Traditional Political Structure of Mizos and Nagas: A Sociological study

3.4 Sociology

Submitted By-

Ayush Gaur

SM0117012

Faculty in Charge

Ms. Jagritee Ghosh

NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY AND JUDICIAL ACADEMY, ASSAM

GUWAHATI
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Research Questions

1.2. Literature Review

1.3. Scope and Objective

1.4. Research Methodology

2. HISTORY OF MIZOS AND NAGAS

3. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF MIZOS

3.1 TRADITIONAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF MIZOS

3.2 LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICAL STRUCTURE

4. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF NAGAS

4.1 TRADITIONAL HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURES OF NAGAS

5. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

2
 CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION

This project is an attempt to study the traditional political structure of Mizo and Naga
tribes from a systematical sociological perspective. There are many tribes inhabitant in Mizo and
Naga tribes. So in these projects, I would be focusing mainly on the major tribes of Mizos and
Nagas.

The Naga tribe is constellation of approximately 19 tribes. Among these, the Sumi Naga
and Lotha tribe constitutes one of the major tribes of the State. The origin of the term „Naga‟
word is not definitely known and has been disputed by the social anthropologists. There has been
a great controversy over the origin of the word „Naga‟. The Nagas inhabit the states of Nagaland,
Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Assam in north-east India and also in Somrah region of
Myanmar. Linguistically talking, Nagas fall under Tibeto-Burman group and racially belongs to
Mongolia. The literacy rate is over 67 percent and the sex ratio is 909 females to 1,000 males.

'Mizo' is a generic name of the analogous hill tribes living in Mizoram. The word 'Mizo'
is a compound word of 'Mi' and 'Zo', literally translated as 'hillmen'. Therefore, 'Mizo' literally
means highlanders or people living on high hill, an explanation which is mostly acceptable.

Mizoram, known as 'Lushai Hills' during the British period, was inhabited by a number
of tribes which could be broadly divided into five major and eleven minor tribes. The tribes were
again divided into a number of clans. The major five tribes were Lusei, Ralte, Hmar, Paite and
Pawi. With 91.58% per cent literacy, the second highest in Indian states, Mizoram is a leader in
the national emphasis on education Christian missionaries in the 19th century developed the
current alphabetic system adopted for a written form of the Mizo language. Adoption of the
Roman script has facilitated people's learning English as a second language. The admiration and
demand for the use of English in Mizoram is no different from the same attitude in other parts of
India.

3
 1.1. Research Questions

 What is the history of Mizos and Nagas?

 What is the traditional political structure of Mizos?

 What is the traditional political structure of Nagas?

1.2. Literature Review

 Jeuti Barooah, Customary Laws of the Mizos of Mizoram, Labanya Press, Guwahati
(2011).
This book helps in understanding of Mizos traditional political structure and it also tells
about how the chiefs in the Mizos were powerful and all powers were centralized with him.
It also brings the role of village how village is backbone of these tribes.

 Socio – Political Background of the Mizos – Shodhganga

This article helps in understanding the Mizos political background, how chiefs stood for
their villages in order to secure their villages. It also tells about the education reforms that
were brought by the Christian missionaries and how did they replace the old system and
converted the majority of people to Christians.

 Traditional Political Institution of Nagaland – Dr. Vinod CV

This article is concentrated upon the Political institutions of Nagas and their political
hierarchy with the chief at the head and this article also tries to establish the relation
between the Morung and Zaawlbuk dormitories.

4
 1.3. Scope and Objectives

Scope:

The scope of this project is to study about the history of Mizos and Nagas and to study about the
traditional political structure of Mizos and Nagas.

Objectives:

The objectives of this project are as follow:

 To study about history of Mizos and Nagas.

 To study about the traditional hierarchal structure of Mizos.
 To study about the traditional political structure of Nagas.

1.4. Research Methodology

In this project, the researcher has adopted Doctrinal research. Doctrinal research is essentially
a library-based study, which means that the materials needed by a researcher may be available
in libraries, archives, and other data-bases. Various types of books were used to get the
adequate data essential for this project. The researcher also used computer laboratory to get
important data related to this topic. The researcher also found several good websites which
were very useful to better understand this topic.

5
 CHAPTER -2
HISTORY OF MIZOS AND NAGAS

Historically, the Nagas have always been brave warriors. Like all territories of the
Northeast India, Nagaland too has its own share of legends and stories. Each Naga village had
their independent system of governing. It was only in the 19th century that there came a change
in the history of the Nagas, when the British appeared on the scene. Nagaland too, did not remain
untouched by the revolt of 1857 and later in the struggle for freedom. After independence in
1947, this territory was made a centrally administered area under the Governor of Assam.1
The origin of the Mizos, like those of many other tribes in the North Eastern India is
shrouded in mystery. The generally accepted as part of a great Mongoloid wave of migration
from China and later moved out to India to their present habitat. It is possible that the Mizos
came from the banks of the river Yalung in China. They first settled in the Shan State and moved
on to Kabaw Valley to Khampat and then to the Chin Hills in the middle of the 16th century.
The earliest Mizos who migrated to India were known as Kukis, the second batch of immigrants
was called New Kukis. The Lushais were the last of the Mizo tribes migrate to India. The Mizo
history in the 18th and 19th Century is marked by many instances of tribal raids and retaliatory
expeditions of security.
The Mizo way of life fostered honesty, courage, self-discipline, and mutual help. A
readiness to organise and be organised. It is summed up by the untranslatable Mizo word
„Tlâwmngaihna‟. This virtue was, and still is, highly prized. One cannot be regarded as
„Tlâwmngaihna‟ unless one is courteous, considerate, unselfish, courageous, industrious and
ready to help others. Even at considerable inconvenience to one‟s self. A „Tlâwmngaihna‟ man
or woman will always try to ensure they are not reliant on others and, as a consequence, are
highly respected.2
The Mizos and Naga tribes were similar in terms of religion. They both were wholly
animist. Animism is the belief in the existence of spiritual beings inhabiting the natural world.

1
Chapter I Introduction to Naga, Shodhganga (October 21, 2018 7.00AM)
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/48812/9/09%20chapter%201.pdf
2
Mizoram: From ancient times to 1946, Indus Encyclopedia (October 21, 2018 7:00AM)
http://indpaedia.com/ind/index.php/Mizoram:_From_ancient_times_to_1946

6
These tribes often perform the sacrifices to god. When the western missionaries started preaching
Chritianity, bulk of Mizos and Nagas started to convert as Christians. The rapid spread
in Mizo and Naga tribes was due to some waves of mass enthusiasm which converted more
people than could be done by sustained proselytization.
The Christian missionaries were also pioneers in the field of education. They introduced
education based on Roman script and opened schools. Even today, a number of schools in
Mizoram are run by the Church. The overall development of literacy standard of the Mizos and
Nagas was due to the sincere efforts and sacrifice of the Christian missionaries, and in the post-
independent period, it was the joint venture of the Christian missionaries and the Government
that succeeded.

7
 CHAPTER – 3
POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF MIZOS

The traditional political system of the Mizos was hereditary chiefship. Customary laws
decided disputes arising among themselves and during the British period such laws had legal
sanction as well. According to a Mizo legend, during their stay at Seipuikhur in Chin State, the
institution of chiefship emerged when one of the Mizo inhabited villages decided to have a chief
to provide leadership against external attack and invited men of ability even from the
neighbouring Mizo inhabited villages to come forward. It is said that no one accepted the offer
except Zahmuaka, who had six sons namely, Zadenga, Paliana, Rivunga, Rokhuma, Thangluaha
and 20 Thangura.

2.1 Traditional Political Structure of Mizos

All the chiefs' clans, therefore, owed their origin to the name of certain persons. Each
village used to be a separate unit under the full power of its chief or "Lai". The chief enjoyed
wide powers and he was assisted by "Upa" or Council of village elders. The following were the
duties of the traditional chiefs during the British period.
I. The Mizo chiefs were held responsible for the good behavior of their people and for the
control of their villages.
II. The chiefs with their elders had to dispose of all litigations in their villages except serious
cases such as murder, arson, rape etc.
III. It was the duty of a chief to know his villagers intimately and understand their grievances and
difficulties and to do all in his power to raise their standard of living and encourage them in
all ways possible.
IV. The chief was responsible for allotment of cultivation and for taking measures necessary to
ensure that the villagers could support themselves from year to year.
V. The chief was responsible for supervising the work of his village writer also known as
Khawchhiar.

8
 VI. It was the duty of the chiefs to report all epidemics, heinous crime, violent and accidental
deaths occurring within their jurisdiction.
VII. Chiefs outside Aizawl and Lunglei towns were responsible for reporting the presence of any
foreigner within their jurisdiction.
VIII. Chiefs were responsible for the realization of house tax from their villages without payment
of any compensation.
To sum up, the duties of a chief showed that he was the agent of the government
combining the functions of the policeman, the local magistrate and administrator of the village.
The British Superintendent of the Lushai Hills also considered it desirable to interfere as little as
possible. The traditional rights and privileges of the chief were never interfered with. The
support extended by British administration, however, provided legitimacy to the arbitrary action
of the chiefs. Traditionally, the Mizo chief was the guardian of his subjects, leader in time of
war, protector and giver of food in time of scarcity and distress. War fugitives used to take
shelter in his house. Each family had to contribute a certain amount of rice called "Fathang"
every year towards the support of the chief. Besides, a portion of every animal captured in the
hunt or trapper's chase was his privilege. In theory, the chiefs were all quite powerful, but
actually their powers were circumscribed by the fact that their subjects could easily transfer their
allegiance to some rival chief. Therefore, every chief had to rule tactfully without making
discrimination However, after the introduction of Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution,
traditional chief ship was abolished following mass agitation led by the Mizo Union through the
enactment of Assam Lushai Hills District (Acquisition of Chiefs' Rights) Act in 1954. Under the
Act, the rights and privileges of the Mizo traditional chiefs were abolished.3
'Zawlbuk' was bachelor's dormitory where young Mizo boys slept together and learnt
the values of community living.. 'Zawlbuk' was built in the center of a village close to the Chief's
house. In olden days, when the villages were constantly at war with one another, young boys
were required to sleep together at one place so that they could be mobilized easily in any
emergency. 'Zawlbuk' also developed a number of functions till it became the most important
social institution in Mizo society. It may, thus, be said that 'Zawlbuk' played a very important

3
Chapter 1, Background of Mizos, Shodhganga (Oct. 21,2018, 3:00 PM),
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/92837/7/07_chapter%201.pdf

9
role in shaping the young Mizos as responsible members of society as well as in assisting the
chief in administering the village. It also served as the instrument of social control.4

However, with the spread of Christianity and education, 'Zawlbuk' gradually

disappeared. With the cessation of inter-tribal warfare, 'Zawlbuk' lost much of its utility. Young
boys could not spare time to collect firewood for 'Zawlbuk' since they began to engage in
education. Further, Christian teachings and values ran counter to certain practices and activities
associated with 'Zawlbuk'.

2.2 Later Developments in Political Structure

The Mizos lived in isolation before they contacted the outside world. Though inter-tribal
rivalries occurred from time to time, but there was no evidence of external interference in their
political system before the 19th Century. During the latter half of the 19th Century, the number
of Mizo Chiefs increased because each grown up son of a Chief was given a village to rule. As a
result, their land became too scarce to accommodate all the Mizo Chiefs. This led to frequent
raids on their neighboring areas. In the Mizo society, raid had a district place, and a chief himself
usually indulged in raids because it was also profitable. The first British expedition force in the
Lushai Hills was sent in December 1844, in retaliation of a Mizo raid in British territory of
Kachu Bari, a Manipur village in Sylhet District.

British Annexation and Administration

In the middle of the 19th Century, the British tea enterprise was booming in the Cachar
district. When the Mizos realised what was happening, they thought that the British were
cultivating their prospective land. This led to invasions from Mizo tribe into the British territory
The Mizos continued a number of raids and in retaliation, punitive expeditions were sent into
Lushai Hills. At last, the British Government did not tolerate their territories remaining under the
constant raids of the Mizos. According to the Government of India Act 1919, the Governor-in-
Council declared the Lushai Hills as a "Backward Area" on 3rd January 1921, and the subjects of

4
ibid

10
"Backward Area" were kept as a reserved subject for the Governor's special interest. As such, the
Lushai Hills District was placed under "Excluded Area"* in 1936, under the Government of
India Act, 1935. Since Lushai Hills was placed under "Excluded Areas", no provincial law could
be applied to the areas. The British authority left the internal administration to the chiefs
according to the customary law of the land. However, the Superintendent was authorized to
interfere with the administration of the chief only when the chief went beyond his jurisdiction, as
prescribed by the British law. The Superintendent was only official head in the Lushai Hills. The
Mizo National Front (MNF) party took advantage of this in their struggle for independence by
highlighting that even during the time of British rule, Lushai Hills was excluded from the
Provincial Government of India and that no Indian laws were applied.
The main instrument of western missionaries in preaching Christian religion was
education. Consequently, the introduction of education created a new elite, who posed a
challenge to the chiefs, and mobilized themselves against the traditional political system.
Meanwhile, the traditional elite clung to the old ways and practices and opposed any change in
their status. There was no political party until the dawn of Indian Independence.
The Chief were despotic and their position was safeguarded by British Government. A
significant development, however, took place with the formation of District Conference in 1946
on behalf of people comprised of 40 members – 20 Chiefs and 20 Commoners that will represent
the popular will of people. This caused anxiety amongst the Chiefs who felt that it was quite
inconsistent with the policy which government had pursued in the district since its annexation. 5
Moreover, in the wake of Indian Independence, a sense of uncertainty and apprehension
about their political future gripped the mind of the Mizo people which led to the formation of the
first political party called 'Mizo Common Peoples Union', with the 'permission' of the then
Superintendent, to voice the people's aspiration and various 46 demands especially political right
and status. Later the name of the party was simply changed to "Mizo Union" (M.U.) removing
the phrase "Common Peoples" because of a desire to associate the 47 traditional Chiefs with the
new party. 6

5
Jeuti Barooah, Customary Laws of the Mizos of Mizoram 37 (October 22,2018 7.00PM)
6
SOCIO-POLITICAL BACKGROUND OF THE MIZOS, Shodhganga (October 22, 2018 8:00PM)
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/60417/8/08_chapter%201.pdf

11
Formation of District Council
When the Constituent Assembly of India set up an Advisory Committee, the latter created
three sub-committees to report and recommend on
(i) the north east frontier (Assam) tribal Excluded Areas;
(ii) the Excluded and Partially Excluded Area in the Provinces other than Assam;
(iii) the tribal areas in the north west frontier provinces 48 and Baluchistan.
The Bardoloi Committee recommended setting up administration for the hill areas of
Assam, based on the concept of regional autonomy in matters affecting their custom, laws of
inheritance, administration of justice, land and forest. The Sixth Schedule fixed the maximum
strength of the Mizo District Council at 24. With the introduction of District Council in
Mizoram, a new era of democratic administration began.

Abolition of Chief ship

As mentioned earlier, the traditional Mizo Chief enjoyed wide and independent powers
within the jurisdiction. There was concentration of powers in the hand of the Chief and his
Council called "Upa", who traditionally used to control and regulate all aspects of village
administration in accordance with the customary laws of the land and as such enjoyed several
privileges. Even before the formation of the first political party, the common people had nurtured
an anti-chief feeling and looked forward for an appropriate forum to mobilize popular
aspirations. When the Mizo Union was elected in the first Mizo District Council election held in
1952, it pressed the Government of Assam to abolish traditional Chiefship in Mizo District.
However, it was not easy to do away with the traditional Chiefs or find substitution in their
places.7 The Chiefs were reluctant to part with their traditional status. Therefore, the Mizo Union
passed a resolution in 1953 in the Autonomous District Council for the abolition of Chiefship.
The resolution was later, approved by the Assam Legislative Assembly on 28th June 1954, and
came into force from I6th August 1954. Subsequently, the name of the Lushai Hills District was
changed into Mizo Hills District. Their traditional rights and privileges were abolished. In its
place, a modern democratic form of political institution was adopted.

7
Supra 5,

12
 CHAPTER – 4
POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF NAGAS

The village is the backbone of all other political institutions. Each village is on the
hilltops for defensive reasons as they were in everlasting risk of invasions from enemies and also
from wild animals. Defensibility and availability of water were the two essentials in order to set
up a new village. The traditional Naga village can be compared to a modern day state, an
autonomous structure with its own defined territory, population, system of administration, and
most of all, each village was a sovereign unit. The people were predominantly confined to their
own village and had a great attachment to it, which can be clearly reflected even today. No
person would ever dare to go against the traditions and cultural practices of the village and as
such, a person‟s actions were driven with coherence.
To be disowned or to be excommunicated from the village would mean to become a
„nobody‟ in the society unless the person who has been cast out is given a position by a
neighboring village, which is of a very rare case if not in a time of peace. Unlike the other tribes,
the Lothas rarely calls a village after its founder. 8

3.1 Traditional Hierarchical Political Institutions

Since the village was a single independent unit, it has its own administrative system and
hierarchical organizations which are as follows:

The Chief - Like all the other Naga villages, the Lotha and Sumi Naga villages were also headed
by a village chief. The structure of administrative setup in villages was democratic in nature.
Initially, the position of chieftainship would go to the family who originally founded the village
but this privilege was not permanently confined to them. Though there were instances of
hereditary practices, this only happened when the former chief have a son who fulfils all the
norms and is deemed eligible to take up the position by the council of elders. In most cases, the
most qualified person from among the elders was generally elected by the council of elder. There

8 ,
M Mishra, Complete History of the Naga People (Naga Tribes) of North-East India, Share your essays (October 24
2018 5:00 PM)
http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/complete-history-of-the-naga-people-naga-tribes-of-north-east-
india/111187

13
were many qualities that were expected from the Chief among them, virtue of capability and
bravery in terms of warfare was a requisite. The Chief was also expected to be morally sound,
physically strong and should be have oratory skills. His wealth in terms of land and livestock
were also considered.
In terms of power the chief was the highest authority in the village and by virtue of his
status occupied an eminent position in the village. Some Naga tribes are known to have practiced
the system of dual chieftainship, where there used to be two chiefs in the same village at the
same time i.e., Secular and Religious chief. Needless to say, the religious chief headed all the
religious activities and the secular chief took care of the rest. However, in case of the Lothas,
there was only one chief in a village who performed both the secular and religious functions.
This might also differ from village to village because as mentioned, each village was on their
own, free from outer influences. There were no written documentation on the laws and norms of
the social conduct or administration but the chief governed the village based on the customary
laws which has been passed down from generation to generation through oral traditions.9
The chief was also like a ceremonial head and any kind of activities throughout the year
had to be started with certain formalities and ritual ceremony was a must for all kinds of events.
In case of disputes among the citizens, the case is brought to the chief for final settlement. The
chief would examine the case and pronounce a solution which would be binding to all parties.
However, the door of the chief would be knocked at as a last resort. In other normal cases, it
would be settled by the clan elders involving both the parties. - In case of an imprecise
accusation and suspicion, a person can wash off his hands by taking an oath in front of the chief
and council of elders. An oath is highly regarded in the Lotha society and it was done in a very
serious note. Nobody would dare to take a false oath for the belief that all sorts of misfortunes
and torment would befell upon the oath takers if taken falsely.10

The Council of Elders - The chief, as in a democratic setup was assisted by a council of helpers,
which mainly consist of elders from different clans. These representatives were the decision
making body, which of course was headed by the chief. The chief himself is elected from this
group of people. The people in this category consist of those who has given the „feast of merit‟

9
Dr. Vinod CV, Traditional Political Structure of Nagaland, Shodhganga (October 23, 2018 8:00PM)
https://pen2print.org/index.php/ijr/article/view/14655/14048
10
ibid

14
and who the clan members deemed most fit to represent them. Petty cases were resolved by the
elders themselves even without involving the chief. An elderly man can also perform ceremonies
concerning the clan he represents. However, the decision and advice of the and the council of
elders was not binding on the chief.

Clan Organization -The clan organization can also amount to the khel organization in case the
entire residents of a khel belong to one particular clan. The eldest or the most capable and
qualified member among the clan will be the head, who would also represent them in the council
of elders. It was the clans who owned the land and not the individuals. At the starting of the year,
when it was time to clear a new field for cultivation, the elders of the clan will allot the plots to
each household, which is represented by the father. Inter clan marriage was practiced but
marriage within the clan members was strictly prohibited and was a taboo. The clan will always
stand as a single unit in case of any issue with other clan, as long as their cause is right.11
The institution of Morung (chumpo) is perhaps one of the most important aspects of a
Lotha‟s life as a social being. It was a dormitory where the young people, at the attainment of
puberty were made to stay till the time he got married. It can be considered as an important
social, political and educational institution, where all sorts of knowledge and traditions were
passed down to the younger generations through the older ones. The morung was indeed the
sharpening factor of the young minds of the traditional society where all sorts of social values,
morals, code of conduct etc. were instilled in the young minds and prepare them for the future.
The most strategic location in the village was chosen for building the morung. The morung was a
thatched house which mostly composed of bamboos and timber. During war, each head of
enemies taken in the battle were first brought to the morung for ceremonies and was later taken
to the „mengitong‟, known to be the head tree of the village and hung there. In villages divided
into khels, morungs can be found in each one of them, which also served for the same purpose.
No women were allowed to set foot in the bachelors‟ dormitory. Separate dormitories which
were meant strictly women were also found in many villages, in which men were not allowed.

11
Traditional and Modern Political Institutions of the Nagas, Shodhganga
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/60510/2/02_abstract.pdf

15
The Commoners - The commoners or the citizens are the real source of power as they are the
ones who elect and select all the other representatives. The citizens consist of all the households
of the village and its members. The households are generally represented by the father or if the
father is no more, the responsibility goes to the eldest son. If the chief or the council of elders
make a decision which is not acceptable to the common people, they were free to raise their
voice and it never fell on deaf ears. 12

The Head Tree - The „mengitung,‟ or „the head tree‟ is usually situated in the heart of the
village. It is the tree where all the heads taken during wars were hung. At the bottom, the
mysterious „oha‟ stones, which the people consider to bring fortune and charm, were placed. The
place of this tree must not be changed under any circumstances. This tree is planted during the
time of building the village itself and is regarded to hold the fortune of the village and not even a
twig was to be cut from it. If even a branch falls out of it, various ceremonies had to be
performed, lest misfortune befell upon the village. If a new village is to be founded, a twig from
the tree of the parent village was stolen and planted in the new village, though the parent village
tries their best to avert it. The fully grown grand old „mengitongs‟ can be found in almost all the
villages even today.

12
ibid

16
 CHAPTER– 5
CONCLUSION

With the advent of the colonial British in India in general and the Naga Hills in
particular, much of the age old traditions and practices of the people were deliberately eradicated
because they considered them to be the practices of „savages‟ and „heathen‟ tribes. The tribal‟s
way of life was considered as abhorrent and evil, and the Nagas were “tamed” to adopt the
western way of life. The Nagas today in general are quite contented by the fact that the colonial
masters at least pointed to them the path to modernity and unified them, but the price paid for the
same is quite disconcerting. With the exception of the unpopular practice of head hunting,
uncanny amount of valuable and irreplaceable practices of the Nagas have been eroded.

Therefore there are many things that are common in both Mizo and Nagas tribes like both
face the preaching from the Christians missionaries which resulted in the overall growth of the
educational system of the Mizo and Naga. There were many other things that were common
among the people of these tribes, one of them was the male dormitories that were provided by
the chiefs of both the tribes namely Morung in Nagas and Zawlbulk in the Mizos which young
male members and both these dormitories of the Mizos and Nagas disappeared with introduction
of the Christrian preaching because now most of the young male members where now indulging
in the education. Therefore they were getting less and less time to spend in dormitories. Thus
these tribes can be said to be similar in many respects though they were separated by boundaries
and were secure about their territories, yet the emerged out to be similar in many contexts.

17
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:

 Jeuti Barooah, Customary Laws of the Mizos of Mizoram, Labanya Press, Guwahati (2011)

Internet Sources:

 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/48812/9/09%20chapter%201.pdf
 http://indpaedia.com/ind/index.php/Mizoram:_From_ancient_times_to_1946
 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/92837/7/07_chapter%201.pdf
 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/60417/8/08_chapter%201.pdf
 http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/complete-history-of-the-naga-people-naga-tribes-of-
north-east-india/111187
 https://pen2print.org/index.php/ijr/article/view/14655/14048
 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/60510/2/02_abstract.pdf

18