they may be directly loaded onto the machine by a robot or a
manipulator. In such cases, the work pieces may be loaded manually or automatically on tray like
pallets. A transport pallet of this type may be used to accommodate several work pieces in proper
position. Rotational work pieces may also be loaded into turning centres in a similar fashion.
Work piece storage and retrieval can also be automated in FMS. An FMS is generally a small lot but
great-variety manufacturing system involving frequent modifications of parts and workpiece
changeovers on the pallets.At the same time minimization of setup time is one of the prime objectives
in FMS. In this respect, AS/RS is gaining wider acceptance for becoming a centrally controlled
pallet/work piece store working unmanned around the clock. The number of pallets which can be
stored may vary Between 500 to 10,000 for small scale to large scale AS/RS. The system essentially
consists of storage racks, a PLC based or computer controlled stacker crane, the location and accuracy
of which is comparable to that of a robot. Employment of servomotors in the cranes help achieve
positioning accuracy and reliability. Elevating speeds of the stacker could be as high as 180 m/min.
The AS/RS computer is also networked in the LAN of the FMS for necessary data processing and
integrated operations. Several software modules continue to be developed to enhance AS/RS
functioning so as to include sorting of several types of work pieces, setting up rearrangements and real
time changes and positioning and allocation of cranes, and optimum utilization of the AS/RS.
AGVs, on the other hand, do not require any rails and transport even over non-linear routes
and are widely employed. Most of these unmanned industrial trucks are inductively controlled and
consequently move at lower speeds than RTVs. Several AGVs may be used in an FMS to cover all
the routes.
Gantry robots which are essentially mobile may be used to load the work pieces directly on to the
machines from the pallets which store work pieces. This, of course, requires robot grippers which suit
the work piece geometry. Further the components should not have large dimensions and their weight
should be small. It may be noted that, in this case, several of the expensive fixtures, which would
otherwise be used to mount the work pieces on the pallets, are not required. Alternatively a gantry
robot moving along a linear overhead gantry may be used to transport work piece-set pallets from the
store or setup stations to the machines.
(1) Reduction in lead time and effort required for designing special fixtures;
(2) Lower overhead cost of storing a multiplicity of fixtures required to effect a rapid changeover
between different manufacturing operations; and
(3) Simpler programming requirements.
Designs of various "resettable" fixtures for use in an FMS have been proposed. These fixtures have a
common location scheme for a group of workpieces, and just resetting the clamping element is
required when a new workpiece is introduced.
A number of individuals have surveyed flexible-fixturing methodologies. Broadly, there are two major
groups of flexible fixtures: discrete contact and continuous contact. In the discrete-contact type, there
are a finite number of contact points that can be arranged in space to give different configurations. A
continuous-contact fixture is a fixture in which the number of contact points is infinite, such as a line
or area contact. A point contact would completely constrain the motion in a direction normal to the
workpiece surface only. Motions parallel to the workpiece surface would not be completely
constrained, because of the limited friction in point contact. Surface contact would not only constrain
the motion of the workpiece along the three axes, but also would constrain the applied moments.
REFERENCES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Robot is an automatically controlled material handling unit that is widely used in the manufacturing
industry. It is generally used for high volume production and better quality. Implementation of robot
technology with integration of automatic system can contribute to increasing of productivity of the
company and enhances the profitability of the company.
The word 'robot' first appeared in 1921 in the Czech playwright Karel Capek's play 'Rossum's
Universal Robots'. The word is linked to Czech words Robota (meaning work) and Robotnik (meaning-
slave). Computer Aided Manufactures International of USA describes the meaning of robot as a device
that performs functions ordinarily ascribed to human beings, or operates with what appears to human
intelligence. Another definition from Robot Institute of America is a programmable multi-function
manipulator designed to move and manipulate material, parts, tools or specialized devices through
variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of specified tasks.
ISO defines a robot as: A robot is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose,
manipulative machine with several reprogrammable axes, which is either fixed in a place or mobile for
use in industrial automation application.
There are a number of successful examples of robot applications such as:
Robots perform more than 98% of the spot welding on Ford's Taurus and Sable cars in U.S.A.
A robot drills 660 holes in the vertical tail fins of a F-16 fighter in 3 hours at General Dynamics
compared to 24 man-hours when the job was done manually.
Robots insert disk drives into personal computers and snap keys onto electronic typewriter
keyboards.
The development of the industrial robot represents a logical evolution of automated equipment,
combining certain features of fixed automation and human labor. Robots can be thought of as specialized
machine tools with a degree of flexibility that distinguishes them from fixed-purpose automation. By the
addition of sensory devices, robots are gaining the ability to adapt to their work environment and modify
their actions based on work-condition variations. Industrial robots are becoming "smarter" mechanical
workers and are now widely accepted as valuable productivity-improvement tools.
Industrial robots are properly thought of as machines or mechanical arms. It is inappropriate to think of
them as mechanical people. A robot is essentially a mechanical arm that is bolted to the floor, a machine,
the ceiling, or, in some cases, the wall, fitted with its mechanical hand, and taught to do repetitive tasks
in a controlled, ordered environment. In most cases, it possesses neither the ability to
move about the plant nor the ability to see or feel the part it is working on. Exceptions to these general
rules exist in certain instances. However, even with these limitations, robots make outstanding
contributions toward the improvement of manufacturing operations. Robots fill the gap between the
specialized and limited capabilities normally associated with fixed automation and the extreme
flexibility of human labor.
Positioning may be done by linear motion along three principal axes: left and right, in and out, and up
and down. These axes known respectively, as the 3artesian axes X, Y and Z. Figure 6.1 shows a typical
manipulator arm for a Cartesian coordinates robot. The work area or work envelope serviced by the
Cartesian-coordinates robot’s arm is a big box-shaped area. Programming motion for Cartesian-
coordinates robot consist of specifying to the controller the X, Y and Z values of a desired point to be
reached. The robot then moves along each axis to the desired point. This is one of the simplest types
of robots.
Manipulator, or rover This is the main body of the robot and consists of the links, the joints,
and other structural elements of the robot. Without other elements, the manipulator alone is not a robot.
End effector This is the part that is connected to the last joint (hand) of a manipulator, which
generally handles objects, makes connection to other machines, or performs the required tasks. Robot
manufacturers generally do not design or sell end effectors. In most cases, all they supply is a simple
gripper. Generally, the hand of a robot has provisions for connecting specialty end effectors that are
specifically designed for a purpose. This is the job of a company’s engineers or outside consultants to
design and install the end effector on the robot and to make it work for the given situation. A welding
torch, a paint spray gun, a glue-laying device, and a parts handler are but a few of the possibilities. In
most cases, the action of the end effector is either controlled by the robot’s controller, or the controller
communicates with the end effector’s controlling device (such as a PLC).
Actuators Actuators are the “muscles” of the manipulators. Common types of actuators are
servomotors, stepper motors, pneumatic cylinders, and hydraulic cylinders. Actuators are controlled
by the controller.
Sensors Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of the robot or to
communicate with the outside environment. As in humans, the robot controller needs to know where
each link of the robot is in order to know the robot’s configuration. Even in absolute darkness, you
still know where your arms and legs are! This is because feedback sensors in your central nervous
system embedded in your muscle tendons send information to your brain. The brain uses this
information to determine the length of your muscles, and thus, the state of your arms, legs, etc. The
same is true for robots; sensors integrated into the robot send information about each joint or link to
the controller, which determines the configuration of the robot. Robots are often equipped with
external sensory devices such as a vision system, touch and tactile sensors, speech synthesizers, etc.,
which enable the robot to communicate with the outside world.
Controller The controller is rather similar to your cerebellum, and although it does not have
the power of your brain, it still controls your motions. The controller receives its data from the
computer, controls the motions of the actuators, and coordinates the motions with the sensory feedback
information. Suppose that in order for the robot to pick up a part from a bin, it is necessary that its first
joint be at 36°. If the joint is not already at this magnitude, the controller will send a signal to the
actuator (a current to an electric motor, air to a pneumatic cylinder, or a signal to a hydraulic servo
valve), causing it to move. It will then measure the change in the joint angle through the feedback
sensor attached to the joint (a potentiometer, an encoder, etc.). When the joint reaches the desired
value, the signal is stopped. In more sophisticated robots, the velocity and the force exerted by the
robot are also controlled by the controller.
Processor The processor is brain of the robot. It calculates the motions of the robot’s joints,
determines how much and how fast each joint must move to achieve the desired location and speeds,
and oversees the coordinated actions of the controller and the sensors. The processor is generally a
computer, which works like all other computers, but is dedicated to a single purpose. It requires an
operating system, programs, peripheral equipment such as monitors, and has many of the same
limitations and capabilities of a PC processor.
Software There are perhaps three groups of software that are used in a robot. One is the
operating system, which operates the computer. The second is the robotic software, which calculates
the necessary motions of each joint based on the kinematic equations of the robot. This information is
sent to the controller. This software may be at many different levels, from machine language to
sophisticated languages used by modern robots. The third group is the collection of routines and
application programs that are developed in order to use the peripheral devices of the robots, such as
vision routines, or to perform specific tasks.
It is important to note that in many systems, the controller and the processor are placed in the same
unit. Although these two units are in the same box, and even if they are integrated into the same circuit,
they have two separate functions.
Payload: Payload is the weight a robot can carry and still remain within its other specifications.
For example, a robot’s maximum load capacity may be much larger than its specified payload, but at
the maximum level, it may become less accurate, may not follow its intended path accurately, or may
have excessive deflections. The payload of robots compared with their own weight is usually very
small. For example, Fanuc Robotics LR Mate™ robot has a mechanical weight of 86 lbs and a payload
of 6.6 lbs, and the M-16i™ robot has a mechanical weight of 694 lbs and a payload of 36 lbs.
Reach: Reach is the maximum distance a robot can reach within its work envelope. Many
points within the work envelope of the robot may be reached with any desired orientation (called
dexterous). However, for other points, close to the limit of robot’s reach capability, orientation cannot
be specified as desired (called nondexterous point). Reach is a function of the robot’s joint lengths and
its configuration.
Precision (validity): Precision is defined as how accurately a specified point can be reached.
This is a function of the resolution of the actuators, as well as its feedback devices. Most industrial
robots can have precision of 0.001 inch or better.
Repeatability (variability): Repeatability is how accurately the same position can be reached
if the motion is repeated many times. Suppose that a robot is driven to the same point 100 times.
Since many factors may affect the accuracy of the position, the robot may not reach the same point
every time, but will be within a certain radius from the desired point.
The radius of a circle that is formed by this repeated motion is called repeatability. Repeatability is
much more important that precision. If a robot is not precise, it will generally show a consistent error,
which can be predicted and thus corrected through programming. As an example, suppose that a robot
is consistently off 0.06 inch to the right. In that case, all desired points can be specified at 0.06 inch
to the left, and thus the error can be eliminated. However, if the error is random, it cannot be predicted
and thus cannot be eliminated. Repeatability defines the extent of this random error. Repeatability is
usually specified for a certain number of runs. More tests yield larger (bad for manufacturers) and
more realistic (good for the users) results. Manufacturers must specify repeatability in conjunction
with the number of tests, the applied payload during the tests, and the orientation of the arm. For
example, the repeatability of an arm in a vertical direction will be different from when the arm is
tested in a horizontal configuration. Most industrial robots have repeatability in the 0.001 inch range.
There are six basic motions, or degrees of freedom, which provide the robot with the capability to
move the end effector through the required sequence of motions. There are six degrees of freedom
are intended to emulate the versatility of movement possessed by the human arm. Not all robots are
equipped with the ability to move in all six degrees. The six basic motions consist of three arm the
body motions and three wrist motions, as illustrated in Figure 6.6 polar type robot. These motions
are described below.
1. Vertical transverse: up-and-down motions of the arm, caused by pivoting the entire arm about
a horizontal axis or moving the arm along a vertical slide
2. Radial transverse: extension and retraction of the arm (in-and-out movement)
3. Rotational transverse: rotation about the vertical axis (right or left swivel of the robot arm)
Additional axes of motion are possible, for example, by putting the robot on a track or slide. The slide
would be mounted in the floor or in an overhead track system, thus providing a conventional six-axis
robot with a seventh degree of freedom. The gripper device is not normally considered to be an
additional axis of motion.
In PTP, the robot’s movement is controlled from one point location in space to another. Each point is
programmed into the robot’s control memory and then played back during the work cycle. No
particular attention is given to the path followed by the robot in its move from one point to the next.
Point-to-point robots would be quite capable of performing certain kinds of productive operations,
such as machine loading and unloading, pick-and-place activities, and spot welding.
Contouring robots have the capability to follow a closely spaced locus of point which describe a
smooth compound curve. The memory and control requirements are greater for contouring robots than
for PPT because the complete path taken by the robot must be remembered rather than merely the end
points of the motion sequence. However, in certain industrial operations, continuous control of the
work cycle path is essential to the use of robot in the operation. Examples of these operations are paint
spraying, continuous welding processes, and grasping objects moving along a conveyor.
The work volume of an industrial robot is determined by its physical configuration, size, and the limits
of its arm and joint manipulations. The work volume of a Cartesian coordinate robot will be
rectangular. The work volume of a cylindrical coordinate robot will be cylindrical. A polar coordinate
configuration will generate a work volume which is a partial sphere. The work volume of a jointed
arm robot will be somewhat irregular, the outer reaches generally resembling a partial sphere. Robot
manufacturers usually show a diagram of the particular model’s work volume in their marketing
literature, providing a top view and side view with dimensions of the robot’s motion envelope.
These attributes are generally interpreted in terms of the wrist end with no end effector attached and
with the arm fully extended.
Spatial resolution: The term “spatial resolution” refers to the smallest increment of motion at the
wrist end that can be controlled by the robot. This is determined largely by the robot’s control
resolution, which depends on its position control system and/or its feedback measurement system. In
addition, mechanical inaccuracies in the robot’s joints would tend to degrade its ability to position its
arm. The spatial resolution is the sum of the control resolution plus these mechanical inaccuracies.
The factors determining control resolution are the range of movement of the arm and the bit storage
capacity in the control memory for that movement. The arm movement must be divided into its basic
motions or degrees of freedom, and the resolution of degree of freedom is figured separately. Then the
total control resolution is the vector sum of each component.
Accuracy: The accuracy of the robot refers to its capability to position its wrist end (or a tool attached
to the wrist) at a given target point within its work volume. Accuracy is closely related to spatial
resolution, since the robot’s ability to reach a particular point in space depends on its ability to divide
its joint movement into small increments. According to this relation, the accuracy of the robot would
be one-half the distance between two adjacent resolution points. The robot’s accuracy is also affected
by mechanical inaccuracies, such as deflection of its components, gear inaccuracies and so forth.
Repeatability: This refers to the robot’s ability to position its wrist end (or tool) back to a point in
space. Repeatability is different from accuracy. The robot will initially programmed to move the wrist
end to the target point T. Because it is limited by its accuracy, the robot was only capable of achieving
point A. The distance between points A and T is the accuracy. Later, the robot is instructed to return
to this previously programmed point A. However, because it is limited by it repeatability, it is only
capable of moving to point R. The distance between points R and A is a measure of the robot’s
repeatability. As the robot is instructed to return to the same position in subsequent work cycles, it
will not always return to point R, but instead will form a cluster of positions about point A.
Repeatability errors form a random variable. In general, repeatability will be better (less) than
accuracy. Mechanical inaccuracies in the robot’s arm and wrist components are principal sources of
repeatability errors.
Robots driven by electric motors (dc stepping motors or servomotors) do not possess the physical
strength or speed of hydraulic units, but their accuracy and repeatability is generally better. Less floor
space is required due to the absence of the hydraulic power unit.
Pneumatically driven robots are typically smaller and technologically less sophisticated than the other
two types. Pick-and-place tasks and other simple, high-cycle-rate operations are examples of the kinds
of applications usually reserved for these robots.
6.8 ACTUATORS
Actuators are the muscles of robots. If you imagine that the links and the joints are the skeleton of the
robot, the actuators act as muscles, which move or rotate the links to change the configuration of
robots. The actuator must have enough power to accelerate and decelerate the links and to carry the
loads, yet be light, economical, accurate, responsive, reliable, and easy to maintain.
There are many types of actuators available, and, undoubtedly, there will be more varieties available
in the future. The following types are noteworthy:
Electric motors
Servomotors
Stepper motors
Direct-drive electric motors
Hydraulic actuators
Pneumatic actuators
Shape memory metal actuators
Magnetostrictive actuators
Electric motors — especially servomotors — are the most commonly used robotic actuators. Hydraulic
systems were very popular for large robots in the past and are still around in many places, but are not
used in new robots as often any more. Pneumatic cylinders are used in robots that have 1/2 degree of
freedom, on- off type joints, as well as for insertion purposes. Direct drive electric motors, the shape
memory metal type-actuators, and others like them are mostly in research and development stage and
may become more useful in the near future.
6.9 END EFFECTORS
In the terminology of robotics, an end effector can be defined as a device which is attached to the
robot's wrist to perform a specific task. The task might be workpart handling, spot welding, spray
painting, or any of a great variety of other functions. The possibilities are limited only by the
imagination and ingenuity of the applications engineers who design robot systems. (Economic
considerations might also impose a few limitations.) The end effector is the special-purpose tooling
which enables the robot to perform a particular job. It is usually custom engineered for that job, either
by the company that owns the robot or by the company that sold the robot. Most robot manufacturers
have engineering groups which design and fabricate end effectors or provide advice to their customers
on end effector design.
For purposes of organization, we will divide the various types of end effectors into two categories:
grippers and tools. The following two sections discuss these two categories.
6.10 GRIPPERS
Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and hold objects. The objects are generally workparts that are
to be moved by the robot. These part-handling applications include machine loading and unloading,
picking parts from a conveyor, and arranging parts onto a pallet. In addition to workparts, other objects
handled by robot grippers include cartons, bottles, raw materials, and tools. We tend to think of
grippers as mechanical grasping devices, but there are alternative ways of holding objects involving
the use of magnets, suction cups, or other means.
Figure6.7 Sample gripper designs: (a) pivot action grippe; (b) slide action gripper;
(c) double gripper-pivot action mechanism; (d) vacuum-operated hand
In general, magnetic grippers offer the following advantages in robotic handling applications:
In most of the robot applications in which a tool is manipulated, the tool is attached directly to the
robot wrist. In these cases the tool is the end effector. Some examples of tools used as end effectors in
robot applications include:
Spot-welding tools
Arc-welding torch
Spray-painting nozzle
Rotating spindles for operations such as:
drilling
routing
wire brushing
grinding
Liquid cement applicators for assembly
Heating torches
Water jet cutting tool
6.11 TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is a device that converts one type of physical variable (e.g., force, pressure, temperature,
velocity, flow rate, etc.) into another form. A common conversion is to electrical voltage, and the
reason for making the conversion is that the converted signal is more convenient to use and evaluate.
A sensor is a transducer that is used to make a measurement of a physical variable of interest. Some
of the common sensors and transducers include strain gauges (used to measure force and pressure),
thermocouples (temperatures), speedometers (velocity), and Pitot tubes (flow rates).
Any sensor or transducer requires calibration in order to be useful as a measuring device. Calibration
is the procedure by which the relationship between the measured variable and the converted output
signal is established. Transducers and sensors can be classified into two basic types depending
on the form of the converted signal. The two types are:
1. Analog transducers
2. Digital transducers
Analog transducers provide a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage or current. This signal
can then be interpreted as the value of the physical variable that is being measured. Digital transducers
produce a digital output signal, either in the form of a set of parallel status bits or a series of pulses
that can be counted. In either form, the digital signal represents the value of the measured variable.
Digital transducers are becoming more popular because of the ease with which they can be read as
separate measuring instruments. In addition, they offer the advantage in automation and process
control that they are generally more compatible with the digital computer than analog-based sensors.
Some of the activities occur sequentially, while others take place simultaneously. To make certain that
the various activities are coordinated and occur in the proper sequence, a device called the work cell
controller is used (another name for this is workstation controller). The work cell controller usually
resides within the robot and has overall responsibility for regulating the activities of the work cell
components.
6.13.2 Interlocks
An interlock is the feature of work cell control which prevents the work cycle sequence from
continuing until a certain condition or set of conditions has been satisfied. In a robotic work cell, there
are two types: outgoing and incoming. The outgoing interlock is a signal sent from the workstation
controller to some external machine or device that will cause it to operate or not operate. For example,
this would be used to prevent a machine from initiating its process until it was commanded to proceed
by the work cell controller. An incoming interlock is a signal from some external machine or device
to the work controller which determines whether or not the programmed work cycle sequence will
proceed. For example, this would be used to prevent the work cycle program from continuing until the
machine signaled that it had completed its processing of the workpiece.
The use of interlocks provides an important benefit in the control of the work' cycle because it
prevents actions from happening when they shouldn't, and it causes actions to occur when they
should. Interlocks are needed to help coordinate the activities of the various independent components
in the work cell and to help avert damage of one component by another.
In the planning of interlocks in the robotic work cell, the application engineer must consider both the
normal sequence of activities that will occur during the work cycle, and the potential malfunctions that
might occur. Then these normal activities are linked together by means of limit switches, pressure
switches, photoelectric devices, and other system components. Malfunctions that can be anticipated
are prevented by means of similar devices.
stay underwater for long periods and can go to very large depths and still survive the pressure; it also
does not require oxygen.
The following is a list of some applications where robots are useful. The list is not complete by any
stretch of imagination. There are many other uses as well, and other applications find their way into
the industry and the society all the time:
Machine loading, where robots supply parts to or remove parts from other machines. In this
type of work, the robot may not even perform any operation on the part, but is only a means of handling
parts within a set of operations.
Pick and place operations, where the robot picks up parts and places them elsewhere. This
may include palletizing, placing cartridges, simple assembly where two parts are put together (such as
placing tablets into a bottle), placing parts in an oven and removing the treated part from the oven.
Welding, where the robot, along with proper setups and a welding end effector, is used to weld
parts together. This is one of the most common applications of robots in the auto industry. Due to the
robots' consistent movements, the welds are very uniform and accurate. Welding robots are usually
large and powerful.
Painting is another very common application of robots, especially in the automobile industry.
Since maintaining a ventilated, but clean, room suitable for humans is difficult and compared with
those performed by humans, robotic operations are more consistent, painting robots are very well
suited for their job.
Inspection of parts, circuits boards, and other similar products is also a very common
application for robots. In general, some other device is integrated into the system for inspection. This
may be a vision system, an X-ray device, an ultrasonic detector, or other similar devices. In one
application, a robot equipped with an ultrasound crack detector was given the computer-aided design
(CAD) data about the shape of an airplane fuselage and wings, and was used to follow the airplane's
body contours and check each joint, weld, or rivet. In a similar application, a robot was used to search
for and find the location of each rivet, detect and mark the rivets with fatigue cracks, drill them out,
and move on. The technicians would insert and install new rivets. Robots have also been extensively
used for circuit board and chip inspection.
Sampling with robots is used in many industries, including in agriculture. Sampling can be
similar to pick and place and inspection, except that it is performed only on a certain number of
products.
Assembly operations are among the most difficult for the robot to do. Usually, assembling
components into a product involves many operations. For example, the parts must be located and
identified, carried in a particular order with many obstacles around the setup, fitted together, and then
assembled. Many of the fitting and assembling tasks are complicated as well, and may require pushing,
turning, bending, wiggling, pressings and snapping the tabs to connect the parts.
Manufacturing by robots may include many different operations, such as material removal,
drilling, deburring, laying glue, cutting, etc. It also includes insertion of parts, such as electronic
components into circuit boards, installation of boards into electronic devices such as VCR's, and other
similar operations.
Surveillance by robots has been tried, but was not too successful. However, the use of vision
systems for surveillance has been very extensive, both in security industry and in traffic control. For
example, in one part of the highway system in Southern California, one lane of traffic has been leased
out to private industry, which maintains the road and provides services, but also charges users.
Surveillance cameras are used to detect the license plates of the cars that use the road, which are
subsequently charged a toll for road use.
Medical applications are also becoming increasingly common. For example, the Robodoc
was designed to assist a surgeon in total-joint-replacement operations. Since many of the functions
that are performed during this procedure, such as cutting of the head of the bone, drilling a hole in
the bone's body, reaming the hole for precise dimension, and installation of the manufactured
implant joint, can be performed by a robot with better precision than by a human, the mechanical
parts of the operation are assigned to the robot. Similarly, many other robots have been used to assist
surgeons during microsurgery, including operation on heart valves in Paris.
Assisting disabled individuals has also been tried with interesting results. There is much that
can be done to help the disabled in their daily lives. In one study, a small table-top robot was
programmed to communicate with a disabled person and to perform simple tasks such as placing a
food plate into the microwave oven, removing the plate from the oven, and placing the plate in front
of the disabled person to eat. Many other tasks were also programmed for the robot to perform.
Hazardous environments are well suited for robotics use. Because of their inherent danger in
these environments, humans must be well protected against the dangers. However, robots can access,
traverse, maintain, and explore these areas without the same level of concern. Servicing a radioactive
environment, for instance, can be done much easier with a robot than with a human.
Underwater, space, and remote locations can also be serviced or explored by robots.
Although no human has yet been sent to Mars, there have been a number of rovers that have already
landed and explored it. The same is true for other space and underwater applications, Until recently,
for example, very few sunken ships were explored in deep oceans, because no one could access those
depths. Many crashed airplanes, as well as sunken ships and submarines, are nowadays recovered
quickly by underwater robots.
In an attempt to clean the smudge from inside of a steam generator blowdown pipe, a tele operated
robot called Cecil was designed to crawl down the pipe and wash away the smudge with a stream of
water at 6,000 psi.
Another area that is somewhat related to robotics and its applications is Micro-Electro-Mechanical-
Systems (MEMS). These are microlevel devices that are designed to perform functions within a
system, which may include medical, mechanical, electrical, and physical tasks. For example, a
microlevel robotic device may be sent through major veins to the heart for exploratory or surgical
functions, a MEMS sensor may be used to measure the levels of various elements in blood, or a MEMS
actuator may be used to deploy automobile airbags in a collision.
Robotics and automation can, in many situations, increase productivity, safety, efficiency,
quality, and consistency of products.
Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need for life support, comfort, or
concern about safety.
Robots need no environmental comfort, such as lighting, air conditioning, ventilation, and
noise protection.
Robots work continuously without experiencing fatigue or boredom, do not get mad, do not
have hangovers, and need no medical insurance or vacation.
Robots have repeatable precision at all times, unless something happens to them or unless they
wear out.
Robots can be much more accurate than humans. Typical linear accuracies are a few thousands
of an inch. New wafer-handling robots have microinch accuracies.
Robots and their accessories and sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously. Humans can only process one
active stimulus.
Robots replace human workers creating economic problems, such as lost salaries, and social
problems, such as dissatisfaction and resentment among workers.
Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, unless the situation is predicted and the
response is included in the system. Safety measures are needed to ensure that they do not injure
operators and machines working with them. This includes:
Inappropriate or wrong responses
A lack of decision-making power
A loss of power
Damage to the robot and other devices
Human injuries
Robots, although superior in certain senses, have limited capabilities in
Degrees of freedom
Dexterity
Sensors
Vision systems
Real-time response
In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are electrically powered. Most
electric robots use servomotors for axes motion, but a few open loop robot systems utilize stepper
motors. The majority of robots presently are equipped with DC servomotors, but eventually will be
changed to AC servo motors because of their higher reliability, compactness, and high performance.
Most new model robots appear to be with an AC servomotor and an encoder, which simplifies wiring,
reduces maintenance, and increases performance. Therefore, AC servomotors are gaining confidence
and importance in the robot industry. Electric motors provide the greatest variety of choices for
powering manipulators, especially in the low- and moderate-load ranges, and for low speed high-load
operations.
Because electric robots do not require a hydraulic power unit, they conserve floor space and decrease
factory noise. Direct drive models provide very quick response. No energy conversion is required
because the electric power is applied directly to the drive actuators on the axes. In an electric
manipulator, the motors generally provide rotational motion and, therefore, must use rack-and-pinion
gears or ball-screw drives to change to linear movements, for direct drives are connected to the joints
through some kind of mechanical coupling, such as a lead screw, pulley block, spur gears, or harmonic
drive.
The disadvantages of electric drives are that the payload capability is limited to three hundred pounds
or less, and the operation in explosive environments poses problems.
Rotary actuators also are used. In converting linear actuation to rotary motion, a drive pulley connected
to the actuator by a cable may be used, thus avoiding the non- linearities of joint motion inherent in
linkwork conversion of linear to rotary motion.
An advantage of the pneumatic actuator is its inherently light weight, particularly when operating
pressures are moderate. This advantage, coupled with readily available compressed air supplies, makes
pneumatics a good choice for moderate to low load applications that do not require great precision.
Because of the light weight, pneumatics are often used to power end effectors even when other power
sources are used for the manipulator’s joints.The principal disadvantages of pneumatic actuators
include their inherent low efficiencies, especially at reduced loads; their low stiffness (even at the high
end of practical operating pressure); and problems of controlling them with high accuracy.
The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator an attractive choice for moving moderate
to high loads at reasonable speeds and moderate noise Revels. Hydraulic motors usually provide a
more efficient way of using energy to achieve a better performance, but they are more expensive and
generally less accurate.
A major disadvantage of hydraulic systems is their requirement for an energy storage system,
including pumps and accumulators. Hydraulic systems also are susceptible to leakage, which may
reduce efficiency or require frequent cleaning and maintenance. The working fluid must always be
kept clean and filter-free of particles. Fluid must be kept at a constant warm temperature (100°F-
110°F). Also, air entrapment and cavitation effects can sometimes cause difficulties. One of the chief
concerns with hydraulic power is the environmental issue. Oil that is contaminated is costly to remove,
and any leakage is considered an environmental contamination problem.
The primary use of AC servomotors in robot joint movements is for fast, accurate positioning, high
stall torque, small frame size, and lightweight. Pneumatically driven robots, because of the
compressibility of air, normally are found in light-service, limited-sequence, and pick-and-place
applications. Hydraulic robots usually employ hydraulic servo valves and analog resolvers for control
and feedback. Digital encoders and well-designed feedback control systems can provide hydraulically
actuated robots with an accuracy and repeatability generally associated with electrically driven robots.
Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an object. A simple
microswitch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor. Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude
of the contact force. Strain gage devices are typically employed in force-measuring sensors.
Potential uses of robots with tactile sensing capabilities would be in assembly and inspection
operations. In assembly, the robot could perform delicate part alignment and joining operations. In
inspection, touch sensing would be useful in gauging operations and dimensional-measuring activities.
Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to another object. On a robot, the
proximity sensor would be located on or near the end effector. Engineered by means of optical-
proximity devices, eddy-current proximity detectors, magnetic-field sensors, or other devices. In
robotics, proximity sensors might be used to indicate the presence or absence of a workpart or other
object. They could also be helpful in preventing injury to the robot’s human coworkers in the factory.
Voice sensors would be useful in robot programming to speed up the programming procedure, just as
it does in NC programming. It would also be beneficial in especially hazardous working environments
for performing unique operations such as maintenance and repair work. The robot could be placed in
the hazardous environment and remotely commanded to perform the repair chores by means of step-
by-step instructions.
the program has been prepared, it is entered into the robot memory for use during the work cycle. The
advantage of off-line robot programming is that production time of the robot is not lost to delays in
teaching the robot a new task. Programming off-line can be done while the robot is still in production
on the preceding job. This means higher utilization of the robot and the equipment with which it
operates.
VAL statements are divided into two categories. Monitor Commands and Programming Instructions.
The Monitor Commands are a set of administrative instructions that direct the operation of the robot
system. The Monitor Commands would be used for such functions as:
Preparing the system for the user to write programs for the PUMA
Defining points in space
Commanding the PUMA to execute a program
Listing programs on the CRT
The Program Instructions are a set of statements used to write robot programs. Programs in VAL
direct the sequence of motions of the PUMA. One statement usually corresponds to one movement
of the robot's arm or wrist. Examples of Program Instructions include:
Move to a point.
Move to a point in a straight-line motion.
Open gripper.
Close gripper.
The Program Instructions are entered into memory to form programs by first using the Monitor
Command EDIT. This prepares the system to receive the Program Instruction statements in the proper
order.
Additional vocabulary words were developed to provide the supplementary capabilities intended to be
covered by the MCL language. These capabilities include vision, inspection, and the control of signals
to and from the various devices that constitute the robotic workstation. MCL also permits the user to
define MACRO-like statements that would be convenient to use for specialized applications.
After the MCL program has been written, it is compiled to produce the CLFILE as output. The
definition of the CLFILE has been extended to accommodate the new MCL features that go beyond
the conventional cutter location data in APT. The extensions include such capabilities as:
The definition of the various devices within the work cell and the tasks which are performed by these
devices. Predefined frames of reference which are associated with the different machines or devices
in the cell. User-defined frames of reference which could be used for defining the geometry of the
work part. The part identification and acquisition within the work cell
MCL represents a significant enhancement of APT which can be used to perform off-line
programming of complex robotic work cells.
Advances in vision technology for robotics are expected to broaden the capabilities of robotic vision
systems to allow for vision-based guidance of the robot arm, complex inspection for close dimensional
tolerances, and improved recognition and part location capabilities. These will result from constantly
reducing cost of computational capability, increased speed, and new and better algorithms currently
being developed.
Machine vision is concerned with the sensing of vision data and its interpretation by a computer. The
typical vision system consists of the camera and digitizing hardware, a digital computer, and
hardware and software necessary to interface them. This interface hardware and software is often
referred to as a preprocessor. The operation of the vision system consists of three functions:
contrast for later processing. The image viewed by the camera is typically digitized and stored in
computer memory.
The digitized image matrix for each frame is stored and then subjected to image processing and
analysis functions for data reduction and interpretation of the image. These steps are required in order
to permit the real-time application of vision analysis required in robotic applications.
The third function of a machine vision system is the applications function. The current applications of
machine vision in robotics include inspection, part identification, location, and orientation.
provides a sampling grid for an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. At each pixel, the analog signal is
sampled and converted to a digital value. With an 8-bit A/D converter, the converted pixel value will
range from 0 for white to 255 for black. Different shades of gray are represented by values between
these two extremes. This is why the term gray level is often used in conjunction with the converted
values. As the pixels are converted, the respective gray-level values are stored in a memory matrix,
which is called a picture matrix.
Today, the price of a single industrial robot ranges from about $6,000 to well over $100,000. To this
must be added the cost of the associated tooling and fixturing that are to be used within the robot
workcell and the total installation cost. It has been found that approximately 66 percent of the overall
system cost is for the robot, 30 percent is for the additional tooling, and about 16 percent is for instal-
lation. Consider a system with a total cost of $100,000 broken down as follows:
eight years. (Although other sources suggest a figure of $2 per hour, many robot manufacturers use
the more conservative number.) Because a worker will normally put in about two thousand hours per
year (forty hours per week for fifty weeks), it can be seen that the $11 per hour differential in labor
costs ($17 - $6) produced by the robot results in a yearly "saving" of about $22,000. Thus, it will take
about 2.8 years to pay back the original cost of the robot ($66,000/$22,000). After this time, the
user will be "making" $22,000 per year or, more correctly, will be experiencing a positive cash flow.
If we assume a two-shift-per-day activity, the payback period will be only 1.4 years, after which time
a cash flow of $44,000 per year will occur.
There are four groups of humans at risk from direct personal injury from a robot:
Programmers. A robot programmer using any one of the previously mentioned programming methods
is in direct contact with the robot. This closeness with the robot’s work envelope, with its inherent
danger of injury, distinguishes robotics from any other form of automation.
Maintenance engineers. A maintenance engineer is at risk from much the same dangers as
programmers, with the added risk of electrocution. Also, because maintenance procedures often
require that safety interlocks be disconnected, the inherent risk of injury is greater.
Casual observers. To the casual observer, robots are often seen standing still, apparently doing
nothing, for long periods of time. The programmer, of course, would know whether or not these pauses
are intentional: the robot may be performing a programmed delay or waiting. However, if, as is usually
the case, the assembly robot is not rigidly guarded, then a casual observer may move toward a
seemingly stationary robot and be injured when it continues its operation.
Others outside the assumed danger zone. Even though a robot has a known maximum work envelope,
the risk of injury is not limited to encounters within this envelope. If components manipulated by the
robot are not properly secured, then it is possible for them to fly out of the grippers and strike personnel
well outside the assumed danger zone of the robot.
In a practical sense, safety procedures and devices allow the authorized entry of humans into a robot’s
work envelope with a minimal risk of injury. Hardware devices and sensors monitor all anticipated
reasonable access to a robot’s work envelope. Physical safeguards are many and varied. They include.
The following:
1. Simple contact switches
2. Restrained keys
3. Pressure mats
4. Infrared light beams
5. Vision systems
6. Flashing red lights within a work zone indicating that an apparently stationary robot is activate
H but awaiting an input, or performing a time-delayed operation.
There are two fundamental problems in robot-arm kinematics. The first is usually referred to as the
direct (or forward) kinematics problem and the second is the inverse kinematics problem. If the
locations of all of the joints and links of a robot arm are known, it is possible to compute the location
of the end of the arm. This is defined as the direct kinematics problem.
The inverse kinematics problem is to determine the necessary positions of the joints and links in order
to move the end of the robot arm to a desired position and orientation in space. Vector and matrix
algebra are used to develop a systematic and generalized approach to describe and represent the
locations of the links of a robot arm with respect to a fixed reference frame. Since the links of a robot
arm can rotate and/or translate with respect to a reference (world) coordinate frame, a body-attached
(joint) coordinate frame is established along the joint axis for each link. In general, the direct
kinematics problem reduces to finding a transformation matrix that relates joint coordinates to world
coordinates.
Computer-based robots are usually servo controlled in the joint-variable space, whereas objects
to be manipulated are usually identified in the world or part coordinate system. In order to control
the position and orientation of the end-effector of a robot to reach the target object, the inverse
kinematics solution is necessary to obtain the correct joint angle. In other words, given the position
and orientation of the end-effector of a six-axis arm and its joint and link parameters, it is possible
to find the corresponding joint angles of the robot so that the end-effector can be positioned as
desired.
This section derives the dynamics for the r robot arm. Figure shows the -r robot and its schematic
representation. This robot arm includes three parts: a fixed-length body, an. extended part, and a
gripper. Let the mass of the fixed-length body be m1, as shown in the figure. The extended part and
the load are modeled as mass m2. The Cartesian location of mass m1 is
Robot-arm design. A robot-arm designer may want to enter the geometry of a proposed arm design
along with estimates of masses, loads, and so on, and simulate the dynamic performance of the arm.
Path planning. Basic path-control techniques provide a robot programmer with a tool to plan the
desired path for a robot. However, as the robot moves, and speeds and accelerations increase, kinetic
effects may result in an unexpected deviation from the planned path. Path simulation that considers
the dynamic model can be used to develop worst-case estimates of path deviations at high speeds.
Real-time control. It is known that no single choice of servo gains is appropriate to provide the best
performance of a robot. With the dynamic model of the arm.
The knowledge of kinematics and dynamics allows the control of an arm actuator to accomplish a
desired task following a desired path. Trajectory planning and motion control are of considerable
interest and importance, as these issues involve the degree of automation and intelligence of the robot.
REFERENCES:
James G. Keramas “Robot Technology Fundamentals” India ed. DELMAR CENGAGE
Learning.
Groover and Zimmers “CAD/CAM ” Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
Mikell P. Groover “Industrial Robotics” 2008 ed. Tata McGraw-Hill.
Saeed B. Niku “Introduction to Robotics” 2009 ed. Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This part of the manual is concerned with the use of computers to manage the production function.
The subject has traditionally been referred to as production planning and control. This function has
been practiced for many years. Attempts to use the computer in production planning date from the late
1950s and early 1960s. The early attempts were directed toward computerizing the same clerical
procedures which had been done by hand for years. These procedures included preparation of
schedules, shortage lists, inventory lists, and similar documents. During the late 1960s and early 1970s,
a few individuals began to recognize the tremendous opportunities provided by the computer to make
fundamental changes in the procedures and organization of production planning and control. Joseph
Orlicky, George Plossl, and Oliver Wight stand out as some of the principal pioneers in these efforts
to modernize and computerize the production management function. MRP (material requirements
planning) was one of the first computerized procedures which significantly improved the way things
were done. Since MRP was first implemented, many additional improvements in production planning
and control have been introduced by taking advantage of the data processing and computational
powers of the computer.
Main objective in this experiment is to describe how computers are utilized to carry out the
production management function in the CAD/CAM age.
Forecasting
The forecasting function is concerned with projecting or predicting the future sales activity of the
firm's products. Sales forecasts are often classified according to the time horizon over which they
attempt to estimate. Long-range forecasts look ahead five years or more and are used to guide decisions
about plant construction and equipment acquisition. Intermediate-range forecasts estimate one or two
years in advance and would be used to plan for long-lead-time materials and components. Short-term
forecasts are concerned with a three- to six-month future. Decisions on personnel (e.g., new hiring),
purchasing, and production scheduling would be based on the short-term forecast.
Production planning
This is sometimes called aggregate production planning and its objective is to establish general
production levels for product groups over the next year or so. It is based on the sales forecast and is
used to raise or lower inventories, stabilize production over the planning horizon, and allow for the
launching of new products into the company's product line. Aggregate production planning is a
function that precedes the detailed master production schedule.
Process planning
Process planning involves determining the sequence of manufacturing operations required to produce
a certain product and/or its components. Process planning has traditionally been carried out by
manufacturing engineers as a very manual and clerical procedure. The resulting document, prepared
by hand, is called a route sheet and is a listing of the operations and machine tools through which the
part or product must be routed. The term "routing" is sometimes applied to describe the process
planning function.
Estimating
For purposes of determining prices, predicting costs, and preparing schedules, the firm will determine
estimates of the manufacturing lead times and production costs for its products. The manufacturing
lead time is the total time required to process a work part through the factory. The production costs
are the sum of the material costs, labor, and applicable overhead costs needed to produce the part.
These estimates of lead times and costs are based on data contained in the route sheets, purchasing
files, and accounting records.
Master scheduling
The aggregate production plan must be translated into a master schedule which specifies how many
units of each product are to be delivered and when. In turn, this master schedule must be converted
into purchase orders for raw materials, orders for components from outside vendors, and production
schedules for parts made in the shop. These events must be timed and coordinated to allow delivery
of the final product according to the master schedule.
Specifically, the master schedule or master production schedule is a listing of the products to
be produced, when they are to be delivered, and in what quantities. The scheduling periods in the
master schedule are typically months, weeks, or dates. The master schedule must be consistent with
the plant's production capacity. It should not list more quantities of products than the plant is capable
of producing with its given resources of machines and labor.
Requirements planning
Based on the master schedule, the individual components and subassemblies that make up each
product must be planned. Raw materials must be ordered to make the various components. Purchased
parts must be ordered. And all of these items must be planned so that the components and assemblies
are available when needed. This whole task is called requirements planning or material requirements
planning. The term MRP (for material requirements planning) has come into common usage since the
introduction of computerized procedures to perform the massive data processing required to
accomplish this function. However, the function itself had to be accomplished manually by clerical
workers before computers were used.
Purchasing
The firm will elect to manufacture some components for its products in its own plants. Other
components will be purchased. Deciding between these alternatives is the familiar "make-or-buy"
decision. For the components made in-house, raw materials have to be acquired. Ordering the raw
materials and purchased components is the function of the purchasing department. Materials will be
ordered and the receipt of these items will be scheduled according to the timetable defined during the
requirements planning procedure.
The total number of jobs to be processed through the factory will typically exceed the number of
machines by a substantial margin. Accordingly, each machine, or work center, will have a queue of
jobs waiting to be processed. Allocating the jobs to work centers is referred to as machine loading.
Allocating the jobs to the entire shop is called shop loading.
Dispatching
Based on the production schedule, the dispatching function is concerned with issuing the individual
orders to the machine operators. This involves giving out order tickets, route sheets, part drawings,
and job instructions. The dispatching function in some shops is performed by the shop foremen, in
other shops by a person called a dispatcher.
Expediting
Even with the best plans and schedules, things go wrong. It is the expediter's job to compare the actual
progress of the order against the production schedule. For orders that fall behind schedule, the
expediter recommends corrective action. This may involve rearranging the sequence in which orders
are to be done on a certain machine, coaxing the foreman to tear down one setup so that another order
can be run, or hand-carrying parts from one department to the next just to keep production going.
There are many reasons why things go wrong in production: parts-in-process have not yet arrived from
the previous department, machine breakdowns, proper tooling not available, quality problems, and so
forth.
Quality control
The quality control department is responsible for assuring that the quality of the product and its
components meets the standards specified by the designer. This function must be accomplished at
various points throughout the manufacturing cycle. Materials and parts purchased from outside
suppliers must be inspected when they are received. Parts fabricated inside the company must be
inspected, usually several times during processing. Final inspection of the finished product is
performed to test its overall functional and appearance quality.
of each type are available to satisfy customer demand. Competing with this objective is the desire that
the company's financial investment in inventory be kept at a minimum. Inventory control interfaces
with production control since there must be coordination between the various product's sales,
production, and inventory level. Inventory control is often included within the production control
department.
The inventory control function applies not only to the company's final products. It also applies to
raw materials, purchased components, and work-in-process within the factory. In each case, planning
and control are required to achieve a balance between the danger of too little inventory (with
possible stock outs) and the expense of too much inventory.
The block diagram of Figure 7.1 depicts the relationships among the production planning and control
functions as well as various other functions of the firm, customers, and outside suppliers. In the
diagram, the production planning and control functions are highlighted in bold blocks.
traditional approach to deal with the complex and ever-changing nature of manufacturing. The types
of problems commonly encountered in the planning and control of production are the following:
1. Plant capacity problems. Production falls behind schedule due to a lack of labor and
equipment. This results in excessive overtime, delays in meeting delivery schedules, customer
complaints, backordering, and other similar problems.
2. Suboptimal production scheduling. The wrong jobs are scheduled because of a lack of
clear order priorities, inefficient scheduling rules, and the ever-changing status of jobs in the shop. As
a consequence, production runs are interrupted by jobs whose priorities have suddenly increased,
machine setups are increased, and jobs that are on schedule fall behind.
4. Inefficient inventory control. At the same time that total inventories are too high for raw
materials, work-in-progress, and finished products, there are stock outs that occur on individual items
needed for production. High total inventories mean high carrying costs, while raw material stock outs
mean delays in meeting production schedules.
5. Low work center utilization. This problem results in part from poor scheduling (excessive
product changeovers and job interruptions), and from other factors over which plant management has
limited control (e.g., equipment breakdowns, strikes, reduced demand for products).
6. Process planning not followed. This is the situation in which the regular planned routing
is superseded by an ad hoc process sequence. It occurs, for instance, because of bottlenecks at work
centers in the planned sequence. The consequences are longer setups, improper tooling, and less
efficient processes.
7. Errors in engineering and manufacturing records. Bills of materials are not current, route
sheets are not up to date with respect to the latest engineering changes, inventory records are
inaccurate, and production piece counts are incorrect.
In addition to the computer, there were other factors which were perhaps less dramatic but equally
important. One of these was the increase in the level of professionalism brought to the field of
production planning and control. Production planning has been gradually transformed from what was
largely a clerical function into a recognized profession requiring specialized knowledge and academic
training. Systems, methodologies, and even a terminology have developed to deal with the problems
of this professional field.
Important among the methodologies of production planning and control, and another significant factor
in the development of the field, is operations research. The computer became the important tool in
production planning, but many of the decision-making procedures and software programs were based
on the analytical models provided by operations research. Linear programming, inventory models,
queuing theory, and a host of other techniques have been effectively applied to problems in production
planning and control.
Another factor that has acted as a driving force in the development of better production planning is
increased competition from abroad. Many American firms have lost their competitive edge in
international and even domestic markets. Increasing U.S. productivity is seen as one important way to
improve our competitive position. Better management of the production function is certainly a key
element in productivity improvement.
Finally, a fifth factor is the increase in the complexity of both the products manufactured and the
markets that buy these products. The number of different products has proliferated, tolerances and
specifications are more stringent and customers are more particular in their requirements and
expectations. These changes have placed greater demands on manufacturing firms to manage their
operations more efficiently and responsively.
As a consequence of these factors, companies are gradually abandoning the traditional approach in
favor of what we are calling computer-integrated production management systems. There are other
terms which are used to describe these systems and their major components. IBM uses the term
"communications oriented production information and control system—COPICS" to identify the
group of system elements. George Plossl integrates the various system concepts under the name
"manufacturing control". Computer-Aided Manufacturing International calls its development effort in
this area the "factory management project". Oliver Wight refers to the use of MRPII, or manufacturing
resource planning, to consolidate the manufacturing, engineering, and financial functions of the firm
into one operating system. All of these terms refer to computerized information systems designed to
integrate the various functions of production planning and control.
Figure 7.2 presents a block diagram illustrating the functions and their relationships in a computer-
integrated production management system. Many of these functions are nearly identical to their
counterparts in-traditional production-planning and control. For example, forecasting, production
planning, the development of the master schedule, purchasing, and other functions appear the same,
in Figures 7.1 and7.2. To be sure, modern computerized systems have been developed to perform these
functions, but the functions themselves remain relatively unchanged. More significant changes have
occurred in the organization and execution of production planning and control through the
implementation of such schemes as MRP, capacity planning, and shop floor control. What follows is
a brief description of some of the recently developed functions in a CIPMS. We will neglect those
functions which are nearly the same as their conventional counterparts. The newer functions are
Material requirements planning is a computational technique that converts the master schedule for end
products into a detailed schedule for the raw material and components used in the end products. The
detailed schedule identifies the quantities of each raw material and component item. It also tells when
each item must be ordered and delivered so as to meet the master schedule for the final products.
MRP is often considered to be a subset of inventory control. While it is an effective tool for
minimizing unnecessary inventory investment, MRP is also useful in production scheduling and
purchasing of materials.
The concept of MRP is relatively straightforward. What complicates the application of the technique
is the sheer magnitude of the data to be processed. The master schedule provides the overall production
plan for final products in terms of month-by-month or week-by-week delivery requirements. Each of
the products may contain hundreds of individual components. These components are produced out of
raw materials, some of which are common among the components. For example, several parts may be
produced out of the same sheet steel. The components are assembled into simple subassemblies. Then
these subassemblies are put together into more complex assemblies—and so forth, until the final
product is assembled together. Each production and assembly step takes time. All of these factors must
be incorporated into the MRP computations. Although each separate computation is uncomplicated,
the magnitude of all the data to be processed is so large that the application of MRP is virtually
impossible unless carried out on a digital computer.
Dependent demand means that demand for the item is related directly to the demand for some other
product. The dependency usually derives from the fact that the item is a component of the other
product. Not only component parts, but also raw materials and subassemblies, are examples of items
that are subject to dependent demand.
Whereas demand for the firm's end products must often be forecasted, the raw materials and
component parts should not be forecasted. Once the delivery schedule for the end products is
established, the requirements for components and raw materials can be calculated directly. For
example, even though the demand for automobiles in a given month can only be forecasted, once that
quantity is established we know that four regular tires will be needed to deliver the car plus one spare
tire.
MRP is the appropriate technique for determining quantities of dependent demand items. These items
constitute the inventory of manufacturing: raw materials, work-in-progress, component parts, and
subassemblies. Accordingly, MRP is a very powerful tool in the planning and control of manufacturing
inventories.
the demand occurs in these large steps, it is referred to by the term “lumpy demand.'' MRP is the
appropriate approach for dealing with inventory situations characterized by lumpy demand.
Manufacturing lead time is the time needed to process the part through the sequence of machines specified
on the route sheet. It includes not only the operation times but also the nonproductive time that must be
allowed.
In MRP, lead times are used to determine starting dates for assembling final products and subassemblies,
for producing component parts, and for ordering raw materials.
MRP converts the master production schedule into the detailed schedule into the detailed schedule for
raw materials and components. For the MRP program to perform this function, it must operate on the data
contained in the master schedule. However, this is only one of three sources of input data on which MRP
relies. The three inputs to MRP are:
1. The master production schedule and other order data
2. The bill-of-materials file, which defines the product structure
3. The inventory record file
Figure 7.3 presents a diagram showing the flow of data into the MRP processor and its conversion into
useful output reports. The three inputs are described in the sections below.
Product demand that makes up the master schedule can be separated into three categories. The first
consists of firm customer orders for specific products. These orders usually include a specific delivery
date which has been promised to the customer by the sales department. The second category is forecasted
demand. Based on statistical techniques applied to past demand, estimates provided by the sales staff, and
other sources, the firm will generate a forecast of demand for its various product lines. This forecast may
constitute the major portion of the master schedule. The third category is demand for individual
component parts. These components will be used as repair parts and are stocked by the firm's service
department. This third category is often excluded from the master schedule since it does not represent
demand for end products.
Figure 7.4 Master production schedule for products P1 and P2, showing week delivery quantities.
The structure of an assembled product can be pictured as shown in Figure 6.6. This is a relatively
simple product in which a group of individual components make up two subassemblies, which in turn
make up the product. The product structure is in the form of a pyramid, with lower levels feeding into
the levels above. We can envision one level below that shown in Figure 6.6. This would consist of the
raw materials used to make the individual components. The items at each successively higher level
are called the parents of the items in the level directly below. For example, subassembly S1 is the
parent of components C1, C2, and C3. Product P1 is the parent of subassemblies S1 and S2.
The product structure must also specify how many of each item is included in its parent. This
is accomplished in Figure 6.5 by the number in parentheses to the right and below each block. For
example, subassembly S1 contains four of component C2 and one each of components C1 and C3.
It is mandatory in material requirements planning to have accurate current data on inventory status.
This is accomplished by utilizing a computerized inventory system which maintains the inventory
record file or item master file.
A definition of the lead time for the raw materials, components, and assemblies must be
established in the inventory record file. The ordering lead time can be determined from purchasing
records. The manufacturing lead time can be determined from the process route sheets (or routing file).
It is important that the inputs to the MRP processor be kept current. The bill-of-materials file
must be maintained by feeding any engineering changes that affect the product structure into the BOM.
Similarly, the inventory record file is maintained by inputing the inventory transactions to the file.
1. Order release notice, to place orders that have been planned by the MRP system
2. Reports showing planned orders to be released in future periods
3. Rescheduling notices, indicating changes in due dates for open orders
4. Cancellation notices, indicating cancellation of open orders because of changes in the master
schedule
5. Reports on inventory status
The outputs of the MRP system listed above are called primary outputs by Orlicky. In addition,
secondary output reports can be generated by the MRP system at the user's option. These reports
include:
1. Performance reports of various types, indicating costs, item usage, actual versus planned lead
times, and other measures of performance
2. Exception reports, showing deviations from schedule, orders that are overdue, scrap, and so on
3. Inventory forecasts, indicating projected inventory levels (both aggregate inventory as well as
item inventory) in future periods
Reduction in inventory. MRP mainly affects raw materials, purchased components, and work-
in-process inventories. Users claim a 30 to 50% reduction in work-in-process.
Improved customer service. Some MRP proponents claim that late orders are reduced 90%.
Quicker response to changes in demand and in the master schedule.
Greater productivity. Claims are that productivity can be increased by 5 to 30% through MRP.
Labor requirements are reduced correspondingly.
Reduced setup and product changeover costs.
Better machine utilization.
Increased sales and reductions in sales price. These are also claimed as MRP benefits by some
users.
resources, and supporting activities needed to meet the master production schedule. MRP II is a
closed-loop system that integrates and coordinates the major functions of the business involved in
production. The term “closed-loop system” means that MRP II incorporates feedback of data on
various aspects of operating performance so that corrective action can be taken in a timely manner;
that is, MRP II includes a shop floor control system.
MRP II can be considered to consist of three major modules: (1) material requirement planning, or
MRP, (2) capacity planning, and (3) shop floor control. MRP accomplishes the planning functions for
materials, parts, and assemblies, based on the master production schedule. In so doing it also provides
a schedule for factory operations. The capacity planning module interacts with the MRP module to
ensure that the schedules created by MRP are feasible. Finally, the shop floor control module performs
the feedback control function using its factory data collection system to implement the three phases of
order release, order scheduling, and order progress.
Throughout the text, emphasis is on material flow and part throughput internal and external to the cell
or FMS. With FMS, sophisticated software handles the part scheduling for each work station, controls
part movement from station to station, handles NC program download to each CNC unit, and performs
a variety of other functions. Ideally, well-implemented and operational JIT techniques should be a
prerequisite to FMS and be in place before a flexible cell or system is installed in order to follow the
"simplify before you automate" rule. Unfortunately, this is not the case in most companies, as adding
cells and systems usually precedes major material flow and inventory reductions. JIT can be either a
cause or an effect of FMS. However, it is difficult to implement FMS without JIT and achieve the true
results of FMS.
FMS forces operational and organizational change in a company. FMS is also a means to a just-in-
time end and can be used in many cases to drive productivity improvement changes like JIT and group
technology through the organization. The training, teamwork, cooperation, planning effort, and
positive attitudes used to implement a cell or system can be carried over and broadened to undertake
implementation of JIT techniques. Installing a cell or system first can provide a seedbed for planting
and leveraging a JIT discipline.
The installation of a cell or system provides the manufacturer with the flexibility to produce parts in
lot sizes as small as one. With an FMS, it is no longer necessary to carry excessively large inventories
or issue high economic order quantities in an attempt to satisfy anticipated customer demands. The
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Karan J Santoki
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.14
Computer Aided Manufacturing (2171903) 7. Integrated Production Management System
accuracy of marketing's forecast would become less critical since the manufacturer would now have
the option of producing to order. Consequently, the just-in-time philosophy advocated by a flexible
manufacturing system would result in decreased lead times, less work in process on the shop floor,
smaller finished parts inventories, and increased customer satisfaction.
An FMS is, in fact, a grouping of machines to process a family of parts within a predefined range of
part feature and characteristic requirements. As mentioned before, an FMS in many cases is referred
to as a cell, depending on system size and how a particular company views its automation efforts.
Given these considerations, it is apparent that an FMS can actually be considered a highly sophisticated
GT manufacturing cell that can produce a wider range of parts and part families than the traditional
GT manufacturing cell.
REFERENCES:
Groover and Zimmers “CAD/CAM ” Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, Page 298.
M.P. Groover “Automation production system and CIM” (2nd Edition), Page 762.