Soils in The Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia

Soils in the
Humid Tropics and

Monsoon Region
of Indonesia
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Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia,
Kim H. Tan
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Soils in the
Humid Tropics and
Monsoon Region
of Indonesia
Kim H. Tan
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Tan, Kim H. (Kim Howard), 1926‑

Soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of Indonesia / Kim H. Tan.
p. cm. ‑‑ (Books in soils, plants, and the environment ; 123)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978‑1‑4200‑6907‑5 (alk. paper)
1. Soils‑‑Indonesia. 2. Soils‑‑Tropics. I. Title. II. Series.
S599.6.I5T36 2008
631.4’9598‑‑dc22 2007050715
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Contents
Preface.............................................................................. xv
Acknowledgments....................................................... xxv
Chapter 1 The development of soil science in

Indonesia.....................................................1
1.1 The pre-World War II period..............................2
1.2 The post-World War II period.............................6
1.2.1 The establishment of higher
education..................................................8
1.2.2 The Kentucky Contract Team
(KCT) and Midwestern Universities
Consortium for International
Activities (MUCIA) projects.................11
1.2.3 Pedology.................................................13
1.2.4 Soil survey..............................................14
1.2.5 Soil fertility and plant nutrition..........15
1.2.6 The dawn of new experiment
stations....................................................17
1.2.7 National conferences and scientific
societies...................................................19
1.2.8 Land use and soil conservation...........20
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xii Contents
Chapter 2 Geomorphology of Indonesia..................27

2.1 Geographical setting of Indonesia...................27
2.2 Geomorphology of major islands.....................30
2.2.1 Geomorphological features of Java.....31
2.2.2 Geomorphological features of
Sumatra...................................................35
Kalimantan.............................................38
Sulawesi..................................................41
Maluku...................................................44
2.2.5.1 Ambon....................................45
2.2.5.2 Ceram......................................46
Nusa Tenggara.......................................46
Papua (West Irian).................................47
Chapter 3 Climate of Indonesia.................................51

3.1 Climate................................................................51
3.1.1 The concepts of equatorial and
tropical climates....................................52
3.1.1.1 Equatorial climate..................52
3.1.1.2 Tropical climate......................54
3.1.2 The concept of monsoon climates.......55
3.1.2.1 Concept of monsoons............55
3.1.2.2 West and east monsoons
in Indonesia............................59
3.2 Climatic divisions based on length of dry
and wet seasons..................................................61
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Contents xiii
3.2.1 The climatic system of Mohr...............62

3.2.2 Climatic system of Schmidt and
Ferguson.................................................65
3.3 Altitudinal variations in climate......................67
3.3.1 Variations in rainfall patterns with
altitude....................................................68
3.3.2 Variations in temperatures with
altitude....................................................68
3.3.3 Zonal divisions into lowland,
upland, mountain, and high-
mountain lands......................................67
3.4 Significance of tropical and monsoon
climates in pedogenesis.....................................72
3.4.1 Balance effects between
precipitation and evaporation in
different climatic types.........................73
3.4.2 Altitudinal variations in soil
genesis and soil fertility.......................74
Chapter 4 Vegetation of Indonesia........................... 77

4.1 Climax vegetation..............................................77
4.1.1 The tropical rain forest.........................77
4.1.2 The tropical monsoon forest................78
4.1.3 The tropical Savannah forest...............79
4.2 Vegetation provinces..........................................79
4.2.1 West Indonesian vegetation
province..................................................80
4.2.2 East Indonesian vegetation
province..................................................80
4.2.3 South Indonesian vegetation
province..................................................81
4.3 Altitudinal vegetation zones.............................84
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xiv Contents
4.3.1 The coastal flora.....................................84

4.3.2 The rain forest and the mountain
rain forest...............................................88
4.3.3 The cloud-belt forest.............................89
4.3.4 The subalpine vegetation......................90
Chapter 5 Soil formation, classification, and

land use ....................................................93
5.1 Soil-formation factors.........................................93
5.2 Soil-forming processes......................................94
5.2.1 Previous concept of soil-forming
processes.................................................96
5.2.2 Today’s versions of soil-forming
processes...............................................102
5.2.2.1 Desilicification......................102
5.2.2.2 Silicification..........................103
5.2.2.3 Translocation of clays..........104
5.2.2.4 Translocation of
aluminum and iron.............106
5.2.2.5 Redox reactions....................108
5.2.3 Influence of climatic variations on
soil-forming processes........................ 110
5.2.3.1 Mineralization versus
humification......................... 110
5.2.4 Influence of parent materials on
soil formation....................................... 115
5.2.5 Precipitation/evaporation ratio and
weathering intensity........................... 117
5.3 The system of soil classification in
Indonesia...........................................................121
5.4 Land use in Indonesia.....................................125
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Contents xv
Chapter 6 Soils in the lowlands of Indonesia...... 129

6.1 Introduction......................................................129
6.2 Oxisols...............................................................130
6.2.1 Parent materials...................................132
6.2.2 Climate..................................................138
6.2.3 Soil morphology..................................142
6.2.4 Soil classification.................................148
6.2.5 Physicochemical characteristics........153
6.2.5.1 Particle size distribution.....153
6.2.5.2 Chemical characteristics.....154
6.2.5.3 Charge characteristics.........157
6.2.5.4 Clay mineralogy..................159
6.2.6 Land use and evaluation.................... 161
6.2.6.1 Evaluation of analytical
properties.............................. 161
6.2.6.2 Significance of basic soil
properties..............................164
6.2.6.3 Agricultural operations......165
6.3 Ultisols...............................................................177
6.3.2 Climate.................................................. 181
6.3.3 Soil morphology..................................182
6.3.5.3 Charge characteristics.........193
6.3.5.4 Clay mineralogy..................194
6.3.6 Land use and evaluation....................197
properties..............................197
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xvi Contents

properties..............................199
6.4 Lowland alfisols...............................................209
6.4.1 Parent materials................................... 210
6.4.2 Climate..................................................212
6.4.3 Soil morphology..................................213
6.4.5 Physicochemical characteristics........ 218
6.4.5.2 Chemical characteristics..... 218
6.4.5.3 Clay mineralogy..................220
properties..............................221
properties..............................221
6.5 Vertisols.............................................................227
6.5.2 Climate..................................................230
6.5.3 Soil morphology..................................232
6.5.5.3 Clay mineralogy..................239
properties..............................242
properties..............................242
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Contents xvii

6.6 Histosols............................................................253
6.6.1.1 Decomposition of litter
and genesis of peat..............261
6.6.2 Climate..................................................262
6.6.3 Soil morphology..................................264
6.6.5.1 Acidity of peat......................270
6.6.5.2 Nutrient status of peat........273
6.6.5.3 Aluminum contents in
peat........................................275
6.6.5.4 Carbon contents and Corg
sequestration by peat..........275
6.6.5.5 Physical properties..............277
properties..............................282
6.6.6.2 Significance of basic
properties..............................283
Chapter 7 Soils in the uplands of Indonesia.........293

7.1 Introduction......................................................293
7.2 Podzolic latosols...............................................294
7.3 Inceptisols.........................................................296
7.3.2 Climate..................................................302
7.3.3 Soil morphology..................................304
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xviii Contents

7.3.5.3 Clay mineralogy..................312
properties..............................313
properties..............................315
7.3.6.3 Agricultural operations...... 316
Chapter 8 Soils in the mountains of Indonesia... 333

8.1 Introduction......................................................333
8.2 Highland alfisols..............................................337
8.2.2 Climate..................................................340
8.2.3 Soil morphology..................................341
8.2.4 Soil classification................................ 344
8.2.5.3 Clay mineralogy..................349
properties..............................352
properties..............................352
8.3 Brown podzolic soils.......................................367
8.3.2 Climate..................................................370
8.3.3 Soil morphology..................................372
8.3.4 Soil classification................................. 374
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Contents xix

8.3.5.3 Clay mineralogy..................377
8.4 Spodosols..........................................................380
8.4.2 Climate..................................................385
8.4.3 Soil morphology..................................387
8.4.5.3 Clay mineralogy..................394
8.4.6.1 Soil properties and
agricultural operations........396
8.4.6.2 Tree farming.........................397
Chapter 9 Andosols of Indonesia............................399

9.1 Introduction......................................................399
9.2 Parent materials................................................402
9.3 Climate..............................................................405
9.4 Soil morphology...............................................407
9.5 Soil classification.............................................. 411
9.6 Physicochemical characteristics.....................417
9.6.1 Physical properties..............................417
9.6.1.2 Soil reaction..........................420
9.6.1.3 Bulk density and
porosity.................................420
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xx Contents
9.6.2 Chemical characteristics.....................421

9.6.2.1 Humus content and
composition..........................421
9.6.2.2 Nitrogen content..................424
9.6.3 Clay mineralogy..................................424
9.6.4 Charge characteristics.........................428
9.7 Land use and evaluation.................................432
9.7.1 Evaluation of analytical
properties.............................................432
9.7.2 Significance of basic soil
properties.............................................432
9.7.3 Agricultural operations......................433
9.7.3.1 Estate crops...........................434
References and Additional Readings........................447
Index................................................................................475
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Preface
In this book, soils formed under a tropical climate, and
in particular in Indonesia, are illustrated and described.
Some U.S. scientists believed that there were no such
tropical soils, and that the term tropical soil was just a
myth. These soils were allegedly not different from
their taxonomic counterparts, if any, in the United
States, which in this author’s opinion is far from true.
For example, oxisols are soils confined only to tropi-
cal areas. In the tropical, humid regions of Indonesia,
these soils may look similar to some of the soils in the
southern region of the United States. They may have
some features in common (for example, high clay con-
tent, high water-holding capacity, and not too much
difference in the red colors). However, they are, in fact,
very different in many other aspects, and they behave
differently—biologically, physically, and chemically.
For example, Indonesian oxisols originate from inter-
mediate to basic volcanic ash of quaternary eruptions.
The soils exhibit properties reflecting more the effect of
short-range order, semicrystalline or amorphous min-
erals than those of crystalline clays. The time period
for soil genesis (from ash to soils), compounded by a
humid, tropical condition, was apparently too short for
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xxii Preface
the proper formation of crystalline clays. Though the

clay content may amount to 80 to 90%, the soils possess
a very stable and strong structure, allowing them to be
cultivated during heavy rains. These features are com-
pletely different from U.S. soils in the southern region.
The closest comparison is perhaps with the Davidson
soil. However, this soil exhibits properties showing the
dominant role of crystalline clays, though short-range-
order minerals may have affected them somewhat. The
soils are also often sticky and plastic when wet and very
hard when dry. According to the U.S. Soil Taxonomy,
these soils are ultisol, formed in material weathered
from diorite, mica schists, or basaltic rocks. None of the
oxisols (Eutrorthox or Haplorthox) in Puerto Rico or the
Virgin Islands appear to be similar to the tropical soils
in Indonesia. The oxisols in Puerto Rico are allegedly
marginal lands, suffering from drought even during
short dry periods, whereas those in Indonesia are excel-
lent agricultural lands, as will be discussed in Chap-
ter 6. The parent materials of the oxisols in Puerto Rico
have also been reported as tertiary limestone, which in
Indonesia would have formed terra rossa or red Medi-
terranean soils and alfisols. Perhaps oxisols in Hawaii
may compare more favorably in some aspects, but the
U.S. Soil Taxonomy states that they are not extensive
and can be similar only to oxisols from basic rocks that
are found in South America and Africa.
The author also wishes to show that a tropical climate
is not necessarily hot and humid, but may vary from hot
and humid to cool and arctic cold with elevation, when
going up from the lowlands to the top of the moun-
tains. These differences in climate, which bring about
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Preface xxiii
altitudinal variations in vegetation, have a pronounced

effect on soil formation. The changes in geomorphol-
ogy, and especially those in climate and vegetation,
with elevations above sea level are particularly noticed
to have produced altitudinal variations in soil forma-
tion, yielding zones of different soils.
In addition, this book addresses the following issue.
During Dutch colonial time, Dutch scientists collected
an abundant amount of research materials, most of
which were written in Dutch and published in local
papers. They are now buried in a maze of library refer-
ences in Indonesia and are very difficult to find. Though
most of the materials may be considered old, they are
very valuable and still relevant in today’s scientific stan-
dards. This information will be lost forever to most, if
not all, of the new generation of Indonesian and inter-
national scientists who do not read the Dutch language.
Because of this, the author has retrieved most of the old
information and is making it accessible in this book in
a somewhat revised version, with a more modern flavor
added to the old concepts.
The genesis, properties, classification, and land use
of the soils are major topics of discussion in this book.
The basic materials originated from the author’s experi-
ence as a native of Indonesia and from his research as
professor and head of the Department of Soil Science,
Bogor University of Agriculture (better known today as
IPB for Institut Pertanian Bogor), Indonesia, from 1957 to
1967. After accepting a position in 1968 as professor of
Soil Science and Agronomy at the University of Geor-
gia, Athens, the author’s activities in soil research and
as the Agronomy Club soil judging coach for more than
69071.indb 23 4/25/08 10:40:22 AM

xxiv Preface
10 years provided him with excellent opportunities for

studying and making valuable comparisons between
U.S. and Indonesian soils. Additional information was
collected during teaching and research assignments
(1995 to present) as visiting professor at several research
institutes and universities in Indonesia, including Bogor
Research Institute for Estate Crops; Soil Research Insti-
tute, Bogor; University of Andalas, Padang; and the
University of North Sumatra, Medan.
The nine chapters in this book can perhaps be
divided into two parts. The first part includes Chapters
1 through 5, covering the development of soil science
in Indonesia, the geography and geomorphology of the
archipelago, climate, vegetation, mineralization, and
humification processes as factors of soil formation in
Indonesia. The second part includes Chapters 6 through
9, and examines the major soils in Indonesia and their
genesis, properties, taxonomy, land use, and evalua-
tion. The latter also addresses the cultivation of local
farm, estate, and industrial crops, which differ in types
and varieties from the lowland to highland regions. For
example, rubber and oil palm, restricted to growing in
the lowlands, are replaced by tea and coffee in the high-
lands. The vegetable crops of the mountains are more
temperate region crops, whereas bananas of the types
offered in U.S. supermarkets, growing best in the low-
lands, tend to also be replaced by a mountain variety in
the highlands of Indonesia. All these and more will be
discussed in the respective sections of the book.
The soils are discussed according to the following
arrangement: (1) soils of the lowlands (for example,
oxisols, ultisols, lowland alfisols, or red Mediterranean
69071.indb 24 4/25/08 10:40:22 AM

Preface xxv
soils and vertisols) and histosols (tropical peat soils); (2)

soils of the upland (for example, podzolic latosols and
inceptisols or brown forest soils); (3) soils of the moun-
tains (such as highland or mountain alfisols, brown
podzolic soils, and spodosols); and (4) andosols (soils in
the mountains as well as in the lowlands).
Though the names of soil orders in the present U.S.
Soil Taxonomy are used in the titles, many do not
adequately represent the Indonesian soils in question.
Hence, the names of soils from the World Reference
Base for Soil Resources (WRB), Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN), Austra-
lian and Canadian soil classification systems, and the
older (1948) U.S. Soil Taxonomy are also stated, which
in the author’s opinion often represent more closely the
particular soils in Indonesia.
The Chapters
Chapter 1 covers the development of soil science in Indo-
nesia, from the pre-World War II period with a domi-
nating Dutch influence, to the post-World War II period,
where the American system was gaining importance,
especially through cooperative educational projects with
the University of Kentucky, Lexington, and the Mid-
western Universities Consortium, respectively, under
the sponsorship of the U.S. Agency for International
Development (USAID). Most of the older but important
work by Dutch scientists in pedology, soil survey, soil
fertility, plant nutrition, land use, and conservation are
included. The establishment of higher education and
69071.indb 25 4/25/08 10:40:23 AM

xxvi Preface
the dawn of new experiment stations are examined in

view of advancing soil science in Indonesia.
Chapter 2 examines geography, geomorphology, and
other factors of importance as parent materials for soil
formation in Indonesia. The significance of dividing
the archipelago into the Sunda and Sahul shelves in
between the Wallacea is explained, and major geomor-
phological features are provided for the islands of Java,
Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas, the lesser
Sunda islands, and Papua (formerly West Irian).
Chapter 3 discusses the climate in Indonesia. The con-
cepts of equatorial, tropical, and monsoon climates are
defined, and local use is examined for considering the
west monsoon and east monsoon as the rainy and dry
seasons, respectively. The relevance between Mohr’s
climatic system and that of Schmidt and Ferguson are
compared. The significance of a monsoon and tropical
climate is addressed, and their altitudinal divisions into
lowland, upland, and mountain-land zones are deter-
mined and evaluated as factors in soil formation.
Chapter 4 describes the vegetation in Indonesia. The
concept of climax vegetation is defined, and the types
present in Indonesia are discussed (for example, tropi-
cal rain forests, monsoon, and savannah forests). The
division of the archipelago by Van Steenis into three
vegetation provinces is addressed. Altitudinal vegeta-
tion zones are identified due to changing climate with
elevation above sea level (for example, coastal flora, rain
forests, mountain rain forests, cloud-belt forests, and
subalpine vegetation). Limits for cloud belts and tim-
berline are given.
69071.indb 26 4/25/08 10:40:23 AM

Preface xxvii
Chapter 5 explains soil formation and classification

in Indonesia. The soil formation factors and processes
are discussed and the influence of climatic variations
and different parent materials are addressed. The role
of precipitation/evapotranspiration ratios in weather-
ing intensity is presented. The system of soil classifica-
tion in Indonesia is described.
Chapter 6 examines soils in the lowlands, the parent
materials, climate, morphology, analytical features, clas-
sification, land use, and evaluation. These soils include
oxisols, ultisols, lowland alfisols, vertisols, and histosols:
• Oxisols are the former latosols with excellent physi-

cal properties regardless of their extremely high
clay content. They have been formed mainly in the
humid tropics from andesitic volcanic tuff.
• Ultisols, formerly called red-yellow podzolic soils,
are soils with lower-based status and are more
acidic in reactions than the oxisols. They have been
formed from more acidic parent materials (such as
dacitic and liparitic tuffs) and are rich in quartz.
• Lowland alfisols are the soils formed by laterization
in the limestone areas. The name alfisol was chosen
as the closest placement in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy
only and does not exactly describe the soils prop-
erly. These soils are more related to the red oxisols
and ultisols and are known as red-yellow Mediter-
ranean or terra rossa soils.
• Vertisols are often found as a toposequence or, in
close association with the lowland alfisols, at loca-
tions with more impeded drainage conditions.
69071.indb 27 4/25/08 10:40:23 AM

xxviii Preface
Sugarcane is one of the major crops grown on the

vertisols of Indonesia.
• Histosols are mainly peat soils, called tropical peat by
FAO soil scientists. They were not expected to exist
in the warm humid tropics, but in 1895, Koorders
reported the presence of extensive peat areas in
Sumatra. These soils have now been found exten-
sively in the coastal regions of Sumatra, Kaliman-
tan, and Papua.
Chapter 7 features the major soils in the uplands of

Indonesia (for example, podzolic latosols and brown
forest soils). The latter is identified in the U.S. Soil Tax-
onomy as inceptisols. This name is also selected in this
book, because it is the only order’s name in the U.S. Soil
Taxonomy that can be used. The soils, in fact, do not
really represent young soils as the name implies. The
brown forest soils or inceptisols of Indonesia are fertile
soils, and due to their formation in the cooler uplands,
both tropical and temperate region crops can be grown
on these soils. They are also the soils on which cloves are
cultivated, one of the major spices that, in its early his-
tory, made Indonesia renowned as the Spice Islands.
Chapter 8 discusses the major soils in the mountains
of Indonesia (for example, highland or mountain alfi-
sols, brown podzolic soils, and podzols [spodosols],
respectively). The name highland alfisols is used in this
chapter to differentiate them from the lowland alfisols
discussed in Chapter 6. These highland alfisols occur
in zones, where cool and humid conditions prevail. The
soils appear more like the gray wooded or the gray-
brown podzolic soils of the Canadian and old U.S.
69071.indb 28 4/25/08 10:40:23 AM

Preface xxix
systems, or the luvisols of the FAO-UN system. These

soils support a variety of temperate region crops, includ-
ing wheat and grapes. Lowland types of bananas tend
to be replaced by mountain bananas. The cool climate
also encourages development of dairy farming. The
brown podzolic soils are located in between the high-
land alfisols and the spodosols. They are considered by
some as podzols in the initial stages. The spodosols are
soils generally present only in the mountains of Indo-
nesia, where the climate and vegetation are favorable
for podzolization processes. They are called podzols
in the old U.S. classification and the FAO-UN systems,
and this name is still used today in Europe. Podzols
have also been discovered by the Dutch in the lowlands
of Bangka, but these are considered as exceptions and
their occurrence is apparently limited to very small
areas.
Chapter 9 offers an overview of the andosols, which
can be found both in the mountains as well as in the
uplands and lowlands of Indonesia. These are the andi
sols in the new U.S. Soil Taxonomy. In Indonesia, they
are frequently confused for brown forest soils. Ando-
sols are perhaps the most fertile soils of the Indonesian
archipelago. A variety of crops are grown on andosols,
and the best tea and coffee plantations are found on
andosols.
Kim Howard Tan

The University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
69071.indb 29 4/25/08 10:40:23 AM

69071.indb 30 4/25/08 10:40:23 AM
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge and thank many
people and institutions for their assistance, reviews,
comments, and contributions. Thanks are due in these
respects to H.F. Massey, former Associate Dean for Inter-
national Programs, University of Kentucky, Lexington.
He was a visiting professor at IPB, Bogor, Indonesia,
serving in the 1960s also as acting chief of the Univer-
sity of Kentucky Contract Team at IPB. Thanks are also
extended to Roy Sigafus of the University of Kentucky
Contract Team and visiting professor at IPB, Bogor, in
the 1960s, for reading the early drafts of this manu-
script. Grateful appreciation is extended to Irsal Las,
Director of the Indonesian Center for Agricultural Land
Resources Research and Development, and Fahmuddin
Agus, former Director of the Soil Research Institute,
Bogor, Indonesia, for their cooperation and courtesy in
providing the latest version of the Soil Map of Indone-
sia. Thanks are also due to Didiek H. Goenadi, Direc-
tor of the Institute of Biotechnology for Estate Crops,
Bogor, Indonesia; Dian Fiantis, Pedologist, Ir. Datuk R.
Imbang, Soil Taxonomist Ir. Burhanuddin, SU, former
Associate Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Andalas, Padang; and to Abu Dardak, former Director,
69071.indb 31 4/25/08 10:40:24 AM

xxxii Acknowledgments
Graduate School, University of North Sumatra, Medan,

Indonesia, for their valuable contributions and for col-
lecting several of the data. The assistance of O. Iskan-
dar, former chairman of the Department of Soil Science,
Institut Pertanian Bogor, and that of the Forestry Ser-
vice, Badan Planologi Kehutanan Indonesia, are hereby
also gratefully acknowledged for crop yield data and
the use of a vegetation map, respectively. Finally, my
grateful thanks are extended to Januar Darmawan of
P.T. Cengkeh Zanzibar for providing some of the pic-
tures, to H. Hartawan, serving as a professional pho-
tographer, and last but not least to my wife Yelli and my
son Budi, for their understanding, encouragement, and
assistance in writing this book.
69071.indb 32 4/25/08 10:40:24 AM

chapter one
The development
of soil science
in Indonesia
For hundreds of years people have looked upon the
earth as the source of their food and fiber supply and as
the bearer of minerals and metals useful for their well-
being. But not until the nineteenth century have soils
been studied on a scientific basis. This is also true for
Indonesia, where soil science can be considered much
younger than in many other countries. In its develop-
ment, two periods can be distinguished in Indone-
sia—the pre-World War II period with the dominating
Dutch influence and the post-World War II period, dur-
ing which the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO-UN) and U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) systems were gaining importance,
forming the basis for the development of the present soil
science with a strong imprint of a homegrown Indone-
sian identity.
69071.indb 1 4/25/08 10:40:24 AM

Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia
1.1 The pre-World War II period

Soil science during this period started to develop dur-
ing the glory of the Dutch colonial time from approxi-
mately the nineteenth through the twentieth centuries.
The establishment of the Dutch empire dated back
to early in 1602, when after a decisive battle with the
Portuguese, the VOC, Vereenigde Oost Indische Com-
pagnie (for United East India Company), was created
by the Dutch in Bantam, Java. The VOC, in fact, was
a trading post with its main interest only in gaining
the monopoly of the lucrative spice business—pepper
from Sumatra, and cloves, nutmeg, and mace from the
Moluccas. It was supposed to be a trade and collection
center for spices, and its location near a major sea route,
the Sunda Strait, has proven to be of extreme advantage
for extending Dutch domination over the archipelago.
In 1918 the Dutch appointed Jan Pieterszoon Coen gov-
ernor general, who, after defeating the British, set up
headquarters in the small port then known as Jacatra,
but renamed Batavia by Coen in 1918. Since then until
the middle of the twentieth century, the Dutch gained
power in the Indonesian archipelago, which was named
the Netherlands East Indies. Regardless of what many
people thought about colonialism, the efficiency of the
Dutch rule, as compared to any other European colo-
nial powers, was unsurpassed.
The presence and availability of spices in the Moluc-
cas, and the great potential of Java and Sumatra for
development of tea, rubber, and coffee plantations have
been part of the reasons for the relatively long dura-
tion of a Dutch empire in Southeast Asia. Perhaps only
69071.indb 2 4/25/08 10:40:24 AM

Chapter one: Soil Science in Indonesia
the British colony, the former British India, bore some

resemblance. Hence, the Netherlands East Indies can
be regarded as the best-managed territory among the
many Western colonies in Asia, Africa, and other parts
of the world.
It was late in the nineteenth century when the Dutch
colonial time started to peak, culminating during the
years 1920 to 1942, that interest in agricultural sciences
and especially soil science got a start. The soils in Indo-
nesia were studied primarily by Dutch scientists, famil-
iar with agricultural conditions in temperate region
zones. Soon, it became apparent that these experiences,
and in particular those imported from the Netherlands,
were not appropriate for applications in situations such
as that in Indonesia, if and when not modified appro-
priately. The need for better scientific soil investigations
was stimulated by the necessity to furnish more data,
primarily for the thriving Dutch agricultural enter-
prises or plantations. Several experiment stations were
established for the investigation of major estate crops,
where overseas experiences could be thoroughly tested
and modified, and local systems could be developed.
These experiment stations were usually located in close
proximity to the plantations where the particular estate
crops were grown. For instance, a Research Institute for
Estate Crops was established in Medan, Sumatra, with
a Deli Tobacco Experiment Station, serving the lucrative
tobacco plantations located in Deli on the foot of the
Sibayak Mountain. In 1916 a Rubber Experiment Station
was created, formerly known under the name AVROS,
for Algemene Vereeniging voor Rubber Onderzoek ter Oost-
kust van Sumatra, serving the vast rubber plantations
69071.indb 3 4/25/08 10:40:24 AM

on the east coast of Sumatra. Other experiment sta-

tions were created on the island of Java. For example,
a Center for Research of Estate Crops, called CPV (for
Centrale Proefstations Vereeniging), was established in
1890 in Bogor, close to the best tea plantations in the
mountain range of West Java. A Sugar Cane Research
Station in Pasuruan, and a Coffee Research Station in
Jember were established in East Java, where most of the
sugarcane and coffee plantations were located, because
of favorable climatic conditions for growing sugarcane
and coffee crops.
The attention was focused first on soil fertility and
crop production (Ackermann, 1899/1900; Van Bijlert,
1903; Fromberg, 1858/1859; Tromp de Haas, 1897), but
gradually more attention was given to the study of
morphology and classification of soils of the various
plantations (Arrhenius, 1928; Bokma de Boer, 1907; Boo-
berg, 1928; Brink, 1932; Kobus and Schult, 1903). With
the establishment in 1905 of the Soil Research Institute
(now called Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanah dan
Agroklimat or Center of Research and Development of
Soils and Agroclimate) at Bogor, Java, Indonesia, soil
research went in a new direction under E.C.J. Mohr
as the institute’s first director, placing less empha-
sis on the cultivation aspects of estate crops. The Soil
Research Institute was influential for the increased
attention in pedogenetic research. Mohr’s agrogeologi-
cal concept in soil science was published in a series of
articles from 1909 to 1916, which were modified dur-
ing the years 1922 to 1945 (Mohr, 1922, 1944; see also
Mohr and Van Baren, 1960). Mohr eventually became
regarded by the Dutch soil scientists as the founder of
69071.indb 4 4/25/08 10:40:24 AM

pre-World War II soil science in Indonesia, in the sense

of Justus Von Liebig for promoting Mineral Nutrition of
Plants and Dokuchaiev in the development of Pedology.
Since then, many new ideas were presented, and begin-
ning in 1930, led by White (1930), a number of new and
younger soil scientists focused their attention on study-
ing pedology and practicing soil survey as carried out
in the United States. As expected, Mohr and cowork-
ers afforded strong opposition and voiced criticisms
against the American System (Shaw, 1933/1934; White,
1930). Nevertheless, soil research in pedology and soil
survey continued with greater activity than before,
and even the Soil Research Institute at Bogor started
in 1930 a soil survey of Java (White, 1931). This was fol-
lowed by the Geological Institute carrying out survey
work in South Sumatra (Idenburg, 1937; Szemian, 1953).
In North Sumatra, soil survey was conducted by the
Deli Experiment Station of the Deli Tobacco Company,
with its headquarters located in Medan, Sumatra, Indo-
nesia. All of these efforts have produced a variety of
detailed soil maps (Druif, 1939a,b; Oostingh, 1927, 1928),
which were related somewhat to agronomic, pedologi-
cal, and geological principles. For this pre-World War II
period, the results above were deemed as revolutionary
achievements in soil work in Indonesia, as pointed out
by Edelman (1947) in his excellent review of soil science
in Indonesia.
As indicated earlier, all of the above efforts in promot-
ing soil science in Indonesia were performed primarily
to satisfy the need for growing estate crops at the large
Dutch plantations. The need for research in the culti-
vation of food crops (for example, rice) was satisfied at
69071.indb 5 4/25/08 10:40:25 AM

that time by the establishment of a General Agricul-

tural Research Station at Cimanggu, Bogor. And more
recently, a Rice Research Station was established in
Sukamandi, West Java. The focus was on crop produc-
tion and rice breeding experiments. No major efforts in
soil research were conducted by this research institute.
The need for higher education in this prewar period
was met by the establishment in 1928 of a school of Vet-
erinary Sciences at the university level, which the Dutch
called Faculteit der Diergeneeskunde (Faculty of Veteri-
nary Medicine), followed 2 years later by the creation of
a Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, modeled somewhat
from the Agricultural University at Wageningen, the
Netherlands. In the early days, both faculties were not
doing well in Batavia (now called Jakarta), until they
were moved to the present location at Bogor, which will
be discussed in Section 1.2.1.
1.2 The post-World War II period

World War II disrupted the development of soil science
in Indonesia. The Japanese army occupied the country
until August 15, 1945, when Japan surrendered, which
became official September 2, 1945. During the Japanese
occupation, no scientific and research activities were
allowed, but these activities resumed slowly again after
1945. The period that followed was a period with many
changes, some drastic and abrupt, but many also occur-
ring very gradually. Two days after the Japanese surren-
der, Sukarno, then president of Indonesia, proclaimed
the country’s independence, starting a postwar struggle
against the returning Dutch regime, until on December
69071.indb 6 4/25/08 10:40:25 AM

27, 1949, international pressure forced the Dutch to sign

an agreement for transfer of sovereignty of the archipel-
ago, except West New Guinea, now called West Papua.
Indonesia was to become part of a political Dutch–
Indonesian system, modeled somewhat after the British
Commonwealth to keep India and Pakistan under the
British Crown. However, it created a very tumultuous
period with lots of disputes (for example, Indonesia’s
financial indebtedness and Dutch reluctance to trans-
fer power over West New Guinea). In 1956, Indonesia
dissolved unilaterally the union with the Netherlands
and drastic measures were introduced for confiscating,
nationalizing, or liquidating all Dutch assets. This was
partly due perhaps to Sukarno’s concept of ultranation-
alism, bordering on radicalism. Before World War II, the
Dutch sentenced him into exile to Bengkulu, Sumatra,
for his activity in a too-early independence movement.
The latter was presumably a reason for his dislike or
hatred of the Dutch regime, as often shown in his rhet-
oric, and a factor in the decision to take the drastic steps
above, forcing all the Dutch people out of Indonesia. It
is against this backdrop of events that the development
of soil science in Indonesia unfolded in the first half
of the post-World War II period, as will be addressed
below.
In the beginning, soil survey was continued by sev-
eral Dutch scientists using the principles of agrogeol-
ogy, whereas others moved to investigate soils more
on pedogenetic principles with a certain bias on the
USDA system. For a while, all activities on soil map-
ping, survey, and other routine soils work seemed to
be centered at the Soil Research Institute, where Dames
69071.indb 7 4/25/08 10:40:25 AM

(1955) published a book on the soils in east and central

Java, considered a compilation of the institute’s activi-
ties during the period 1942 to 1954. Attempts were later
made by Dudal and Supraptohardjo (1957) to change
the old soil classification by adopting the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-
UN) system. Such a change was considered to provide
the Soil Research Institute with a better and more uni-
form soil classification system (Dudal and Jahja, 1957).
On the other hand, scientific investigations on soil gen-
esis, soil chemistry, the agronomic importance of soil
properties, and crop production were apparently left to
the discretion of two major universities—the Univer-
sity of Indonesia located at Jakarta and the Gajah Mada
University at Yogyakarta.
1.2.1 The establishment of higher education

To meet the need of higher education in agriculture, the
Faculty of Agriculture and Faculty of Veterinary Sci-
ence, established during the pre-World War II period,
were reopened and moved to Bogor in 1946, as parts
of the University of Indonesia. The name Faculties was
used, conforming to Dutch and other European sys-
tems for universities’ divisions of higher education, and
are different from the U.S. term of faculty, referring to
professors and members of the University. The two fac-
ulties were consolidated under the name of Institute of
Higher Education in Agricultural Sciences (Balai Pergu-
ruan Tinggi Pertanian). It was at the Faculty of Agriculture
at Bogor where most of the soil research was continued
at the start of this post-World War II period under the
69071.indb 8 4/25/08 10:40:25 AM

leadership of Dutch professors. However, due to the

growing unfavorable political conditions during the
reign of Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia, many
were gradually forced to return to the Netherlands.
In 1963, the Faculties of Agriculture and Veterinary
Science at Bogor seceded from the University of Indo-
nesia to become the Bogor Institute of Agricultural Sci-
ences, known today in Indonesia as Institut Pertanian
Bogor (IPB). This was followed by the establishment of
a number of other universities in the various regions of
Indonesia that included a Faculty of Agriculture and
Soil Science as important divisions in their structural
makeup. It was in line with the new Indonesian gov-
ernment policy to have a university, teaching also agri-
culture, in each of the provinces. Listed below are some
of the major universities in this respect with a strong
Faculty of Agriculture and soil science department,
representing the major islands in Indonesia (for loca-
tions see Figure 1.1):
Sumatra: University of North Sumatra, Medan;
Andalas University, Padang, West Sumatra
Java: IPB, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, West
Java; Gajah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Central
Java
Kalimantan: Lambungmangkurat University,
Banjarbaru
Sulawesi: University of Hassanudin, Makassar
Moluccas: University of Pattimura, Ambon
For some time, the IPB served as a flagship univer-
sity for the education and training of personnel of the
other universities.
69071.indb 9 4/25/08 10:40:26 AM

69071.indb 10
10
Banda Aceh
Medan
UALMAHERA
SUMATRA KALIMANTAN
Padang . SULAWESL
Banjarbaru MOLUCCAS
Banjarmasin Ambon PAPUA
Jakarta Makassar
ARU
Bogor NUSA TENGGARA
Yocyakarta
JAVA
TIMOR
1:50,000,000
Figure 1.1 Map of Indonesia showing the major islands where the universities are located.
4/25/08 10:41:17 AM
Chapter one: Soil Science in Indonesia 11
1.2.2 The Kentucky Contract Team (KCT) and

Midwestern Universities Consortium for
International Activities (MUCIA) projects
In the efforts to replace the Dutch experts, who were
forced to repatriate to the Netherlands, and to develop
a new system for advancing research and teaching in
higher education, the Faculty of Agriculture at Bogor
was chosen as the site for a cooperative educational
project with the University of Kentucky, Lexington,
sponsored by the U.S. Agency for International Devel-
opment (USAID) under an AID/W-699 contract (Rice,
1968). The faculty’s affiliation, as part of the University
of Indonesia, with its close proximity to the Central
Government at Jakarta, was considered perhaps one of
the reasons for the selection. A team of U.S. scientists,
with Olaf S. Asomodt as the first group leader, was sent
in 1958 by the University of Kentucky, which became
actively involved in research and higher education at
the faculty in Bogor, lasting until 1966.
The group, known as the Kentucky Contract Team (KCT),
was influential for sending many young scientists for
further education in research and teaching at various
universities in the United States. This has produced a
great number of Indonesian experts, enough to rapidly
fill the vacuum created by the loss of Dutch professors,
enabling science and research to go forward. During
this period, a fundamental change took place in 1963
when the two Faculties of Agriculture and Veterinary
Science were transformed into the IPB. This move was
instigated by the Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture,
Tojib Hadiwidjaja, assisted by four young members of
69071.indb 11 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM

12 Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia
his staff, Bachtiar Rifai, Hutasoit, Kampto Utomo, and

the author of this book. Hence, all five can be considered
as the founding members of IPB. At that time, four new
faculties were created and added to the newly formed
IPB: Faculties of Animal Husbandry, Fisheries, and For-
estry, and a year later (1964), a Faculty of Agricultural
Technology and Mechanization.
The cooperative work with U.S. universities was con-
tinued with the Midwestern Universities Consortium
for International Activities (MUCIA) in 1970 to 1975,
which was extended for another 5-year period during
1975 to 1980. This was followed in 1980 to 1985 by a
similar educational and research project sponsored
by the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Both the
MUCIA and University of Wisconsin projects were
USAID-sponsored projects. The IPB had these USAID-
sponsored projects from 1958 until about 1990, except
for the 4-year period from 1966 to 1970. This long-term
support and the great size of the initial project with
the University of Kentucky had much to do with IPB’s
great development to its present size and status. Many
of the American-trained people were appointed to
national positions, committees, and task forces, in
addition to teaching positions at the universities in
Indonesia.
To further discuss the development of soil science in
Indonesia, it is perhaps better to address the issues in
a more systematic and chronological way, according to
the different fields—pedology, soil survey, soil fertility,
and plant nutrition.
69071.indb 12 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM

1.2.3 Pedology
At the Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor, the concept of
agrogeology in soil science was revised at first accord-
ing to pedological principles, and the soil classification
system adapted to the one more widely used over the
world, such as the zonal system as proposed by Thorp
and Smith (1949). The first major contribution in this
period was a textbook on soils written by Wisaksono
(1953), which was soon followed by a publication by Van
Schuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955), who pre-
sented results of an investigation showing the presence
of brown podzolic, gray-brown podzolic, and brown
forest soils in the formerly ill-defined “mountain soils.”
This was followed by Van Schuylenborgh (1958), who
discovered the distribution of soils to change with ele-
vations above sea level. The author suggested the pres-
ence of the following zones from the tropical humid
lowlands to the cool mountain regions:
• 0 to 300 m above sea level, a zone of laterization,

forming latosols.
• 300 to 600 m above sea level, a zone of laterization +
podzolization with red-yellow podzolic soils domi-
nating the region.
• 600 to 1000 m above sea level, a zone of podzol-
ization forming acid brown forest soils and gray-
brown podzolic soils.
This concept was improved by Tan (1958) and Tan and

Van Schuylenborgh (1959), who claimed that under the
influence of a monsoon climate, the zonal distribution of
69071.indb 13 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM

soils with altitude would shift to lower or higher eleva-

tions depending on changing climates and differences
in parent materials. During the following years, series
of articles and books were published on the genesis and
classification of soils in Indonesia (Dudal and Suprapto-
hardjo, 1961; Suhadi, 1961; Supraptohardjo, 1961a, 1961b;
Tan, 1960, 1963, 1965, 1966; Tan and Van Schuylenborgh,
1961a, 1961b; Wisaksono and Tan, 1964, 1966).
1.2.4 Soil survey

As stated in the aforementioned sections, most of the
soil survey work was centered at the Soil Research
Institute at Bogor, where the old Dutch system was at
first replaced by the FAO-UN soil classification concept
(Dudal and Jahja, 1957; Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1957),
with a strong bias to that of Thorp and Smith (1949).
For additional information, reference is made to Dames
(1955) and to the report of the Indonesian Standing Com-
mittee on Soil and Land Classification (1963), presented
at the Tenth Pacific Science Conference in Hawaii. Sev-
eral other important efforts to mention were attempts
in producing several regional soil maps as listed below
and the soil map of the Indonesian Archipelago (Cen-
ter for Research of Soils and Agroclimate, 2000; Dames,
1955; Soil Research Institute Report, July 1964):
1. A reconnaissance soil map of East-Central Java at

a scale of 1:250,000.
2. An exploratory soil map of Java and Madura at a
scale of 1:1,000,000.
69071.indb 14 4/25/08 10:41:18 AM

3. An exploratory soil map of South Sumatra at a

scale of 1:1,000,000.
4. A generalized soil map of Indonesia at a scale of
1:2,500,000.
5. An exploratory soil map of Indonesia at a scale of
1:1,000,000.
An example of the 2000 version of the exploratory

soil map of Indonesia is shown in Figure 1.2. It was
provided courtesy of the Indonesian Center for Agri-
cultural Land Resources Research and Development at
Bogor. The mapping units have been selected to accom-
modate the new system of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
1.2.5 Soil fertility and plant nutrition

Though not all were properly documented, the greater
role of the Faculty of Agriculture was also obvious in
advancing the science in this field. The faculty pro-
duced its first dissertation in 1956, reporting results
of investigations on the “Dieback Disease” of clove
trees (Tojib Hadiwidjaja, 1956), which was followed in
the next year by another dissertation on the “Mineral
Nutrition of Lowland Rice in Indonesia” (Go, 1957). Van
Schuylenborgh and Sarjadi (1958) then published their
results on field experiments with sugarcane, in which
nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium (NPK) ratios were
used for a balanced fertilizer scheme in growing sugar
cane. The use of NPK ratios was also applied in fertil-
izer applications on lowland rice, which were reported
to have resulted in significant yield increases (Go and
Van Schuylenborgh, 1959), whereas productivity levels
69071.indb 15 4/25/08 10:41:18 AM

69071.indb 16
16
EXPLORATORY SOIL MAP OF INDONESIA
Ministry of Agriculture
Agency for Agricultural Research and Development
Center for Soil and Agroclimate Research 2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 Kilometers
LEGEND
AREA
SYMBOL SOIL ORDER
KM2 %
Histosols 132.023 7.01
Entisols 180.086 9.62
Inceptisols 724.858 38.51
Vertisols 21.659 1.15
Ultisols 456.702 24.27
Oxisols 141.136 7.50
Alfisols 52.116 2.77
Spodosols 21.819 1.16
Mollisols 85.855 4.56
Andisols 47.950 2.55
Miscs 16.999 0.90
TOTAL 1,882.102 100.00
Figure 1.2 Exploratory Soil Map of Indonesia. (Courtesy of Pusat Penelitian Tanah dan Agrokli-
mat, 2000. Atlas Sumberdaya Tanah Eksplorasi, Skala 1:1,000,000, Puslittanak, Bogor, Indonesia.)
4/25/08 10:41:21 AM
of paddy soils were reported earlier by Hauser and

Sadikin (1957a, 1957b). With the help of NPK ratios, Tan
and Hutagalung (1960) also attempted to increase the
yield of Irish potatoes to twofold. These crops were
grown only in the mountains of Indonesia. The sugar-
cane experiment station in East Java reported the effect
of urea in the cultivation of sugarcane (Han, 1961),
whereas Massey, Kang, and Surjatna (1963) presented a
short review on what has been achieved in improving
the production of corn as a staple food crop. In 1964,
Tan and Massey tried with success using pedological
principles to solve site effects on the growth and pro-
ductive capacity of Pinus merkusii, an indigenous pine
species of the pine forest in Sumatra.
1.2.6 The dawn of new experiment stations

In the meantime, most Dutch plantations were pur-
chased (nationalized) by the Indonesian government.
For the management of the newly formed government
estates, a new institute was established, called PPN for
Pusat Perkebunan Negara (or Center of Government Plan-
tations). The liquidation of the Dutch estates was also
signaling the closing of most of the estate crop research
stations. Of the few remaining experiment stations, the
most important was the CPV, which after several name
changes from Pusat Penelitian Perkebunan Bogor (1990
to 1993), meaning Bogor Research Station Center for
Estate Crops, to Pusat Penelitian Bioteknologi Bogor from
1993 to 2002, became what we now know as the Balai
Penelitian Bioteknologi Perkebunan (Research Institute of
Biotechnology for Estate Crops). The main emphasis
69071.indb 17 4/25/08 10:41:21 AM

is now on research in biotechnology of estate crops,

advancing, among other things, the use of microor-
ganisms in recycling waste from estate crops and find-
ing new methods for using these wastes as alternative
energy sources. Results of the institute’s research on
development of biodiesel from oil palm waste and bio-
ethanol from sugarcane residue and trash have recently
attracted national attention.
The conventional and routine experiments on soil
fertility and cultivation of estate crops were apparently
left as the responsibility of a newly established insti-
tute, called Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Perkebunan
(Center of Research and Development of Estate Crops).
Before its complete departure, the Dutch govern-
ment still had the opportunity to develop a new rubber
research institute in 1948 under the name INIRO (Insti-
tut Nederlands Indiesch Rubber Onderzoek), which in 2002
was reorganized by the Indonesian government into a
rubber technology research station at Tanjung Morawa,
North Sumatra. The old rubber research station AVROS
was renamed RISPA (for Research Institute of Suma-
tra Planters Association) by the Dutch in 1957, and in
1989 it was transformed by Indonesia into an Indone-
sian Oil Palm Research Center, called Pusat Penelitian
Kelapa Sawit. Both of the new institutes are now under
the coordination of the Indonesian Research Institute
for Estate Crops.
To take care of research in farming systems, major
food and horticultural crops, animal production, and
freshwater, coastal, and marine fisheries, an Agency
for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD)
was established in 1974 by the Indonesian Ministry of
69071.indb 18 4/25/08 10:41:21 AM

Agriculture. Under its first director, Gunawan Satari,

results of agricultural research in Indonesia, covering
the period of 1981 to 1986, were published by the agency
in book form: Five Years of Agricultural Research. Its Con-
tribution to Agricultural Development in Indonesia.
In 2006, a new center was created, called the Center for
Agricultural Land Resources and Development (Balai
Besar Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Lahan Per-
tanian). It is responsible for coordinating and overseeing
the activities of four research stations: the Soil Research
Institute, the Peat Soil Research Institute, the Agrocli-
mate Research Institute, and the Agricultural Environ-
ment Research Institute.
1.2.7 National conferences and

scientific societies
In this post-World War II era, several soil conferences
were also held, summarizing progress obtained dur-
ing the previous consecutive periods. Only some of
the major conferences, which had an impact on the
development of scientific societies and advancement
of soil science, are mentioned here. At the initiative of
the Association of Scientists in Agricultural and For-
estry Sciences (Ikatan Sarjana Pertanian dan Kehutanan), a
conference was held at Ciawi (near Bogor) in June 1959,
where past soil conservation activities in Indonesia
were examined, and strategies for future activities were
planned. This was followed at the end of 1961 by a first
National Soil Science Conference at Bogor, sponsored
by the Soil Research Institute. At this time, attempts
were made by the general assembly of the conference
69071.indb 19 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM

to establish a Soil Science Society of Indonesia. At the

Asian Soil Conference, Jakarta, Indonesia, in July 1972,
an extensive bibliography was published by the Central
Library for Biology and Agriculture at Bogor, locally
known as the Bibliotheca Bogoriensis, in which most of
the published reports and scientific publications on
soils and agriculture in Indonesia were listed from 1940
to 1972. The Soil Research Institute at Bogor celebrated
its centennial in June 2005 by organizing seminars on
past and future activities on soil survey, conservation,
and land use and management in Indonesia.
1.2.8 Land use and soil conservation

Compared to the other fields of soil science, scientific
activities in soil conservation have apparently attracted
relatively little attention. The importance of soil con-
servation was not considered seriously by most of the
people, perhaps because of the unfortunate notion of
the presence of inexhaustible land reserves. That such
thinking may have disastrous consequences on the
country goes without saying. The irregular water supply
of most of the rivers and the annual heavy floods are a
few examples. Less serious perhaps is the effect of reck-
less land cultivation by deforestation and burning. For
instance, the slash-and-burn (or ladang) system without
allowing time for the forest to return created extensive
areas of wasteland invaded by Cochon grass or known
by the common name alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica).
The very irregular water supply of most of the rivers
and the annual heavy flooding of the countryside were
always taken for granted or ignored. In the past, only a
69071.indb 20 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM

limited number of reports were published addressing

the subject. Schophuis (1961a, 1961b) introduced a land
management system and tried to apply aerophotogram-
metry in land use and water management. Masman
Bekti (1959a,b) discussed conservation practices and
management of soil water, whereas Supangat (1961)
examined the role of vegetation on soil erosion. Sitepu
Dieken (1961) addressed animal husbandry or raising
cattle and soil erosion. Additional literature from the
early days include works by Pramudibjo (1959) and Ted-
jojuwono (1959). More recently, a regreening and refores-
tation program was introduced, funded by the National
Watershed Development Program of Indonesia (Agus,
2001). Introduced in 1976 for the purpose of conserving
natural resources, it was later extended as part of the
government’s 5-year (1992 to 1997) development plan in
rehabilitation of critical forest lands and 2.6 million ha
of privately owned farm lands. Regreening, as defined
by Agus (2001), is soil conservation applied on critical
lands owned by local farmers, whereas reforestation is
replanting of state-owned lands with trees. Critical land
is considered land usually covered by Cochon grass
(Imperata cylindrica) and is seriously affected by erosion
(Huszar, 1998). The area pronounced to be very critical
land amounts allegedly to 12.3 million ha (Agus, 2001).
To ease annual flooding, some efforts by the govern-
ment have been noticed in 1965 by providing the Jati-
luhur multipurpose dam project at Purwakarta, Java,
and the creation of a Land Use Bureau. The Jatiluhur
dam was built across the Tjitarum River, one of the big-
gest rivers in Java, which created an artificial lake of
approximately 83 km2. The purpose was not only to
69071.indb 21 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM

control annual flooding, but also to produce hydro-

electric power and a steady supply of irrigation water
to the 240,000-ha paddy rice fields of the coastal plain
and surrounding area north of Purwakarta. The Land
Use Bureau was, in a sense, a reactivation of the Dutch
Soil Conservation Service. This is followed today by the
Siak River project in West Sumatra for similar purposes.
It is, in fact, a cooperative project between the West
Sumatra and Riau provinces to dam the Siak River that
flows into the Strait of Malacca. Perhaps a similar proj-
ect can be initiated across the Ciliwung River to curb
the annual flooding of metropolitan Jakarta, where the
floods seem to become worse each year.
In its effort to produce enough food for the growing
population, the route to achieving this goal in Indonesia
has not changed from the past to the present. It is still
based on clearing the forest and bringing new lands
into cultivation. True, there have been many changes in
cultivation practices in many areas, as for example bet-
ter use of fertilizers, efficient applications of pesticides
to control pests and diseases, and the use of high-yield-
ing varieties of crops (AARD, 1986). However, these
changes, though significant, apparently may not have
been sufficient to stop the clearing of the forests and the
cultivation of new lands. This is complicated by continu-
ing the transmigration program, at first introduced by
the Dutch regime primarily to reduce the stress created
by the heavy population density in Java and to provide
cheap labor for the Dutch plantations in Sumatra and
Kalimantan. Under the renewed government transmi-
gration efforts in 1976, many of the people in Java have
been moved to sparsely populated areas of Sumatra,
69071.indb 22 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM

Kalimantan, Papua, and the other islands to increase

food production. The settlers were provided with 2 to 5
ha of land, on the average often 2.5 ha, which has to be
developed in two stages. In the first stage, the settlers
received government support in the form of packages
of material for growing food crops and food to sustain
them for at least a year. The second stage was inde-
pendence. The settlers in Sumatra received a cleared
spot for growing food crops, often upland rice, and an
additional 1 to 1.5 ha planted with rubber or other tree
crops on a grant basis. The settlers in Kalimantan were
also provided with a cleared piece of land for growing
food crops, and another hectare for hybrid coconut to
be cultivated on a cost-recovery basis. This transmigra-
tion program has been blamed for accelerating defor-
estation in Indonesia and for causing violent conflicts
between some of the settlers and the indigenous popu-
lation. After the Asian financial crisis in August 2000,
large-scale transmigration was ended. Many of the
new settlements have failed, because the settlers were
often city folks, lacking any farming skills, especially
those necessary for cultivating new lands. Some of the
new settlements were, however, noted to be successful,
especially where food crops are combined with grow-
ing rubber, a system called rubber agroforestry. Another
example of transmigration success is noted by the cur-
rent author in the settlements on the slope of the Ophir
Mountain in West Sumatra on the fertile andosols,
where the transmigrants have been successful in grow-
ing fruit trees, especially oranges for the markets in the
big towns of Padang and Medan.
69071.indb 23 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM

With the rapid advancement in science and technique

at the present time, efforts to increase food production in
Indonesia can, in fact, also be achieved by intensifying
the production of land already under cultivation (Brady,
1990; Tan, 2000). This is supported by reports of Van den
Eelaart (2004) and Andriesse (1988) who indicated that
intensification of paddy-rice cultivation, yielding two
harvests annually would produce enough rice to make
Indonesia self-sufficient in this major food crop, without
destroying the forest. Increasing new land areas for cul-
tivation always involves deforestation, and because of
increased population pressure, deforestation is clearly
noticed today to be slowly moving up the mountain
slopes. This increases the hazards of soil degradation
and erosion and is also very damaging to the hydrol-
ogy of the ecosystem and Indonesia’s precious wildlife
and biodiversity. The burning of the forest during 1997
to 1998, especially in relation to clearing the coastal peat
forest, created disastrous wildfires, affecting also neigh-
boring countries. Ash and thick smoke, allegedly car-
cinogenic, blanketed Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, and
affected lands even as far as Thailand, causing much
concern and distress among the people of the respec-
tive countries. In Indonesia, the international airport
Polonia, Medan, was forced to close. Another example
was the heavy floods in 2003, causing again the clos-
ing of Polonia Airport at Medan, and paralyzing at the
same time part of metropolitan Jakarta, the Indonesian
capital. Hard hit was the area surrounding the presi-
dential palace at Jakarta, and the disastrous floods were
repeated in 2007 with increasing ferocity. The heavy
downpours, bringing huge amounts of water, could not
69071.indb 24 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM

be sustained by the land, suffering from deforestation

on the slopes of the Gedeh-Pangrango and Salak volca-
noes in West Java, and on the bare slopes of the Sibayak
Mountain in North Sumatra. Unfortunately, the sprawl-
ing urbanization has apparently complicated efforts at
reforestation and sound watershed management. In
the mountain regions of West Java and North Sumatra,
local merchants have encouraged clear-cutting the veg-
etative cover on roadsides and beyond for setting up
produce stands, restaurants, and hotels. Affluent people
from Jakarta and Medan are making the situation worse
by destroying more of the forest on mountainsides for
building bungalows, villas, and other summer retreats.
Additional evidence for the destruction of the hydrol-
ogy of the ecosystem includes reports of dangerously
lowering the water levels in many lakes. Lake levels in
Lake Singkarak, Lake (Danau) Atas, and Lake (Danau)
Bawah in the Bukit Barisan Mountain Range of West
Sumatra near the town of Bukit Tinggi were reportedly
decreased by approximately 50 cm to 10 m, and areas
formerly inundated are now drylands at the shores of
Lake Atas and Lake Bawah (Tan, 2005).
69071.indb 25 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM

69071.indb 26 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM
chapter two
Geomorphology
of Indonesia
2.1 Geographical setting of Indonesia
Indonesia is an archipelago and consists of more water
than land area. Only 42% is land, which is shared by a
group of 3000 islands, situated in the humid tropics and
monsoon regions between 6° north and 11° south lati-
tudes and between 95° and 141° east longitudes. The total
land area of approximately 1,904,343 km2 is more than
90% located on the five largest main islands (Table 2.1).
The remainder is distributed over the smaller islands,
many uninhabited, ranging in size from several square
kilometers to mere isolated rocks or coral reefs.
The archipelago is affected by two continental
masses: Asia in the northern hemisphere and Austra-
lia in the southern hemisphere. Dutch geologists and
several other scientists believe that friction between the
tectonic plates of these two continents has created these
folded arcs of islands in Indonesia, with active moun-
tain building, volcanism, and periodic seismic upheav-
als (Fisher, 1966; van Bemmelen, 1949). Another also
widely accepted theory considers the islands as parts
27
69071.indb 27 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM

Table 2.1 Land Distribution of Indonesia

Area of Arable Land
Area (km )2 ×1000 ha Per capita
Total land 1,904,343
Java and Madura 132,174 8374 0.138
Sumatra 473,606
Kalimantan 593,460
Sulawesi 189,035
West Papua 421,951
Sources: Biro Pusat Statistik Jakarta (1963) and Fisher, C.A. (1966).
(With permission.)
of the arc of volcanoes and fault lines, belonging to the

Pacific Ring of Fire, circling around the Pacific basin.
This chain of islands forms a discontinuous land
bridge between the two continents stated above, Asia
in the northwest and Australia in the southeast, criss-
crossed by three major natural sea routes, the Sunda
and Makassar Straits, for passage through the South
China Sea to China, and the Malacca Strait, the main
thoroughfare to India and the Indian Ocean. Hence, the
islands of Indonesia, lying on the fringes of one of these
major sea routes and located closest to the Asian conti-
nent, have been affected the most by foreign influence
and have benefited immensely from foreign trade. This
was also one reason why the Dutch built the VOC (Ver-
eenigde Oost Indische Compagnie [for United East India
Company]) in Banten, their first port of entry, conve-
niently located next to the Sunda Strait, after the ardu-
ous journey through the Indian Ocean. On the other
hand, the islands in the eastern part of Indonesia (e.g.,
69071.indb 28 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM

Chapter two: Geomorphology of Indonesia 29
Moluccas and Papua) were more isolated and less

affected by foreign influence or commerce.
From geological, biological, and ethnological points
of view, the archipelago can be distinguished into three
divisions: the Sunda Shelf area in the west and the Sahul
Shelf area in the east, with an area in between called
Wallacea, after the name of a famous natural scientist
Alfred Russell Wallace (Lighart, Hövig, and Rinkes,
1926; van Bemmelen, 1949). The Sunda Shelf, cover-
ing the islands of Kalimantan, Java, and Sumatra, and
the smaller islands Riau, Banka, Belitung, and Sing-
kep, belongs to the influence sphere of the Asian con-
tinent. On the other hand, the Sahul Shelf, consisting
of Papua, Aru, and surrounding islands of the Arafura
Sea, is influenced by Australia. The region of Wallacea
is considered a transitional zone, where the Sunda Shelf
and Sahul Shelf meet or intermingle (Fisher, 1966). It
includes the islands of Sulawesi, Bali, Lombok, Flores,
Sumbawa, and Timor. This area is separated in the west
from the Sunda Shelf by the Wallace line, which runs
through the Bali Strait and Macassar Strait north to the
Sulu Sea, east of the Philippines. The line separating
the Wallacea from the Sahul Shelf in the east is called
the Weber line. This imaginary division line runs from
the Timor Sea northward through the Banda Sea (west
of Buru) and the Moluccas Sea (west of Halmahera).
The Sunda Shelf is surrounded by the Circum Sunda
Mountain system, which cuts across the trend line of
the Australian Mountain system. The Circum Sunda
Mountain system consists of two main parts: Its north-
ern part, which also covers the Philippines, belongs
to the island chain along the western Pacific, whereas
69071.indb 29 4/25/08 10:41:24 AM

the southern portion forms a part of the great Sunda

Mountain system. The latter extends from the south-
ern Moluccas to the Brahmaputra valley in Pakistan
(Fisher, 1966; van Bemmelen, 1949). Located in the blue
tropical seas, the dark green forested mountains make
the islands of Indonesia among the most beautiful in
the world.
2.2 Geomorphology of major islands

The geomorphology of Indonesia shows the presence of
areas with striking contrasts. The Sunda Mountain vol-
canism creates considerable relief. With a total length
of about 7000 km, it starts in the east from the Banda
islands and stretches westward along Nusa Tenggara,
Lombok, Bali, Java, and Sumatra across the Andamans
and the Nicobars toward Burma. Here it meets the
Himalayan range. The Circum Australian system forms
another relief unit in the east, which extends along the
central axis of Papua to New Zealand.
In addition to the extensive mountain systems, broad
plains also occur along the east coast of Sumatra, on the
northern coastline of Java, and in Kalimantan. The low-
land of Sumatra, located between 0 and 100 m elevation
above sea level, is estimated to cover 60% of the total
area of Sumatra (Mohr, 1944).
Geologically, the archipelago is relatively young (van
Bemmelen, 1949). Three-fourths of the land surface is
estimated to be covered by sediments and volcanic
deposits. Tertiary and quaternary formations are more
abundant than pretertiary materials. In order to be able
to provide a better picture, it is perhaps necessary to
69071.indb 30 4/25/08 10:41:24 AM

treat this subject island by island. However, because a lot

of work has been published, it would be almost impos-
sible to cover all the materials in the following pages.
Moreover, the purpose is to provide some background
information on the geologic materials of importance as
parent materials when reading the chapters about soils
and soil formation. For those interested in more details
about the geology of Indonesia, reference is made to the
comprehensive work by van Bemmelen (1949), Brouwer
(1922, 1925), Rutten (1927, 1946), and Umbgrove (1938,
1949). In addition to the discussions based on their orig-
inal investigations, the authors stated above have also
compiled almost all the work that has been published
by other authors. A complete list is provided in their
books for retrieval or tracing back the numerous pub-
lications by other geologists. Also worthy of reading is
the geological outline of Indonesia by Sigit (1962).
Among the islands in Indonesia, Java is probably the
best known. For this reason, the major geological fea-
tures, characteristic for the island of Java, will be con-
sidered first in the sections below. A second well-known
island is Sumatra, followed by Kalimantan, Sulawesi,
Maluku, Nusa Tenggara, and Papua.
2.2.1 Geomorphological features of Java

Java is approximately 1000 km long and 200 km in width
at the widest spots in the western and eastern parts of
the island, but it is only 120 km wide at the central part.
It is the smallest of the three main western islands of
the Sunda Shelf. Parallel to its longitudinal axis, a fer-
tile alluvial plain stretches west to east, covering the
69071.indb 31 4/25/08 10:41:24 AM

northern coast to Semarang (Figure 2.1). East of Sema-

rang is found the hilly lands of Rembang, composed of
a series of west–east trending ridges, alternating with
alluvial plains. The hills are separated to the north
from the Java Sea by a narrow sandy beach with dunes.
The flat-topped ridges near Tuban are limestone reefs.
From here inland toward the center of Java, the country
changes into a hilly region of tertiary marls and lime-
stone. This area is bordered to the south by a quater-
nary volcanic chain of mountains with intermontane
plateaus and basins. This mountain zone, lying within
the structural depression or fault line, runs lengthwise
from east to west through the entire island, continuing
into a series of mountains in Sumatra, known as the
Bukit Barisan Mountain range. Further to the south of the
volcanic belt, the island of Java is covered, from east to
west, by a high range of folded tertiary limestone and
sandstone mountains, averaging 400 m in height. In
some areas a tropical karst landscape has been formed
in this folded limestone region, and the land surface
becomes drier and more barren toward the eastern
part. Bordering this area to the south, a narrow coastal
region exists of upraised coral and riffs of the Indian
Ocean.
In summary, the landscape of Java is dominated by a
series of volcanic domes, towering in the sky over a green
tropical rain forest. Most of the volcanoes are still active,
and several are more than 3000 m high. For example, the
Merapi, a 2958-m-high volcano, located 30 km from Yog-
yakarta, a city of 1 million people, is reported at this very
moment rumbling again, sending out steady lava flows
and clouds of black ash. Thousands of farmers were
69071.indb 32 4/25/08 10:41:24 AM

69071.indb 33
W—E
JAVA SEA
Mnt Danau
Sunda Jakarta
Strait Mnt Muria
Mnt Bogor Tangkuban
ang Tuban
Salak Gede- Prahu Remb
Pangrango Bandung Mnt Semarang Rembang Hills MADURA
Pengalengan Selamat Mnt Kendeng Hills Surabaya
Highlands Merapi
Mnt Wilis
Yogyakarta Mnt
Mnt Malang Mnt
Chapter two: Geomorphology of Indonesia
Lawu
INDIAN OCEAN Kelud Ijen BALI
Figure 2.1 Geomorphology of Java. (Scale: 1:8,000,000.) (From van Bemmelen, R.W. [1949]; Fisher,
C.A. [1966]; Sigit, S.I. [1962]; and Rand McNally [1995].)
33
4/25/08 10:41:25 AM
reluctantly forced to evacuate their farms and paddy

fields, located on the fertile mountain slopes. These vol-
canoes are the chief sources of soil material in Java, and
have intermittently delivered ejecta, varying in types
from dacites and andesites to basalts. In West Java, the
high volcanic peaks are located close together, forming
extensive highlands in the Priangan region (for example,
Puncak highland near Bogor, Pengalengan intermontane
plateau, and Lembang highland near Bandung). In the
past, these clusters of volcanoes created a natural barrier
for passage and public transportation. However, in Cen-
tral and East Java, the volcanoes are more widely spaced,
separated from each other by broad passes and valleys.
The intermittent eruptions have covered the area in West
Java with ash, lava, and lahar of mostly dacito-andesitic
origin, whereas those in Central and East Java are mostly
of andesito-basaltic composition. Such an intermittent
rejuvenation of the soil by the rich volcanic material has
created very fertile soils.
Together with the presence of abundance of water for
irrigation of the sawahs (paddy fields) at the footslope of
the mountains and the coastal plains, this high soil fer-
tility has produced adequate rice and other food crops,
resulting perhaps in the development of a very dense
population in Java. As indicated earlier, to ease the prob-
lem of overpopulation, the Dutch colonial government
In geological terms, liparites, rhyolites, and dacites refer to acidic
materials that are high in silica (65 to 75%) and relatively low
in alkalis. Basalts are basic materials that are low in silica (40
to 50%) and relatively high in elements, such as Fe, Ca, Mg, K,
and so forth, whereas andesites are intermediate materials with a
composition somewhere in between.
69071.indb 34 4/25/08 10:41:25 AM

previously instituted a migration system, transfer-

ring many of the most unqualified people for farming
to the then sparsely inhabited islands of Sumatra and
Kalimantan. Today this migration policy, continued
by the Indonesian government, has apparently created
a lot of stress and friction. The new settlers from Java,
mostly Muslims, have apparently forced their religion
on the indigenous inhabitants, which in many instances
has erupted in bloody battles and clashes, as recently
reported in Kalimantan. Equally important is the fact
that some of the lands provided to the settlers were
appropriated by the Indonesian government in terms
of eminent domain. This was severely contested by the
indigenous folks, who claimed ownership of the land
by virtue of possession through their ancestors (tanah
adat).
2.2.2 Geomorphological features of Sumatra

Sumatra is almost four times as large as Java and is
situated west of Java, from 6° N to 6° S, in a northwest
to southeast direction. It is 1700 km long, and in the
northern part it is 100 to 200 km wide, whereas in the
southeast the width of the island is about 350 km. The
island’s backbone is the Bukit Barisan Mountain range,
stretching from Aceh in the north to the Lampungs in
the south, which practically forms a barrier for passage
or public transport from east to west. The mountain
range divides the island into a broad eastern part and
a relatively narrow western part. Several main regional
divisions can perhaps be distinguished from north to
south. They are the Aceh region in the north; the Tapanuli
69071.indb 35 4/25/08 10:41:25 AM

Sabang
Banda Aceh
ACEH
Medan
Mnt Strait of
Sibayak Malacca
Lake Toba
Simeulue TAPANULI
Siak River
Nias
Kampar River
Mnt Ophir
Indragiri
MENANGKABAU
Padang
Batang Hari
Siberut
Bangka
Mnt Kerinci
Musi River
Palembang
INDIAN OCEAN
Bengkulu
W—E LAMPUNG
Figure 2.2 Geomorphology of Sumatra. (Scale: 1:12,500,000.)

(From van Bemmelen, R.W. [1949]; Fisher, C.A. [1966]; Sigit, S.I.
[1962]; and Rand McNally [1995].)
(Batak) plateau in the northeast; the Menangkabau high-

lands in the midwest; the eastern coastal plains of Riau,
Jambi, and Palembang; the Bengkulu mountains in the
southwest; and the Lampung lowlands at the southern
tip (Figure 2.2).
Beginning from the east coast, one can notice a broad
hilly alluvial plain, crossed by many big and small rivers
that have their origins in the Bukit Barisan hinterlands.
This zone is separated from the Strait of Malacca by an
69071.indb 36 4/25/08 10:41:26 AM

extensive belt of swamps and peat, which in some places

is about 30 km wide. From the Asahan River, draining the
Toba Lake in the Batak highlands, to the Batang Hari River
in Jambi and the Musi River in the south, where Palembang
is located, these rivers have not only deposited alluvial
material from the western hinterlands, but have also con-
tributed to the formation of vast expanses of tidal swamps
and peat on the coast of the Strait of Malacca. The thick-
ness of the peat deposits was estimated to be more than 50
cm to 1 m in some places. This region of tidal swamps and
peat has in the past always been treated as wasteland, use-
less for agriculture, unhealthy, and noninhabitable with
seemingly many unsurmountable obstacles for passage
into the interior (Fisher, 1966). With the rapid advancement
of soil and environmental science, tidal swamps and peat
are now recognized as important parts of the ecosystem.
They provide sanctuaries and are the nesting places for
many birds and animals. They are at the same time the
major breeding grounds for an assortment of marine life
(e.g., shrimp, crab, and fish). The area containing the peat
deposits is noted at present to be rich in oil and natural gas,
and important oil fields have been located near Pekanbaru
in the Riau province and south in Palembang on the Musi
River. Tin is found in the alluvial sediments of the islands
of Bangka, Belitung, and Singkep, and bauxite in Bintan
of the Riau province. In addition to the above, Sumatra is
known for its coal deposits, such as in Umbilin in the Bukit
Tinggi area, and in Bukit Asam in the Benkulu mountains.
This is in contrast with Java which has no mineral wealth
of significance.
The zone of alluvial plains, described above, changes
inland into a gentle, hilly country with tertiary
69071.indb 37 4/25/08 10:41:27 AM

formations. Next to this lies the Bukit Barisan Moun-

tain range, which contains a number of high and still
active volcanoes. Some of the volcanoes are more than
3000 m high. The Ophir Mountain, near Padang, is 2911
m high, but the highest summit is the peak of Mount
Kerinci which is 3800 m high. The slope toward the
Indian Ocean is generally steep. With the exceptions of
two lowland embayments in the north, a very narrow
coastal plain occurs between the foot of the Bukit Bari-
san mountains and the Indian Ocean.
The Bukit Barisan mountains are the inorganic source
of all the soil materials in Sumatra (Mohr, 1944; van
Bemmelen, 1949). They are pretertiary and tertiary in
formation with some quaternary from the most recent
eruptions. At the beginning of the neocene period, vol-
canic eruptions delivered acid to intermediate mate-
rials. However, at the start of the quaternary age, the
ejecta were more dacitic and andesitic in composition.
Between these two periods, the materials erupted were
mainly liparitic (rhyolitic) of origin. Near Lake Toba,
at the foot of the Sibayak Mountain, in the regions of
Bukit Tinggi in the Menangkabau highlands, and in the
Bengkulu highlands to the south, the more recent ejecta
were dacito-andesitic in composition. They have given
rise to the development of more fertile soils than those
derived from liparitic volcanic tuffs.
2.2.3 Geomorphological features of Kalimantan

Borneo, called Kalimantan in Indonesia, is the second-
largest island in the archipelago. In general, Borneo
as a whole is composed of extensive, predominantly
69071.indb 38 4/25/08 10:41:27 AM

low‑lying alluvial plains, surrounding the interior

uplands. A narrow northern strip, made up of Malay-
sian Sarawak, Brunai, and Sabah, is bordered by the
South China Sea.
Indonesian Kalimantan is characterized by broad
plains, extensive hills, and low mountains. It is still
covered by a dense tropical rain forest, and the only
passage to the interior is through the rivers. The three
largest rivers are notably the Kapuas in the west near
Pontianak, the Barito near Banjarmasin in the southeast,
and the Mahakam near Samarinda on the east coast.
At first glance, it would appear that a rather definite
system is missing in the physiographic pattern. How-
ever, after more careful study of the landmass, a certain
trend between the extent of the plains and the moun-
tains can be observed. The main division is formed
by the mountain system, running from the Kinibalu
Mountain, in Sabah, southward over the Iran and Mül-
ler range to the Schwaner mountains in the southwest
(Figure 2.3), with a highest summit of only 1800 m.
This division line separates the big island Borneo into
two sections: a western section and an eastern section.
The Sunda landmass penetrates into the western sec-
tion from the southwest coast of the island like a huge
wedge. It is bordered in the east and northeast by the
mountain system discussed above. This triangular area,
with pretertiary rocks, located between Cape Datuk,
Cape Sambar, and the Müller mountains, is considered
by van Bemmelen (1949) as the proper continental mass
of Kalimantan. For a long period of time, the area has
been subjected to processes forming a peneplain.
69071.indb 39 4/25/08 10:41:27 AM

W—E
Mnt Kinibalu
SOUTH CHINA SEA SABAH

BRUNAI
Iran Tarakan
Mnts
Cape Datuk SERAWAK Kayan
River
Upper Kapuas Mnts
Muller Mnts
Kapuas
Mahakam River
River
Pontianak Schwaner
Meratus Mnts
Barito River
Mnts Samarinda
Balikpapan
Peat and swamps Strait of

Makassar
Cape Sambar
Banjarmasin Pulau Laut
JAVA SEA
Figure 2.3 Geomorphology of Kalimantan. (Scale: 1:12,000,000.)

A north–south running mountain system of the Mer-

atus mountains forms another division line. However,
this is restricted to the southeastern corner of the island.
This mountain system consists of many geologic for-
mations, with crystalline schists and peridotites as the
most important minerals.
69071.indb 40 4/25/08 10:41:28 AM

The lowland, located between the Schwaner and the

Meratus mountains, as a whole, is covered largely by ter-
tiary and quaternary formations of the Barito River basin,
and is bordered on its southeast coast by broad areas of
swampy lands and peat. Though the peat deposit was
estimated to be less thick than that of the Sumatran peat,
this area in Kalimantan is thought to exceed the vastness
of the peat area in Sumatra. It stretches along the south
coast starting from Banjarmasin in the east toward Pon-
tianak in the west and extends into the coastal area of
Serawak. Again, it should be emphasized that this belt
of tidal swamps and peat is a very important part of the
ecosystem. It is the only home of the endangered Probos-
cis monkey. Like in Sumatra, this area also appears to be
rich in oil and natural gas, with major oilfields located
near Tarakan on the western shores of the island facing
the sea of Celebes. Coal has also been mined at Teng-
garong, near Samarinda in the surrounding area of the
Mahakam River, whereas some diamonds and gold were
discovered in the Barito basin.
2.2.4 Geomorphological features of Sulawesi

Sulawesi, or known internationally by the name of Cele-
bes, is the third-largest island of the Indonesian archipel-
ago. The island is almost entirely covered by mountains
and is surrounded by deep sea basins and troughs. It is
peculiar in form, composed of four peninsulas, extend-
ing in eastern and southern directions. It looks like
the central part is the highest part, tying together the
four peninsulas in a spider-like shape (Figure 2.4). Such
morphology and striking relief were believed to be the
69071.indb 41 4/25/08 10:41:28 AM

W—E Manado
CELEBES SEA
Tondano
MINAHASA
Molucca
Sea
Gorontalo
Gulf (Teluk) of Tomini
Donggala
Peleng
Danau Poso
Sula
Teluk Tolo
TORAJA
Danau Towuti
Latimojong
Mnts
Majene
Mnt
Rantekombolo
Teluk Bone
Butung
Mnt
Makassar
Lompobatang
Bonthain
Selayar
BANDA
SEA
FLORES SEA
Figure 2.4 Geomorphology of Sulawesi. (Scale: 1:6,000,000.)

results of collisions and frictions between several axes,

together with extensive faulting of the continental tec-
tonic plates (Fisher, 1966; van Bemmelen, 1949). A large
69071.indb 42 4/25/08 10:41:30 AM

number of lakes have been formed between the maze

of valleys and ridges in the central part of the islands
(e.g., Lake Poso, Lake Towuti, and Lake Matana).
Sulawesi forms a link between the East-Asiatic island
chain and the Sunda Mountain system (van Bem-
melen, 1949). The continuation with the Philippines is
maintained by its northern peninsula, the Minahasa
region, and proceeds through the Toraja lands into
the southwest arm, which in its southern part shows
affinities with the mountains of Java and Sumatra. The
eastern arm is considered to be continued in the south-
eastern peninsula, which connects to the Banda areas.
The most important parent materials for soil forma-
tion of the island are basic formations (Mohr, 1944). The
northern area of the north arm is covered by quaternary
volcanoes. Several active volcanoes located in the Mina-
hasa region have intermittently delivered a lot of basic
materials, giving rise to fertile soils. These mountains
disappear toward the west of this northern peninsula.
Here, older formations take their place. For example, in
the region of Gorontalo, granites and crystalline schists
seem to be of more importance. The central part of the
island and the northeastern and southeastern penin-
sulas are nonvolcanic. The area is covered mostly by
old formations, such as plutonic rocks, gneiss, all kinds
of schists, graywacke, peridotites, and so forth. The
southwestern peninsula can be divided into a north-
ern section and a southern section. The northern sec-
tion, including the Latimojong mountains and the lake
area, shows some similarities with the central part of
the island. The southern section is composed of three
regions. The western mountains along the west coast
69071.indb 43 4/25/08 10:41:30 AM

consist of andesites and basalts. The Bone mountains on

the east coast consist in the south of andesites, whereas
to the north this formation disappears and goes over
into a neocene limestone range. The southern point of
the peninsula, where Makassar is located, at the shores
of the Strait of Makassar, is under the influence sphere
of the Lompobatang volcano (named by Dutch explor-
ers as Piek van Bonthain). This volcano, now considered
inactive, at one time delivered basaltic tuffs and con-
glomerates, giving rise to fertile soils.
In summary, it can be stated that the geomorphology
of the island is in striking contrast with that of Java,
Sumatra, and Kalimantan. The largest part of the island
is rugged in terrain with strong relief, and extensive
areas of flat coastal plains are conspicuously absent.
The most fertile regions with well-established agri-
cultural settlements are present in the Minahasa and
Makassar regions. Most of the agricultural operations
in the remainder of the island are reported to be slash-
and-burn or shifting cultivation.
2.2.5 Geomorphological features of Maluku

Maluku, called Moluccas in English, is a group of rel-
atively small islands, located between Sulawesi and
Papua (West Irian). In the early history of these islands,
spices attracted the attention of Spanish, Portuguese, and
Dutch seafarers and merchants, and hence, the islands
were given the nickname of “Spice Islands.” The big-
gest island is Halmahera, with an area of approximately
8000 km2, and the next biggest are Ceram and Buru. The
best-known island is Ambon, measuring only 800 km2
69071.indb 44 4/25/08 10:41:30 AM

in area, whereas the other islands, Banda, Tidore, and

Ternate, are smaller in size, with Ternate estimated to
be only 65 km2. Many more islands are present within
the territory of Maluku, ranging in area from a few
square kilometers to just a mere coral reef in the Banda
or Ceram seas (see Figure 1.1 and Figure 2.4).
Maluku is an area with active volcanism or mountain
building, though volcanism on the island of Ambon
is at present considered to be dormant. Geologically, it
can be divided into a northern part and a southern part
by a ridge running from the east arm of Sulawesi to the
Birdshead (Vogelkop) in Papua.
North Maluku, where Halmahera and Ternate are
located, consists of two converging ridges, called the
Sangihe and the Ternate systems. The Sangihe system
forms the connection between the East-Asiatic islands
and Sulawesi, whereas the Ternate system loops east-
ward to Papua and Melanesia.
South Maluku, with the islands Ceram, Ambon, Buru,
and Bandaneira, consists of the Banda arcs with their
two parallel ridges bordering the Banda Sea in the east.
The inner arc is active volcanic area, whereas the outer
arc is free of young volcanism. In the following section,
only two of the most important islands of Maluku will be
considered more closely, namely Ambon and Ceram.
2.2.5.1 Ambon
The city of Ambon, located on the island of Ambon,
was next to Batavia in Java, the oldest Dutch settle-
ment in this remote corner of the archipelago. It is the
capital of the Maluku province and also the home of
the University of Pattimura. The island is composed of
69071.indb 45 4/25/08 10:41:31 AM

old formations, such as graywacke, sandstone, shale,

limestone, schist, and peridotite, which are covered for
the greater part by younger, probably tertiary volcanic
material. The older formations are found on the sur-
face mostly in the southern peninsula of Leitimer. The
younger materials are spread more extensively over the
island and consist of materials ranging from andesites
and dacites to liparites. Due to their peculiar character-
istics, this whole group of parent materials was called
Ambonites by van Bemmelen (1949).
2.2.5.2 Ceram
The island of Ceram is according to Mohr (1949) not
much different from Ambon. Igneous rocks are also
considered to be not important with basalt and granite
commonly scarce or absent. Widespread are, again, sed-
imentary and metamorphic rocks, such as mica schists,
graywacke slates, and some Triassic formations. As is the
case in Ambon, no active volcanism is present today.
2.2.6 Geomorphological features
of Nusa Tenggara
Nusa Tenggara, also known as the Lesser Sunda
Islands, consists from east to west of the relatively small
islands of Timor, Alor, Flores, Sumba, and Sumbawa,
with Timor and Flores forming perhaps the two biggest
islands. Timor is in close proximity to Australia, sepa-
rated only by the Timor Sea. The islands Lombok and
Bali can be considered linking this island chain with
the island Java.
69071.indb 46 4/25/08 10:41:31 AM

Geomorphologically, Nusa Tenggara can be distin-

guished into two different areas. A volcanic area of
1000 km long, including Bali and Lombok, connects the
inner Banda arc, running east–west through the island
chain, with the mountain systems of Java and Sumatra.
A second arc, located more to the southeast, is nonvolca-
nic and includes Timor and surrounding islands. Coral
reefs are present more abundantly, whereas the climate
becomes toward the east increasingly drier, quite differ-
ent from the equatorial humid climate prevalent in Java
and Sumatra. The very long and intense dry seasons
have resulted in scrub-like vegetation and a savannah
or steppe landscape.
The parent materials for soil formation may range
from quaternary intermediate-acid volcanic materials to
neocene formations. Along the coast, mostly young qua-
ternary alluvial coastal plains are found. Bali and Lom-
bok have some similarities with Central and East Java,
characterized by fertile volcanic slopes and foothills,
bordered by relatively broad plains, though the lowland
areas are somewhat smaller in size in Lombok.
2.2.7 Geomorphological features
of Papua (West Irian)
The big island bordering the Moluccas to the east is
known internationally as New Guinea. The whole island
is considered a continent by itself and has been shared
half by Indonesia and half by Australia. The western
part of the island was historically Dutch territory, called
West New Guinea at that time, whereas the eastern part
is now Papua-New Guinea, a self-governed nation within
69071.indb 47 4/25/08 10:41:31 AM

the British Commonwealth with close ties with Aus-

tralia. After the surrender of sovereignty of West New
Guinea, Indonesia renamed it Irian Jaya or West Irian.
This name has been changed again into Papua by Indo-
nesia following the will of the people.
In size, the area of mainland Papua almost equals
the size of Borneo. However, the province of Papua in
the Indonesian Archipelago includes many surround-
ing small islands—for example, the islands of Biak
(formerly called Schouten Island), Numfoor, and Yapen
in the Gulf of Sarera or Geelvink Bay (today also called
Teluk Cenderawasih) bordering the Pacific Ocean. To the
south are the Kai (or Kei), Tanimbar, and Aru islands
in the Arafura Sea, separating them from Australia
(Figure 2.5). Most of mainland Papua is still unknown
territory.
Papua can be distinguished into a western part and
an eastern part. The western part is a peninsula, called
the Vogelkop or Birdshead, because of its peculiar land-
form, reflecting the head of a bird. It is connected to the
mainland in the east by a narrow neck. The Birdshead
area has on the north coast an east–west running young
volcanic mountain range, called the Arfak Mountains,
which consist of andesitic and basaltic formations. A
tertiary folded mountain zone runs through the “neck”
of the Birdshead southeast into the Owen-Stanley Range,
which connects with the Nassau or Oranje mountain
ranges. This is a very broad mountain zone with a
width estimated at more than 160 km.
The mainland shows a number of parallel zones. Start-
ing from the coast of the Pacific Ocean (to the north), a
narrow coastal plain stretches more or less east–west.
69071.indb 48 4/25/08 10:41:31 AM

Waigeo
BIRDSHEAD
PACIFIC
Sorong OCEAN
Biak
Arfak Mnts
Yapen
Teluk Cen-
River
Mamberamo
Teluk Berau derawasih
Fakfak Van Rees
Ceram Tariku River Range
Cartensz Idenburg
top top Idenburg River
Nassau-Oranje Range
Kei Islands
Eilanden
Digul River
River
Aru
Islands
Fly River
Tanimbar Digul-Fly
Islands Depression
ARAFURA SEA
W—E
Figure 2.5 Geomorphology of Papua. (Scale: 1:12,500,000.)

(From van Bemmelen, R.W. [1949]; Fisher, C.A. [1966]; Sigit,
S.I. [1962]; and Rand McNally [1995].)
This is bordered inland to the south by a mountain

range, known as the Northern Watershed mountains
(Mohr, 1944) with granites, chlorites, and crystalline
schists as major formations. The Northern Watershed
mountains include most probably the Cyclop and the
Bougainville mountains (van Bemmelen, 1949). Next to
this mountain zone (to the south) is a depression area,
known as the Meervlakte or Central Lake Plain. The natu-
ral drainage here is provided by the Taritatu (Idenburg)
River, meeting the Tariku (Rouffaer) River, to form the
69071.indb 49 4/25/08 10:41:32 AM

Mamberamo or Tarikaikea River, which runs to the

north into the Pacific Ocean.
To the south of the Central Lake Plain lies a complex
mountain system, called earlier the Nassau or Oranje
Mountain range, running east–west through the main
axis of the mainland. The highest parts, the Idenburg
top (Puncak Trikora) and the Cartensz top (Puncak Jaya)
with summits reaching 4900 m and 5040 m, respec-
tively, are known as the Snow Mountain range with ever-
lasting snow and glaciers on their peaks. To the south
of the Snow Mountain range, a broad lowland plain
exists, running toward the Torres Strait, which sepa-
rates Papua from Australia. This area of coastal plain
is known as the Digul-Fly depression, named after the
Digul and Fly rivers, which contributed to the forma-
tion of this extensive coastal region. This low-lying flat
area, mostly covered by tidal swamps and peat, extends
westward over another important river, the Eilanden
River, and beyond. The extent of swamp and peat lands
exceeds the size of those in Kalimantan and Sumatra.
69071.indb 50 4/25/08 10:41:32 AM

chapter three
Climate of Indonesia
3.1 Climate
During the years in the pre- and post-World War II peri-
ods, a considerable amount of work was done on quali-
tative and quantitative investigations of the climate of
Indonesia. The Dutch government needed this informa-
tion for their plantations, and many of the large research
stations were adequately equipped with weather sta-
tions. Reliable and well-arranged climatological data
were compiled and are now available as publications of
the Meteorological and Geophysical Institute at Jakarta.
For more basic details, reference is made to Teil et al.
(1931), Boerma (1931), Braak (1925–1929, 1931, 1939, 1948),
Mohr (1944), Schmidt and Ferguson (1951), Schmidt-Ten
Hopen and Schmidt (1951), and Mohr and Van Baren
(1960). The intention of this text is to review, discuss,
and apply the weather information only as a factor in
the formation of Indonesian soils.
Many types of climates have been used for delineat-
ing the climate of Indonesia. The names equatorial and
tropical climates have been assigned to characterize the
prevailing climate in the archipelago, and the two terms
have been applied synonymously by many scientists
for reasons explained below. Another type of climate
51
69071.indb 51 4/25/08 10:41:33 AM

applied to often characterize the climate in Indonesia

is the monsoon climate, and the Indonesian people com-
monly relate the west monsoon with the rainy season
and the east monsoon with the dry season. This may
be true for certain parts but is not necessarily correct
for other parts of the archipelago. To alleviate some of
the confusion, it is perhaps of importance to define the
three types of climates and discuss to which parts of
Indonesia they can be applied.
3.1.1 The concepts of equatorial

and tropical climates
3.1.1.1 Equatorial climate
The equatorial climate is considered to exist within the
equatorial zone, which is usually by convention accepted
to lie between 5° N and 5° S (latitudes). The wind pat-
tern associated with the equatorial climate is called the
trade wind. In the northeastern hemisphere, the trade
wind blows from the northeastern direction to the equa-
tor, whereas in the southern hemisphere the wind comes
from the southeastern direction. Usually heavily loaded
with moisture, evaporated from the Pacific and Indian
Oceans, these winds bring a lot of rains, which is the
reason for the presence of a dense tropical rain forest,
growing in countries near the equator. Due to its location
between 6° N and 11° S, Indonesia may fall within the
zone of an equatorial climate. Its northern region may
be affected by the northeast trade wind, but the south-
ern region is influenced by the southeast trade wind. The
equator goes across the Bukit Barisan Mountains near
69071.indb 52 4/25/08 10:41:33 AM

Chapter three: Climate of Indonesia 53
Bukit Tinggi and stretches eastward across Pontianak,

separating the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan into
northern and southern halves. The remainder of the
archipelago is mostly in the southern hemisphere.
The equatorial climate is generally characterized by
high precipitation, as indicated above, and by high tem-
peratures throughout the year. Generally speaking, this
is the hot and humid climate that many people associ-
ate with the tropics. For example, the towns of Bukit
Tinggi and Padang in West Sumatra show a 20-year
monthly average temperature of 20°C and 26°C, respec-
tively, which is fairly constant throughout the year. The
annual precipitation was recorded to average 2400 mm
for Bukit Tinggi and 4500 mm for Padang. The town of
Pontianak, which the equator passes right through, as
indicated earlier, is characterized by a monthly average
temperature of 26°C and an annual precipitation aver-
age of 3200 mm. Both temperature and precipitation do
not fluctuate throughout the year. Nevertheless, towns
a little above or below the equator, such as Manado
(1° N) in the Minahasa peninsula and Manokwari (1° S)
in the Birdshead of Papua, exhibit rainfall patterns with
monthly averages of only 100 mm to 130 mm, respec-
tively, for the months of July through October. How-
ever, the rainfall in the remaining months of the year is
twice that much, with an average of 280 mm/month for
Manado and 250 mm/month for Manokwari. Although
the months from July to October receive only about
half the amounts of rain, it is difficult to say that these
months represent a true dry season with 100 mm to 130
mm of rainfall per month.
69071.indb 53 4/25/08 10:41:33 AM

3.1.1.2 Tropical climate

A tropical climate is defined as the prevailing climate in
the tropical zone, which is the zone between the tropic
of Cancer (23° N) and the tropic of Capricorn (23° S).
Therefore, the tropical zone also covers the equatorial
zone, which is perhaps one reason why many scientists
confuse an equatorial climate for a tropical climate. The
confusion is also aggravated by the absence of general
agreement as to what the definition should be of a trop-
ical climate. As suggested by Köppen (Braak, 1931; Teil
et al., 1931), a tropical climate is a climate within the
tropical zone that exhibits a monthly temperature that
never falls below 18°C. Another concept, which appears
to also be widely accepted, is that a tropical climate is
characterized by a seasonal rainfall, meaning that it is
alternated by a dry season. It should not occur in the
form of constant high precipitation throughout the year,
as exhibited by the equatorial climate. The temperature
should also not be the high temperature characteriz-
ing a desert climate (Fisher, 1966). The temperatures of
Jakarta and Bandung, in West Java, show a longtime
monthly average of 26°C and 22°C, respectively. They
are constant at these values throughout the year. The
lower temperature for Bandung is due to the location
of the town high up on the slope of Mount Tangkuban
Prahu. The annual precipitation was recorded over the
years to average 1800 mm for Jakarta and 1900 mm
for Bandung. Bogor, on the other hand, located 50 km
south of Jakarta on the slopes of the Gede-Pangrango
Mountains, is characterized by an annual precipitation
of 4000 mm. The amount of rainfall appears to not be
distributed very evenly throughout the year, with the
69071.indb 54 4/25/08 10:41:33 AM

months of June through September receiving less rain

than the other months. A monthly average precipitation
of 70 mm was reported for Jakarta and 80 mm for Band-
ung for June through September, whereas the rainfall
was 180 mm/month and 200 mm/month in Jakarta and
Bandung, respectively, in the other months.
The above suggests the presence of a weak dry sea-
son in West Java, which tends to become gradually
more sharp or pronounced toward Central and East
Java. Surabaya, the capital of East Java, receives from
July through October an average of only 13 mm/month
in contrast to the months of November through June,
where an average rainfall is reported of 200 mm/month.
The dry season becomes even longer and more drastic
in the Lesser Sunda Islands chain because of the influ-
ence sphere of the subarid and desert climate of neigh-
boring Australia.
3.1.2 The concept of monsoon climates

3.1.2.1 Concept of monsoons
A monsoon climate is associated with a shifting wind
pattern caused by a change in seasons. The name mon-
soon originated most probably from the Arabic term
mausem (meaning season), because in contrast to trade
winds, the monsoon wind can shift its path in opposite
direction with changing winter and summer seasons
of the continents in the northern and southern hemi-
spheres. The system was originally used to characterize
the climate in India. The winter season on the Asian
continent creates a high-pressure condition, forcing the
wind to blow south to the low-pressure region caused
69071.indb 55 4/25/08 10:41:33 AM

by the summer in the southern hemisphere. This results

in a dry season for countries in the northern hemi-
sphere (for example, India). When the winter season
changes in the northern hemisphere into summertime,
it is then winter in the southern hemisphere, and this
change forces the wind to shift its course into a north-
ern direction. It is then the rainy season in India, which
generally occurs from June to September. Before enter-
ing the Indian subcontinent, the wind has picked up a
lot of moisture from the Indian Ocean and brings to the
country not only water but also relief from the intense
heat.
Attempts have been made to apply this concept of a
monsoon for explaining the variety of climatic types
present in many parts of the world, because four mon-
soon systems have recently been defined and rec-
ognized. They are the North American Monsoon,
Northeast (Asian) Monsoon, Southwest Summer Mon-
soon, and Southeast Asian or Indian Ocean Monsoon.
These attempts in a global application of the monsoon
concept make the problem even more confusing. For
instance, many people have not expected North Amer-
ica to be affected by a monsoon, as it is still hard to
believe in the North American Monsoon being the
weather maker of the United States. It is true that a high-
pressure system is created during wintertime above the
arctic region of Canada, but no information is available
that this will create a wind system blowing toward a
low-pressure system developed in the summertime
over another landmass located in the opposite direc-
tion. The only continent in this respect is Argentina, far
away in the southern hemisphere. It is summertime in
69071.indb 56 4/25/08 10:41:34 AM

Argentina when winter occurs in the United States, and

vice versa.
The general idea is that the prime weather maker in
the United States is a complex system of low and high
pressures, developed in the air because of changes
in temperatures of the land surface, atmosphere, and
water in lakes and oceans. These pressure systems are
apparently affected by the Pacific Ocean in the west
and the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean in the east.
Low-pressure systems, assigned the symbol L on weather
maps, usually develop over regions of the Pacific Ocean
due to the evaporation of large amounts of water that
rise into the air. These then are the alleged tropical mon-
soon systems, a name that U.S. weather forecasters often
used for low-pressure systems that develop above the
Pacific Ocean. They are usually carried eastward by the
predominantly westerly wind in the United States. Only
in a few cases are low-pressure systems coming from
the Atlantic Ocean, but due to the prevailing jet stream
from west to east, their effect is felt only on the eastern
seaboard and is seldom extended to affect the weather
pattern of the Western, Southwestern, Northwestern,
and Midwestern States. Depending on the conditions,
low-pressure systems are the rain makers or they may
just fizzle out. High-pressure systems, developed by cool-
ing conditions, are generally associated with dry air
and are assigned the symbol H. Where high-pressure
systems are present, the area usually has nice, clear, and
sunny weather. These high pressures may stall or block
the movement of the low-pressure systems. At these
locations, the low-pressure system may unload its cargo
of moisture in the form of some kind of precipitation.
69071.indb 57 4/25/08 10:41:34 AM

However, the high-pressure systems can also be pushed

away by the low-pressure systems toward the Atlantic
Ocean. If they move over the Bermuda islands, they are
often called the Bermuda highs.
In addition to the pressure systems discussed above,
the weather of the United States is affected by systems
of cool and warm fronts. These fronts are also considered
important weather makers of the United States. Fronts
have been defined as frontal borders of large air masses
moved by wind action. Cold fronts are usually caused
by the arctic air masses of Canada, and their movement
is mainly southward. On the other hand, warm fronts
move north and northeast, because they originate pri-
marily from the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, and
hence, the air mass behind this front is moist and warm.
When the warm front collides with the cold front, the
warm and moist air slides over the denser cold air mass
to a higher elevation. On the other hand, when the cold
front pushes against the warm front, it causes the warm
and moist air to rise to a higher elevation in the air,
where it may condense into water drops, ice, or snow.
The warm front, when active, can also feed a low-pres-
sure system with a lot of moisture and energy. In all
these cases, these actions may result in some kind of
precipitation, often accompanied by violent weather.
Now that we know a little bit more about monsoon,
low- and high-pressure systems affecting the climates
of Asia and North America, respectively, it is up to you,
the reader, to make your own judgment about the cor-
rectness of the use of North American Monsoon as the
weather maker in the United States.
69071.indb 58 4/25/08 10:41:34 AM

3.1.2.2 West and east monsoons in Indonesia

The system of monsoon winds, discussed above, was
later extended to characterize the climate of countries in
Southeast Asia where similar wind patterns as in India
are present. The climate of Indonesia, for instance, is
considered by many people to be dictated by monsoon
winds, but a number of scientists disagree about this.
To consider the climate of Indonesia as monsoonal only
may not be entirely correct. My opinion is that the cli-
mate of the archipelago shows features of an equatorial,
a tropical, and a monsoon climate, depending upon
the specific location within the borders of the country.
Large areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua are
affected more by trade winds than by the monsoon.
However, the islands outside the latitudes of 5° N and
S may indeed feel more substantially the effect of the
monsoon system (for example, Java, Bali, Lombok, and
especially east on the Lesser Sunda Islands). Because
Indonesia lies within the influence spheres of Asia in
the northwest and Australia in the southeast, the mon-
soon system is now controlled more by the conditions
of these two continents. During wintertime, the high
pressure, created above the Asian continent, forces the
wind to blow to the southeast where a low pressure is
formed by the summer in Australia (December to Feb-
ruary). This is usually referred to as the west-monsoon,
and the associated northwesterly wind, after crossing
the South China Sea, brings the rainy season in Kali-
mantan and Sulawesi. It is also the cause for the rainy
season in the Lesser Sunda Islands. An average rainfall
of 270 mm/month was recorded in Kupang, Timor, for
the months of October through March, in contrast to
69071.indb 59 4/25/08 10:41:34 AM

the 6-month dry season from April through September,

which registered only 16 mm of rain per month. When
wintertime arrives in Australia, the monsoon reverses
direction and blows to the low-pressure area in the
northwest, created by the summertime in Asia. The
southeasterly wind, from the Australian high-pressure
system, is called the east-monsoon. This system comes
from the subarid and desert regions of Australia and
consists of dry air. When this wind crosses the Timor
Sea, it has not had the chance to pick up enough mois-
ture and is the reason for bringing the dry season in
the Lesser Sunda Islands. However, after passing the
Banda Sea, the east monsoon has picked up enough
moisture from the sea, which brings a lot of rain to
Ambon, Menado, and Manokwari.
From the discussion above, it seems that a longitudi-
nal variation exists in the monsoon over the archipelago.
In other words, when the western part of Indonesia has
its rainy season, the Moluccas in the east have their dry
season, and vice versa. The rainy season in this eastern
part is due to the east monsoon, but only the islands
located within the equatorial zone in the east (Ambon
and other islands in the Moluccas) will be affected. For
Java, Madura, and the Lesser Sunda Islands, located to
the south of 5° S (latitude), the east monsoon creates the
dry season. This is especially true for the eastern part
of this island chain, where long and sharp dry seasons
are the norms for the months of April through Sep-
tember. This is supported by evidence obtained from
extensive studies on the geographical distribution of
the flora in Indonesia in correlation with the climate.
The results seem to indicate that only certain parts of
69071.indb 60 4/25/08 10:41:34 AM

the archipelago, and in particular the Lesser Sunda

Islands in southeastern Indonesia, are characterized by
a typical monsoon vegetation (Endert, 1946; Van Steenis,
1948), whereas most of the western parts are covered by
a tropical rain forest. Because a climax vegetation is often
considered as an expression of the prevailing climatic
condition, many scientists believe that the presence of a
monsoon flora should be accepted as an indication for
the presence of the monsoon climate in the Lesser Sunda
Islands, as we should accept the distribution of the rain
forest in Sumatra and Kalimantan as the product of a
constantly warm and humid equatorial or tropical cli-
mate. However, many people remain unconvinced and
are of the opinion that the length of the dry and wet
seasons is more important for a better delineation of a
monsoon, tropical, or equatorial climate.
3.2 Climatic divisions based on

length of dry and wet seasons
In order to better characterize a monsoon climate from
equatorial and tropical climates, attempts were made
by several Dutch scientists to develop limits of dry and
wet seasons (Mohr, 1944; Schmidt and Ferguson, 1951).
Others have tried to determine the climax vegetation in
various regions of Indonesia (Endert, 1946; Van Steenis,
1948), whereas I have examined the usefulness of Köp-
pen’s climatic system in the classification of Indonesia’s
climate. The data in Table 3.1 summarize the combined
results of the above efforts.
69071.indb 61 4/25/08 10:41:35 AM

Table 3.1 Number of Dry and Wet Months for

Classifying Climate and Vegetation Cover in Indonesia
Mohr (1944)
Endert (1946) Köppen
Number of Wet and Dry Months
Dry Months Wet Months Type of Climatic

Climatic Class
<60 mm >100 mm Vegetation System
I. Constantly Wet 0–1 12 Af

Tropical
Rain Forest
II. Slightly or Weakly Dry 2–3 9–10 Am
Tropical
III. Markedly Dry 3–5 7–8 Monsoon Am
Forest
IV. Severely Dry 4–6 5–8

As
Tropical
or
Savannah
Aw
V. Fierce Drought 7–8 5–6
Sources: Mohr, E.C.J. (1944) and Endert, F.H. (1946).
3.2.1 The climatic system of Mohr

Mohr’s system is based upon the number of dry and
wet months (Mohr, 1944). A dry month is characterized
by a rainfall of ≤60 mm/month, whereas a wet month
is considered to have ≥100 mm/month of rainfall. Many
Dutch scientists (Mohr et al., 1972) believe that the soil
will become easily dry when rainfall is ≤60 mm/month,
whereas the soil climate is humid when rainfall is above
this limit. A month with precipitation between 60 and
100 mm is then called a moist month. The soil will receive
just enough water to wet its pedon (or soil profile). This
water is of benefit to growing plants. Mohr (1944) and
69071.indb 62 4/25/08 10:41:35 AM

Mohr et al. (1972) collected rainfall data over sufficiently

long periods of time and classified the climate of Indo-
nesia into five groups according to the number of wet
(≥100 mm/month) and dry (≤60 mm/month) months
(Table 3.1):
• Class I is a wet or humid climate, where the average

monthly rainfall seldom or never falls below 60 mm.
• Class II is a climate with a weak dry period. Under
this climate, the soil does not dry out completely.
• Class III is a climate that exhibits a dry season. The
soil may dry out in the dry season to some depth
in the pedon. During this period, evaporation
apparently exceeds moisture supply. However, the
amount of moisture lost will be replenished again
during the wet season.
• Class IV is a climate characterized by a very long
and sharp dry season. The soil is dry for almost
half of the year.
• Class V is a climate with a long period of drought.
However, it is still too wet to consider it as an
arid climate.
This concept has many practical applications in soil

and agricultural science. Mohr is of the opinion that
at a rainfall of >100 mm a month, the amount of water
received by the soil exceeds the amount evaporated,
and the months characterized by >100 mm of rainfall
are called wet months, as indicated earlier. The excess
water leaches the pedon, whereas a large part is avail-
able for uptake by growing plants. This is the climate
that will sustain a tropical rain forest (Endert, 1946; Van
69071.indb 63 4/25/08 10:41:36 AM

Steenis, 1948). A short dry season with a monthly rain-

fall of ≤60 mm, such as in a group II climate, is consid-
ered not to be harmful and can still support the growth
of a lush tropical rain forest. On the other hand, at long
dry periods of 3 to 5 months with a precipitation of <60
mm/month, most of the rainwater pouring down is rap-
idly evaporated, and these months, called dry months by
Mohr, tend to dry out the soil quickly. However, the soil
still contains apparently sufficient amounts of moisture,
replenished during the 7- to 8-month wet period, that it
can sustain a tropical monsoon forest vegetation cover.
When the dry season is long and sharp, as in group
IV climate, the severely dry condition can supply only
enough moisture for the growth of tropical savannah
vegetation (Endert, 1946; Van Steenis, 1948). The group
V climate with its long and fierce drought periods is
still too humid to be considered as a real desert climate.
The soil possesses sufficient amounts of moisture for
sustaining the growth of a tropical savannah (Endert,
1946; Van Steenis, 1948).
As indicated above, each of the climatic classes seems
to correlate with the distribution of a specific flora.
Classes I and II (Table 3.1) are the types of climates
occurring in regions of the tropical rain forests cover-
ing Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua, and part of
Java. According to Köppen’s climatic system, the con-
stantly wet climate group can be classified as an Af cli-
mate, whereas the climate with a weak dry season falls
into the category of an Am climate. The latter is noted to
occur especially in West Java. Mohr’s class III climate, or
the markedly dry climate, seems to be the typical mon-
soon climate, generally characterized by a relatively
69071.indb 64 4/25/08 10:41:36 AM

sharp dry season of 3 to 5 months. This type of monsoon

climate is present only in Central and East Java and in
the western parts of the islands of Nusa Tenggara. In
addition to these regions, the monsoon climate can be
found in very limited areas of Indonesia (for example,
in Aceh, North Sumatra; Gorontalo, Sulawesi; Namlea,
Moluccas; and Merauke, Papua). The types of climates,
classified by Mohr as classes IV and V, are affecting only
the eastern parts of Nusa Tenggara, and the closer to
Australia, the longer will be the dry season. This type
of climate, resembling a savannah-type climate, is also
reflected by the flora, as indicated above.
3.2.2 Climatic system of Schmidt and Ferguson

The rainfall limits used by Mohr (1944) are applied
by Schmidt and Ferguson (1951) to revise Mohr’s cli-
matic groupings with the purpose of eliminating
disagreements due to inconsistencies still present in the
classification of the climate of Indonesia. These authors
calculated the ratio or quotient (Q) of the average num-
ber of dry months and average number of wet months:
Q = Number of Dry Months (< 60 mm/month) (3.1)

Number of Wet Months (> 100 mm/month)
By using the quotient, Q, Schmidt and Ferguson
divided the climate in Indonesia into eight types of
climates, which they presented in a triangular dia-
gram. There are, in fact, several climatic triangle
versions present, as shown in Figure 3.1. Mohr et al.
(1972) originally used a semitriangular diagram for
his divisions of the five climate groups. In this text,
69071.indb 65 4/25/08 10:41:37 AM

12
%
11 0
70
10 H %
0
Average Number of Dry Months
30
9
G %
8 7
16
Va
F
lu
7 %
es
0
10
of
6 E
Q
%
5 60
D
4 %
3
33.
3 C
%
3
2 B 14.
1 %
A 0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Average Number of Wet Months
Figure 3.1 Climatic system of Schmidt and Ferguson. (From

Schmidt, F.H. and Ferguson, J.H.A. [1951]; Mohr, E.C.J. [1944];
and Mohr, E.C.J., Van Baren, F.A., and Van Schuylenborgh, J.
[1972].)
the rainfall data of Schmidt and Ferguson (1951) and

those of Mohr et al. (1972) were used to calculate the Q
values. The calculated values are then converted into
percentages by multiplying by 100%, used and inte-
grated into the diagram of Schmidt and Ferguson as
shown in Figure 3.1.
69071.indb 66 4/25/08 10:41:37 AM

The smaller the ratio or quotient, Q, the wetter will be

the climatic conditions, whereas the larger the value of
Q, the longer will be the dry season. At Q = 100%, the
climate is characterized by a 6-month dry period. Values
of Q above 100% indicate that the dry season becomes
longer and longer. At Q = 700%, the dry season is 10.5
months, which fortunately does not exist in Indonesia.
Most parts of the archipelago perhaps are characterized
by types A and B climates, especially the whole western
region of Indonesia. Types C and D typify the climates
of the monsoon regions of Central and East Java and
other regions with a similar pattern of sharp dry sea-
sons, whereas types E and F are found only in limited
areas exhibiting the very sharp and long dry seasons
as prevailing in the eastern part of the Nusa Tenggara
Island chain. Types G and H are practically absent, as
indicated above. They have been observed perhaps only
over a very small area, such as, for example, in the Palu
valley of Sulawesi.
Though this system seems to be generally accepted
by the forest service in Indonesia, many soil scientists
have viewed it as not being an exact climatic system.
Because it is solely based on rainfall, which is just one
factor determining the climate, the opinion exists that
the system of Schmidt and Ferguson was just a mere
division of rainfall types.
3.3 Altitudinal variations in climate

As discussed earlier, Indonesia is covered by extensive
mountain ranges, with mountains reaching summits
sometimes over 3000 m high. On account of the contrast
69071.indb 67 4/25/08 10:41:38 AM

in relief formed by the mountains, climatic changes with

altitudes above sea level are expected to occur. Altitu-
dinal zones develop due to changes in rainfall pattern,
relative humidity, temperature, and vegetation cover.
3.3.1 Variations in rainfall patterns with altitude

The total rainfall generally increases with increasing
altitude and reaches a maximum somewhere between
1000 and 1500 m above sea level. The number of dry
months decreases gradually with elevation until a cer-
tain height is reached above sea level, where it starts
to increase again (Table 3.2). The point at which the
number of dry months starts to increase again is also
located between 1000 and 1500 m above sea level. This
point coincides normally with the condensation level of
water in the air, and at this level the ascending air cools,
resulting in condensation of water vapor that produces
a lot of rain, dense fog, and clouds. At the summit of the
mountain, the number of dry months often equals zero
(Table 3.2).
3.3.2 Variations in temperatures with altitude

Temperature decreases gradually with increasing alti-
tude. With each 100-m increase in elevation above sea
level, the temperature decreases by 0.6°C. The variation
in temperature with increased elevation above sea level
can be calculated with the aid of a formula developed
by Braak (1925–1929):
t = 26.3° – h × 0.6°C (3.2)
69071.indb 68 4/25/08 10:41:38 AM

Table 3.2 Altitudinal Variations of Rainfall and

Climate in Indonesia
Mean
Rainfall Climate Annual
Location Rainfall
m <60 mm >100 mm Ka S&Fb mm
Pasar Minggu 35 3.2 7.9 Afa C 2173
Depok 95 2.0 9.9 Afa A 3130
Bogor 266 0.3 11.5 Afa A 4230
Tjiapus 540 0.1 11.8 Afa A 4880
Pondok Gedeh 900 0.4 10.1 Af A 3644
Mandalawangi 1800 0.6 10.6 Cfi A 4201
Salak Volcano 2211 0.0 11.1 Cfi A 5467
K = Köppen symbols; b S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson.

a
Sources: Braak, C. (1931); Mohr, E.C.J. (1944); and Schmidt, F.

H. and Ferguson, J.H.A. (1951).
where 26.3° is the average temperature in Indonesia

in degrees Celsius at sea level, and h is the elevation
in hectometers.
3.3.3 Zonal divisions into lowland, upland,

mountain, and high-mountain lands
The variations or changes in rainfall and temperature,
with increased elevation above sea level, are the reasons
for many attempts to divide the countryside into several
altitudinal zones (Mohr, 1922; Schmidt and Ferguson,
69071.indb 69 4/25/08 10:41:38 AM

Table 3.3 Zones of Lowland, Upland, Mountain, and

High-Mountain Lands in Indonesia
Mohr Van Steenis S&Fa
Elevation
Zone °C m
Zone Zone
Tropical Lowland 25–27 0–200 Tropical Zone Lowland

Tropical Upland 14–19 200–1000 Tropical Zone Upland
Tropical Mountain Land 13–18 1000–1800 Submontane Upland
Tropical High-Mountain Montane Mountain

0–12 1800
Land Zone Land
2400–4100 Subalpine
S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson.

a
Sources: Mohr, E.C.J. [1922, 1944]; Van Steenis, C.G.G.J. [1948, 1954];
Schmidt, F.H. and Ferguson, J.H.A. [1951]; and Junghuhn [1850].)
1951; Van Steenis, 1948). On the basis of variations in

temperatures with increased elevation, Mohr (1922,
1944) recognizes four zones from sea level to more than
1800 m above sea level (Table 3.3):
1. Tropical lowlands
2. Tropical uplands
3. Tropical mountain lands
4. Tropical high-mountain lands
For comparison, zonal divisions are also provided,

developed by Van Steenis (1948) and Schmidt and Fer-
guson (1951). As can be noticed in Table 3.3, they are
much simpler than Mohr’s zonal concept.
69071.indb 70 4/25/08 10:41:39 AM

The altitudinal limits for these zonal divisions of lands

are believed to shift somewhat to higher or lower eleva-
tions above sea level in a tropical monsoon climate (Tan,
1958; Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1959; Van Schuylen-
borgh, 1958). The author also wonders whether it is not
more appropriate using names such as tropical highlands
and tropical mountain lands, respectively, for the tropical
mountain lands (3) and high-mountain lands (4)? This
is more in line and consistent with the usage of tropical
lowlands and uplands.
Mohr’s zonal concept above is based not only on the
limits of temperature and location above sea level, but
apparently also on suitability for the growth of certain
crops and plants. For instance, the tropical lowland has
been defined as the region not higher than 200 m above
sea level and with temperatures not lower than 20°C.
These conditions appear to be excellent for sugarcane
and tobacco cultivation in Indonesia. However, in addi-
tion to the above factors, a monsoon climate is necessary
for the ripening process and harvesting of the two crops.
The tropical upland, originally called “Hilly Land,” is
the zone between 200 and 1000 m above sea level. At
≥1000 m above sea level, coconut palm trees will not
flourish. This is the zone of the tropical mountain land,
where generally the condensation level of water vapor in
the air is reached, increasing the relative humidity that
consequently produces clouds and fog, often hovering
constantly over the mountainsides. The conditions and
composition of the vegetation cover then change visibly.
The mountain trees are usually loaded with moss, and
coniferous trees start to increase in numbers. One of
the indigenous pine trees in Sumatra is the well-known
69071.indb 71 4/25/08 10:41:39 AM

Pinus merkusii, which has been used for transplanting

on other islands for pulp production. Close to the sum-
mit, starting at ±2400 m above sea level, the timberline is
reached. Van Steenis (1954) has called this the subalpine
zone.
3.4 Significance of tropical and

monsoon climates in pedogenesis
From the discussion above, it can perhaps be concluded
that it is very difficult to designate the climate of Indone-
sia either as a monsoon climate alone or as only a tropi-
cal climate. Three main types of climates, at least, seem
to occur in the archipelago. They are the tropical rain
forest climate, the tropical monsoon climate, and the
tropical savannah climate. The equatorial climate with
its tropical rain forest is covered by the tropical rain for-
est climate. The name tropical humid climate is perhaps
a better term than tropical rain forest climate, under-
scoring more the determining factor for climate, rather
than the rain forest. A vegetation cover is the resulting
expression of the prevailing climatic conditions.
In general, the tropical humid climate prevails over
most of the islands in the archipelago, and especially in
Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua, and West Java.
The tropical monsoon climate is restricted to Central
and East Java and the western part of the Lesser Sunda
Islands chain, whereas the tropical savannah climate is
found to affect small regions only in the eastern part of
the Lesser Sunda Islands, located under the influence
sphere of Australia. Because altitudinal variations in
69071.indb 72 4/25/08 10:41:40 AM

the climate exist, the three main climatic forms will no

doubt also be affected by these changes and will fol-
low similar zonal divisions with increased elevation
above sea level. These variations may have produced
different “shades” in the prevailing main climate of the
region, which are rather important from the standpoint
of soil formation. The differences in climate will affect
the type of vegetation, and this, in turn, will affect the
nature of soils formed.
3.4.1 Balance effects between precipitation and

evaporation in different climatic types
One of the effects of climate can perhaps be ascribed
to the balance between precipitation and evaporation,
which naturally will differ in different types of climates.
The tropical monsoon climate will affect soil formation
with alternating downward and upward movement of
soil water in the pedon (soil profile). The upward move-
ment due to the pull of evaporation, occurring mostly
during the dry season, may vary in duration with the
length of the dry season. It will be longer in the true
monsoon climates and shorter where the dry season is
weak and short. The soil will be leached during the wet
season, but some of the elements lost, especially bases,
will be retransported upward during the dry season.
On the other hand, the tropical humid climate, charac-
terized by a continuously wet condition, will affect soil
formation with a rather constant downward movement
of soil water. In this condition, the soil is constantly
leached and tends to be more acid in reaction, due to
the loss of bases, than the soil in the monsoon regions.
69071.indb 73 4/25/08 10:41:40 AM

3.4.2 Altitudinal variations in soil

genesis and soil fertility
With increased location above sea level, soil organic
matter content, and in particular humic acid content,
tends to increase substantially. This factor, together
with the cooler and wetter climate in the highlands or
Mohr’s mountain lands, provides favorable conditions
for mobilization of elements, especially Al, Fe, and Ca,
in the form of chelates (De Coninck, 1980; Tan, 1986).
Due to formation of metal–organic complexes, humic
substances and other organic compounds may acceler-
ate the decomposition of soil minerals, generally pres-
ent in abundance in the young volcanic ash parent
materials. The dissolution products have a very impor-
tant bearing on soil genesis and fertility. Movement or
mobilization of soil constituents is the main reason for
horizon differentiation, a process yielding soils with
different kinds of profiles. Current concepts in forma-
tion of spodic horizons are based on formation of alu-
minum- and iron-humic chelates. Their mobilization to
the B horizons causes the formation of the spodic hori-
zon, a main characteristic of spodosols or podzols. This
process was called in the past “podzolization,” a name
that was phased out by the U.S. soil survey division,
creating confusion and arguments from a lot of inter-
national scientists.
Podzolization generally occurs in cool and humid con-
ditions in temperate regions under coniferous or other
types of vegetation yielding acid humus. An almost
similar condition can be found in Indonesia only in the
highlands or the tropical mountain-lands zone. Several
69071.indb 74 4/25/08 10:41:40 AM

other aspects in soil genesis related to organo-complex

formation will be discussed in Chapter 5, including for-
mation of albic horizons and translocation of clays.
In addition to its role in soil genesis, organo-metal
chelates play an important role in micronutrient avail-
ability to growing plants and hence benefit soil fertility
in general. Because of chelation, Lindsay (1974) reported
that mobilization by diffusion and mass flow of micro-
nutrient elements to plant roots was made possible. The
chelates are believed to provide the carrier mechanism
by which depleted micronutrients at the roots can be
replenished. However, availability of chelated iron,
zinc, and manganese is reported to be dependent on
pH and stability of the organo-metal complexes.
The cooler climate of the tropical highlands is also
ideal for the cultivation of many temperate region crops,
such as Irish potato, carrots, cauliflower, and cabbage.
The fresh produce can be harvested year long for sale at
local markets or in shops of big towns, such as Jakarta,
Bandung, Surabaya, and Medan. The latter proves to be
a very lucrative business for local farmers.
Conditions in the lowlands are quite different from
those discussed above for the mountain-land zone.
Due to the higher temperatures, decomposition of soil
organic matter in the lowlands generally occurs at a
very rapid rate, and hence, soil organic matter contents
are substantially lower than in the mountain lands.
The main soil formation process in the lowlands is con-
sidered desilicification, by which silica is released from
soil silicates by the prevailing drastic weathering due
to high temperature and humid conditions. Part of the
silica reacts with aluminum to form clay, and another
69071.indb 75 4/25/08 10:41:40 AM

part is subject to leaching in the constantly humid con-

ditions. Mobilization of iron and aluminum is at a very
minimum in the absence of adequate amounts of humic
acids, and these elements, instead, tend to accumulate
in the soil. The processes, as described, may also occur
in temperate regions but are usually more pronounced
in the humid tropics (Tan, 1998). In the past, such a
process of soil formation was known as laterization or
ferralitization. In essence, it is the reverse process of pod-
zolization. The soils formed were called latosols, the oxi-
sols in today’s U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
In the uplands, the zone between the lowlands and
the highlands or mountain lands, both podzolization
and laterization processes can occur simultaneously.
69071.indb 76 4/25/08 10:41:40 AM

chapter four
Vegetation of
Indonesia
4.1 Climax vegetation
The vegetation is believed to reflect the climatic pat-
tern of a particular region or country. The climate is
expected, in general, to put its imprint on the vegetation
developing in the region. Consequently, the growth of
the vegetation is adapted to and in balance with the pre-
vailing climatic conditions. The type and composition
of this vegetation, dictated by the climate, are called by
Jenny (1941) the climax association. Therefore, different
types of vegetation are present in Indonesia due to the
presence of different types of climates. Because three
major types of climates are recognized in Chapter 3,
three different types of climax vegetation may be pres-
ent in Indonesia—the tropical rain forest, the tropical
monsoon forest, and the tropical savannah forest.
4.1.1 The tropical rain forest

The tropical rain forest exists in the constantly wet areas
of the humid tropics. It is generally characterized by
77
69071.indb 77 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM

evergreen forms of vegetation, as far as it has not been

destroyed for farming and timber production. In its orig-
inal state, the forest looks awesome and impenetrable
due to an abundance of very dense vegetative growth.
In general, it is composed of a wide variety of plant spe-
cies, and only in very few exceptions can one find a rain
forest stand composed of a single plant species.
Another characteristic of the tropical rain forest is
that it often forms three distinctive layers of canopies.
The highest canopy is formed by very tall trees, often
40 to 60 m high, towering into the sky as rather isolated
or widely spaced trees above the second layer of the
rain forest. This second level is formed by 20- to 30-m-
tall trees that are grown more closely together, hence
yielding a dense canopy, like a roof. Below this second
level, a third level exists, consisting of small young trees
growing between a population of a variety of shrubs
and other types of ground vegetation. A large number
of creeping palms, thorny rattan plants, and many types
of lianas, climbing upwards from one tree trunk toward
another, add to the tangled image of a thick and dense
undergrowth. A layer of fresh litter, consisting of dead
and half-decomposed leaves and twigs, covers the soil.
In general, it takes at least 50 years to form a 20-cm-
thick litter layer under a healthy rain forest. This litter
layer is the lifeline for the rain forest due to its role in
nutrient cycling (Tan, 2000).
4.1.2 The tropical monsoon forest

The tropical monsoon forest exists in the tropical mon-
soon climate. The southeastern part of Indonesia in
69071.indb 78 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM

Chapter four: Vegetation of Indonesia 79
particular is covered by typical monsoon vegetation. In

general, it is mixed with a number of deciduous trees
that shed their leaves in the dry season. Though most of
the trees are not that tall, some can be as tall as those of
the tropical rain forest. For example, teak (Tectona gran-
dis), a characteristic monsoon forest tree, can grow as
tall as 50 m. The trees in a monsoon forest also grow
rather widely spaced from each other.
4.1.3 The tropical Savannah forest

The tropical savannah forest occurs only in limited
areas, such as in the eastern part of Nusa Tenggara,
which is under the influence sphere of the arid and
desert regions of Australia. It hardly resembles a true
forest, because the vegetation is substantially thinner or
less dense than that of the tropical monsoon forest. The
trees of the savannah forest (for example, Acacia and
Eucalyptus species) are more adapted to long dry sea-
sons. With lots of grass vegetation between the widely
spaced trees, the tropical savannah forest, looking
more like a park landscape, is excellent for grazing. The
remaining wildlife is unique to this region, especially
the small wild horses. Unfortunately, these horses are
now on the endangered species list, if not already con-
sidered extinct.
4.2 Vegetation provinces

Another method of describing the vegetation of Indo-
nesia is the concept of Van Steenis (1948), who divided
the archipelago into three vegetation provinces, each
69071.indb 79 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM

characterized by a distinctive association of forest veg-

etation, composed of specific plant genera. Van Steenis’
three vegetation provinces are the West Indonesian,
East Indonesian, and South Indonesian vegetation
provinces.
4.2.1 West Indonesian vegetation province

This province, characterized by a Dipterocarpaceae rain
forest (Figure 4.1), is subdivided as follows:
1. Dipterocarpaceae and Pinus forest of North

Sumatra.
2. Dipterocarpaceae and Ironwood (Eusideroxylon
zwageri) forest of South Sumatra.
3. Dipterocarpaceae forest of Kalimantan, with Iron-
wood on the southeast coast.
4.2.2 East Indonesian vegetation province

This province, characterized by an Agathis rain forest, is
subdivided as follows:
1. Agathis forest of Sulawesi.

2. Agathis forest with Ironwood, Melaleuca, and
sagopalm (Metroxylon spp.) of Maluku.
3. Agathis forest and alpine grassland in the Snow
Mountain range of Papua (West Irian).
69071.indb 80 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM

Figure 4.1 The Diterocarpaceae rain forest in the lowland of

North Sumatra with its dense undergrowth.
4.2.3 South Indonesian vegetation province

This province is characterized by a monsoon forest and
is divided as follows:
69071.indb 81 4/25/08 10:41:42 AM

1. Teak (Tectona grandis) and Casuarina forest of Cen-

tral and East Java.
2. Casuarina forest of Bali and Lombok.
3. Savannah vegetation on the eastern islands of
Nusa Tenggara and, in particular, in Timor. These
islands are also famous for sandalwood (Exocarpus
latifolia and Santalum album).
In addition to the major plant species listed above,

the three provinces are home to numerous other plant
genera. On the slopes of Mount Lawu in Central Java
(South Indonesian Vegetation Province), there are exten-
sive forest areas with trees, identified by Bloembergen,
Professor of Botany at Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB; Indo-
nesia), as Querqus spp. (personal communications). For
more detailed information on the vegetation of Indo-
nesia, the readers are referred to the multivolume Flora
Malesiana by Van Steenis (1954). Perhaps also of impor-
tance is the work of Heyne (1950) and the detailed vege-
tation map of the Forest Service of Indonesia as compiled
by Hannibal (Figure 4.2). It should be realized that this
vegetation map of Indonesia dates from the early 1940s
to 1950s, and the vegetation cover of Indonesia has since
then been changed drastically by wide-scale deforesta-
tion for crop and timber production, including illegal
logging, and by the resulting disastrous wildfires. Efforts
have been made to assess the destruction and the extent
of the remaining vegetative cover. By applying modern
techniques, such as Landsat satellite imagery, the Forest
Service of Indonesia is trying to update old data and old
maps.
69071.indb 82 4/25/08 10:41:42 AM

69071.indb 83
Chapter four: Vegetation of Indonesia
Figure 4.2 Vegetation Map of Indonesia by Hannibal (1940–1950). (Courtesy of Badan Planol-

ogy Kehutanan Indonesia. Forest Service of Indonesia, Jakarta.)
83
4/25/08 10:41:45 AM
4.3 Altitudinal vegetation zones

Because the vegetation will follow a specific climatic pat-
tern, as indicated in the aforementioned pages, in view
of the presence of altitudinal changes in the climate of
Indonesia, several vegetational zones can also be dis-
tinguished with increased elevations above sea level. In
general, five main types of climax vegetation are recog-
nized from the lowlands to the high-mountain lands—
the coastal flora, the rain forest, the mountain forest, the
cloud-belt forest, and the subalpine/alpine vegetation.
These altitudinal vegetation zones may occur both in the
humid tropics as well as in the tropical monsoon regions.
Some people may perhaps object, considering the coastal
flora as a zone of vegetation, caused by altitudinal changes
in climate. It is added here for the sake of completeness,
because the discussion starts from sea level.
4.3.1 The coastal flora

The coastal form is a determining factor in the forma-
tion of a coastal flora. Where extensive low-lying areas
are present, strongly influenced by the tides of the sea,
a Mangrove forest develops with many Rhizophora plants,
locally called bakau or bako-bako plants. Another well-
known mangrove plant is the Nipah palm (Nipa fruc-
ticans), whose leaves are used by local folks to make
baskets and roof-thatch. This kind of forest usually
flourishes on river mud under saline conditions. At the
more sheltered beaches, the gently shelving shorelines
of the Sunda shelf are usually bordered by such a man-
grove belt, varying in width from a few 100 m to several
69071.indb 84 4/25/08 10:41:45 AM

km. These are the kinds of swamps, often foul smell-

ing, that occur extensively on the east coast of Sumatra,
southern and southwestern coasts of Kalimantan, and
the southern coastal plain of Papua. The seawater brings
with the tide large amounts of sulfates that are retained
by the coastal sediments. Under anaerobic conditions,
the sulfates are reduced into H2S, which in turn will
react with iron to form FeS, giving to the sediments a
dirty black color (Tan, 2000). Together with the offen-
sive stench caused by the H2S gas, the dirty polluted
appearance often turns people away. Nevertheless, the
mangrove forest area provides shelter for many forms
of wildlife and is an important breeding ground for
many types of fish, shrimp, and shellfish.
It is typical to find that more inland, the mangrove
vegetation changes gradually into a brackish then into
a freshwater swamp vegetation. As soon as the soil
becomes mixed with more sandy material and the saline
condition decreases inland-ward, the typical mangrove
plants disappear gradually and rather selectively. First
to disappear are the Rhizophora plants of the Avicennia
spp. (locally known as kayu api), then second in line are
the Nipah palms. The freshwater swamp forest behind
the mangrove belt supports a large variety of other
palm trees. The Pinang palm (Areca catechu) trees flour-
ish in this kind of swamp and are sometimes found as
“monocultures” (Figure 4.3). The nuts, known as betel-
nuts, are favored as food by some wild cacatuas and are
used for chewing-consumption by local folks. They are
believed to be addictive, similar to chewing tobacco, and
bad for human health because of their contents of car-
cinogens. Another characteristic tree of the freshwater
69071.indb 85 4/25/08 10:41:45 AM

Figure 4.3 A “Pinang palm” (Areca catechu) forest in Ceram

(Moluccas) developed at riverbanks and floodplains under an
Afa (Köppen’s) climate type. The author is shown (on the left)
with his soil survey crew.
swamp area is the sago palm (Metroxylon spp.) that is

often harvested by the people (Figure 4.4). The starch
from the pith of the tree is used as food, in the thicken-
ing of gravy, or as glue and for the stiffening of clothes.
Quite a different type of coastal vegetation will develop
if the coast consists of a broad sandy beach. In this case,
dune formation often occurs, as is found along the
69071.indb 86 4/25/08 10:41:46 AM

Figure 4.4 A typical “sago palm” (Metroxylon sp.) forest in

the Moluccas, developed in river floodplains and freshwater
swamps.
northeast coast of Madura and the coastal regions border-
ing the Indian Ocean on the south and southwest coasts
of Java. More inland, behind the dunes, a beach forest usu-
ally develops, consisting of trees with fall-tinted leaves
and beautiful flowers, such as the Ketapang tree (Termi-
nalia catappa), the Hibiscus plants, and the Erythrina trees.
69071.indb 87 4/25/08 10:41:47 AM

The edible nuts of the Ketapang tree are often collected

for local consumption. However, on the sandy beaches,
exposed to the sea, a variety of salt‑tolerant grasses grow
(for example, Spinifex littoreus, locally known as rumput
angin [grass that breaks the wind]). This grass vegetation
is apparently protecting the beaches by encouraging the
dunes to form. Large numbers of coconut palms also
grow on the exposed beaches. Where the palm trees are
absent, Casuarina equisetifolia trees can be found growing
on the shorelines. The latter trees are locally called camara
(Indonesian for pine) trees, due to their long needle-like
leaves similar to pine needles.
4.3.2 The rain forest and the

mountain rain forest
Moving inland, the coastal vegetation gives way to a rain
forest as soon as the conditions become favorable for its
development. The rain forest starts at sea level but can
extend toward higher elevation. Usually the plants or
trees of the rain forest are very large and tall, often taller
as compared to those of the temperate regions. Temper-
ate region trees that can reach a height of 50 m belong to
the Quercus sp. In the humid tropics, a number of jungle
giants more than 60 m high are present. They are usually
adorned with the typical “plank roots.” Another charac-
teristic of a tropical rain forest is the prolific growth of
lianas, rattans, and an assortment of other epiphytes.
As this rain forest extends to higher elevations, its
composition changes with increasing altitude. Perhaps,
at elevations of 100 m above sea level, some typical
plants begin to disappear. Lianas and rattans become
69071.indb 88 4/25/08 10:41:47 AM

gradually more slender and grow very poorly. Other

plants will start to disappear or decrease in numbers at
500 to 700 m above sea level, whereas temperate region
plants then make their appearance between the indige-
nous flora. This is, for instance, the case with the Diptero-
carpaceae that decrease in number at this high elevation.
At the same time, plants, typical for a mountain flora,
appear and gradually increase in number. For example,
at an elevation of 500 m above sea level, Quercus (oak
or Kayu pasang) and Castanea javanica (locally called Ki
hiyur) or Castanea argentea (Saninten) trees start to flour-
ish. The fruit of the Saninten tree resembles the tem-
perate region chestnut. At higher elevation, the Schima
noronhae tree (Kayu puspa) becomes dominant. The lat-
ter is considered a truly typical mountain tree.
In many regions, the mountain flora may be domi-
nated by a single species of trees. Such is the case with
the coniferous forest in North Sumatra and in Central
and East Java. In these regions, the mountain flora tends
to be dominated by Pinus merkusii, an indigenous pine
species, as indicated before.
The influence of a monsoon climate on the rain forest
and mountain flora can be noticed by the appearance of
plants adapted to a periodic drought period. Then the
flora consists more of deciduous plants, such as Tectona
grandis (teak) in the lowlands, and Quercus trees in the
case of a mountain forest.
4.3.3 The cloud-belt forest

This name is probably better than the name “High
Mountain Forest” as given by Mohr (1922). With
69071.indb 89 4/25/08 10:41:47 AM

increasing altitudes, the mountain rain forest, as dis-

cussed in the preceding section, is gradually replaced
by a cloud-belt forest. The conversion starts to take place
when the condensation level of water vapor in the sky is
reached. At this elevation, lots of fog, mist, and clouds
are consequently produced, which usually hang over
the mountainsides. This is why the name cloud belt is
preferred in this book. This condensation level may be
reached at 1000 to 1500 m above sea level, but depend-
ing upon the conditions elsewhere, it may also begin at
an altitude of 2000 to 2400 m.
The cloud-belt forest is sometimes considered an
impoverished type of a mountain rain forest. Due to
the misty conditions producing high relative humidity,
its flora is typified by trees draped by many kinds of
mosses. At the lower boundary of the cloud-belt zone,
plants typical of the mountain rain forest still exist,
though in decreased numbers. With increasing alti-
tudes, they soon disappear to be replaced by increas-
ing numbers of Laurantaceae, Myrtaceae, and coniferous
plants. At the highest boundary of the cloud-belt forest,
the trees are often distorted in appearance and stunted
in growth. These trees, knotty and gnarled by the cold
mountain winds, will soon also disappear when at
higher elevation the timberline is reached.
4.3.4 The subalpine vegetation

At higher elevations above sea level, the cloud-belt forest
will be replaced by a subalpine vegetation. As indicated
above, at the highest boundaries of the cloud-belt zone,
the trees can still be relatively tall, though they are more
69071.indb 90 4/25/08 10:41:47 AM

dwarfed and gnarled in appearance, especially when

the “tree level” or “timberline” is reached. This level
depends on the local climate, topography, and geomor-
phology, but generally it starts at approximately 2400
to 3000 m altitude above sea level. The large fluctua-
tions between maximum and minimum temperatures
at these highest elevations in Indonesia, together with
the low relative humidity and low air pressure, require
exceptional adaptation for the vegetation to grow. This
cold and windy area above the timberline is often
called the subalpine zone. However, true alpine condi-
tions exist only in the Snow Mountain range of Papua
(West Irian).
Due to low temperatures and fierce winds, the veg-
etation tends to be grasses, bunch grasses, and shrubs.
Most of the shrubs have felt or velvety and hairy leaves
and twigs as adaptations and protection against the
severe or harsh growing conditions. A good example
of such a plant is the Edelweiss plant (Anaphalis javanica
or Leontopodium alpinum) found on the mountaintops in
Java and South Sulawesi. At the lower boundaries of the
subalpine zone, close to the timberline, some dwarfed
and distorted trees can still be seen growing in the bleak
landscape. Some rhododendron shrubs are also found
struggling to survive at this altitude. Sporadic surveys
and visits to the top of the mountains in Java, with their
subalpine vegetation and areas of pollengrass or bunch
grass, gave the impression to the author of this book
that they somewhat resemble the Tussock grassland in
the mountains of New Zealand.
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69071.indb 92 4/25/08 10:41:48 AM
chapter five
Soil formation,
classification,
and land use
5.1 Soil-formation factors
By previous conventional standards of pedology, the
character of the soil is attributed largely to the effect
of interactions of five major factors of soil formation:
climate, vegetation, parent material, topography, and
time (Jenny, 1941; Joffe, 1949; Robinson, 1951; Taylor and
Pohlen, 1962). Apparently this concept is still relevant
today, because it has not been challenged, but, instead,
has been quoted in many modern textbooks of soil sci-
ence (Brady and Weil, 1996; Miller and Gardiner, 1998;
Soil Survey Staff, 2006b).
As explained in the preceding chapters, many kinds
of rocks and volcanic parent materials, several types of
climates, different forms of vegetation, a great varia-
tion in topography, and landforms of different ages are
present in Indonesia. Though a great variety of soils
may have been expected to form in view of so many
differences in soil-forming factors, surprisingly this
93
69071.indb 93 4/25/08 10:41:48 AM

seems not to be the case. The pattern of the soil’s distri-

bution in the archipelago is also more regular as would
not have been expected from the presence of the large
number of different soil-formation factors.
5.2 Soil-forming processes

The interaction of the factors of soil formation may be
expressed by a series of soil-forming processes, which
generally involve complex physical, chemical, and bio-
logical reactions. The reactions may occur simultane-
ously, or a sequence of reactions one after another is
involved. Generally, it is believed that the soil is formed
by the combined action of additions of organic matter
and inorganic materials to the surface, transformation
and new formation of compounds within the pedon,
vertical transfer of soil constituents, and removal of soil
components from the soil body (Simonson, 1959; Tay-
lor and Pohlen, 1962). The type of processes involved
varies according to the conditions, and many processes
have been recognized in this respect as reasons for the
formation of different kinds of soils in the world (Buol
et al., 1973; Robinson, 1951; Taylor and Pohlen, 1962).
Previous well-known processes of soil formation are,
for example, laterization, podzolization, calcification,
salinization, and gleyzation, representing processes for
warm humid, cool humid, semihumid, arid, and poorly
drained conditions, respectively.
Unfortunately, this concept of soil-forming processes
has been phased out by the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture (USDA) Soil Survey, which is promoting a con-
cept based solely on soil morphology (Soil Survey Staff,
69071.indb 94 4/25/08 10:41:48 AM

Chapter five: Soil Formation, Classification, and Land Use 95
1975, 2006a). Differences in soils are determined by soil

profiles only, which are defined as the major factor for
causing variations from soil to soil. A number of diag-
nostic properties have been developed and assigned to
several of the soil horizons for use in identification of
soil differences (Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 2006a, 2006b).
The soil-forming process in question should then be
read between the lines. This idea of the USDA is appar-
ently considered an excellent concept, because many
agreed to use it without question. However, a large
number of scientists also have voiced concerns that
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy system is often not applicable
to conditions different than those in the United States.
Many also believe that the concept is too artificial and
somewhat distorted to fit U.S. conditions. It should be
revised and adapted appropriately when used in quite
different or foreign soil ecosystems. Reading soil-form-
ing processes in abstraction from morphological data is
very risky and may lead to different interpretations.
The following issues may serve as an example about
the difficulties using the USDA system. Questions have
arisen, for instance, as to what the soil-forming process
of oxisols is in the USDA system. Considering oxisols
to be formed by oxidation is very unclear for many,
whereas relating the concept of ECEC (effective cation-
exchange capacity), one of the diagnostic properties for
an oxic horizon, to an oxidation process is stretching
too far the principles of oxidation in soil chemistry. In
addition, the identification of oxisols solely on their
morphological characteristics is often very confusing in
Indonesia and many other countries, because several of
the morphological features are to the eye often similar
69071.indb 95 4/25/08 10:41:48 AM

to those of ultisols and some alfisols in the lowlands.

Many more examples can be given, but it is beyond
the scope of this book to address the weaknesses and
strengths of the American system. It is sufficient to say
here that the USDA Soil Taxonomy is an excellent sys-
tem, but abandoning or phasing out well-established
concepts of soil-forming processes is perhaps unwar-
ranted, if not arrogant. Why can the theories of soil-for-
mation processes not exist side by side with the USDA
Soil Taxonomy system? As far as can be noticed, the two
theories do not conflict with each other and can be used
to support each other. Scientists around the world have
frequently, but discretely, used the processes of soil for-
mation to underscore or emphasize the presence of a
soil after doubts were raised when applying the U.S. Soil
Taxonomy (FAO-UNESCO, 1998, 2006, 2007a). Many of
the allegedly old terms, for example, podzols and saline
soils, are still in use in Germany and the United States,
respectively. The advantage of using both systems in
parallel can be summarized by the following conclu-
sion. By recognizing the factors of soil formation, the
soil-formation process, and reflected characteristics in
the soil profile, geographic units of soils may be distin-
guished more properly and their distribution mapped.
For completeness, the soil-formation processes will be
discussed in the following sections, and their interpreta-
tion in somewhat more modernized versions addressed.
5.2.1 Previous concept of soil-forming processes

In the early stages of development of the concept, only
five major soil-formation processes are considered of
69071.indb 96 4/25/08 10:41:48 AM

importance, as indicated above in the preceding section.

However, several other processes have been discovered
and added since the 1950s. The additions include ferral-
ization and allitization (Kovda, 1964; Robinson, 1951),
lixiviation (Mohr, 1922; Mohr at al., 1972), rubification
(Kubiena, 1962), illimerization (Kanno, 1961), argilliza-
tion, and melanization (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962). For
the purpose of explaining the meaning of the terms, a
list of the soil-forming processes is given below:
1. Laterization: This is a process in which silica and

bases tend to be lost with the subsequent accu-
mulation of sesquioxides in the pedon. A warm
humid climate is a requirement for a complete
decomposition of primary minerals, releasing the
Si, bases, Al, Fe, and other components. The soils
produced were called latosols, lateritic soils, and
laterites. Using the U.S. Soil Taxonomy, these soils
are renamed today as oxisols. The additional pro-
cesses, as proposed earlier by Robinson (1951) and
Kovda (1964), are, in this author’s opinion, only
subprocesses of laterization. Therefore, the pres-
ent author suggests dividing laterization into the
following two subdivisions:
a. Ferralization: A subprocess of laterization
involving also strong chemical weathering, by
which silica is removed, causing sesquioxides,
mainly Fe2O3, to accumulate.
b. Allitization: This is the second subprocess, also
involving strong chemical weathering by which
silica is removed and leaving Al2O3 to accumu-
late in the residue (= soil).
69071.indb 97 4/25/08 10:41:49 AM

The two subprocesses are often used by Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO [United Nations])
scientists, which in combination are believed by
the present author to be the reason for the devel-
opment of the FAO ferralsols. The latter can be con-
sidered another alternative name for latosols or
oxisols.
2. Podzolization: This term is still used today by
the FAO and WRB (World Reference Base for Soil
Resources) systems for the formation process
of podzols by which a rapid translocation takes
place of iron, alumina, clay materials, and humic
acids to the B horizons, yielding soil profiles with
well-developed eluvial E and illuvial B horizons.
Bases are also depleted by leaching, causing the
soils formed to become very acidic. In a sense,
the process is a reverse process of laterization.
It requires the presence of a cool humid climate
and vegetation yielding acidic humus. The humic
acids formed play an active role in the mobiliza-
tion process by forming aluminum and iron che-
lates. The processes of mobilization of aluminum,
iron, and clays in the form of metal (clay)-organo
chelates are called cheluviation (leaching) and chil-
luviation (accumulation) by the FAO and WRB sys-
tems (FAO-UNESCO, 2007c). The soils produced
were called podzols, brown podzolic, and gray-brown
podzolic soils, which translate into spodosols and alfi-
sols, respectively, in the new U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
The name podzol is still used in Germany and
many other East European countries, as indicated
above.
69071.indb 98 4/25/08 10:41:49 AM

3. Calcification: This term is used for a process of

soil formation in which the surface soil is kept
supplied with calcium to saturate the soil colloids
to a high degree, rendering them in this way rela-
tively immobile. This process requires the pres-
ence of a semihumid to semiarid climate, as found
in the Midwest of the United States, in the Medi-
terranean, and in the monsoon regions of Indo-
nesia. The process yields soils previously called
chernozems, brown forest soils, and red-yellow Medi-
terranean soils. The equivalents in the U.S. Soil Tax-
onomy are the mollisols, inceptisols, and alfisols,
respectively.
4. Salinization: This is the name for a soil process
by which soluble salts tend to accumulate in the
soils. The process requires an arid climate where
the average precipitation is less than 500 mm (20
in.) annually. The amount of H2O from precipita-
tion is insufficient to neutralize the amount lost by
evaporation and evapotranspiration. As the water
is evaporated in the atmosphere, the salts are left
behind to accumulate. In the past, the soils devel-
oped were called saline soils, solonchaks, or white
alkali soils. Today these soils are called aridisols by
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
a. Solonization: This is a process of removal of
excess salts from the solonchaks, producing sol-
onetzic soils or solonetzs, which are called arid
isols by the U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
b. Solodization: This is a process of transloca-
tion of salts and highly dispersed soil colloids
to deeper horizons. The salts accumulated by
69071.indb 99 4/25/08 10:41:49 AM

salinization may eventually saturate the soil-

exchange complex with Na. Increasing the
sodium saturation is in fact a sodication process
that also results in increasing the soil pH. The
latter is referred to as alkalinization; hence, sol-
odization is often also called sodication and
alkalinization. The soils produced were previ-
ously called solods, sodic soils, or black alkali soils.
Today they are the aridisols of the U.S. Soil Tax-
onomy, no difference in name or nomenclature
from the saline soils.
Note: The “older” names given above for the salt-
affected soils are still in use today. However, the
groups have been simplified, and each is distin-
guished by criteria on the basis of electrical conduc-
tivity (EC), and exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) (Miller and Gardiner, 1998; Richards, 1954;
Tan, 1998):
1. Saline soils are characterized by values of EC
4 mmho/cm at 25°C and ESP < 15%. The dis-
persion of saline soils starts at ESP = 15%. The
soil pH is ordinarily ≤ 8.5.
2. Saline-alkali soils are soils with EC > 4 mmho/
cm at 25°C and ESP > 15%. The soil pH is nor-
mally ≥ 8.5.
3. Nonsaline-alkali soils have EC < 4 mmho/cm
at 25°C and ESP > 15%. The soil pH ranges
from 8.5 to 10.
The selected criterion of 4 mmho/cm is sup-
posed to be the limit at which salt damage to
69071.indb 100 4/25/08 10:41:49 AM

crops starts to occur (Kamphorst and Bolt, 1976;

Richards, 1954).
5. Gleyzation: This is a soil-forming process under
the influence of excessive moisture conditions, nor-
mally caused by poor drainage. Sometimes also
referred to as gleying (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962), the
process takes place in anaerobic environments,
where iron is reduced yielding the specific grayish
and rusty colors. It often occurs in the presence of
organic matter in wet soils with low or deficient
oxygen content. The process is not restricted to
any type of climate and can occur intrazonally. The
soils formed are called in general terms, hydromor-
phic soils, though gleysols are recognized in the FAO
and Canadian systems of Soil Taxonomy. The U.S.
Soil Taxonomy placed them in an aqua suborder.
6. Lixiviation: This is a process involving mechani-
cal removal of fine materials from the upper soil
layers, without the breakdown of primary miner-
als and without the activity of soil organic matter.
7. Rubification: This is a nonlateritic red earth forma-
tion, used by Kubiena (1962) in soil micromorphol-
ogy, characterizing a soil fabric he called rotlehm.
8. Illimerization: This is a process of clay migra-
tion to deeper layers in the soil profile and is also
known under the names of lessivage and perhaps
ferralitization. It is not exactly a soil-forming pro-
cess, but more the reason for formation of Bt or
argillic horizons of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy.
9. Argillization: This is the formation of clays by
chemical decomposition or weathering of miner-
als in the parent rocks.
69071.indb 101 4/25/08 10:41:50 AM

10. Melanization: This is the formation of thick dark

surface horizons, enriched with soil organic mat-
ter with narrow C/N ratios. The U.S. Soil Taxon-
omy recognizes a melanic epipedon.
The first five in the list above are the major soil-for-
mation processes that were well established and exten-
sively used before they were phased out in the United
States. The remainder (6 through 10) are not exactly soil-
forming processes, but only big noises from well-known
scientists. The latter is perhaps one reason why the
USDA Soil Survey Division is opposed to using them.
As can be noticed from the descriptions, they are more
responsible for formation of a specific soil horizon, or
are just simply weathering processes without forming
a specific soil.
5.2.2 Today’s versions of soil-forming processes

Efforts have also been made by several scientists to
replace the traditional soil-forming processes as dis-
cussed above with new terms, which boils down to
modernizing the old versions only. The new versions of
soil-forming processes with applicability to the devel-
opment of pedons, such as desilicification, will be dis-
cussed below, including translocation of clays and of
aluminum and iron, which are more related to the for-
mation of argillic, albic, spodic, and oxic horizons.
5.2.2.1 Desilicification
Desilicification is a process in which silica is released
from soil silicates. Part of the silica reacts with alumina
69071.indb 102 4/25/08 10:41:50 AM

to form clay, whereas the remainder is subject to leach-

ing. Consequently, the soil will lose its silica but at the
same time will gain sesquioxides and other types of
clays due to residual accumulation of stable weather-
ing products. This process may occur in the tropics
or in temperate regions in the presence of sufficient
amounts of moisture and the right temperature. Usu-
ally it is more pronounced in the humid tropics. As can
be noticed from the explanation above, it is just a new
name for a previously well-known soil-forming process
called laterization or ferralitization. A continued disilicifi-
cation process over geologic time periods will ultimately
transform the Al2O3 minerals into bauxite (Tan, 1998).
The solubility of silica is dictated by the law of poly
merization. Silica remains soluble at concentrations of
140 mg/L in the pH range of 2 to 9 (Krauskopf, 1956;
Millot, 1970; Tan, 1998). Polymerization occurs when the
concentrations of silica exceed 140 mg/L, but this can
be prevented by the presence of humic acids. Humic
substances and other organic acids are known to form
complexes or chelates with silica, as illustrated in Fig-
ure 5.1. In the form of a chelate, silica remains soluble
and is free to move with the percolating waters, a pro-
cess enhancing desilicification. The author believes that
this is the process by which silica and organic matter
are lost during the formation of oxisols. It explains the
low silica-to-sesquioxide ratios and low organic matter
contents in oxisols.
5.2.2.2 Silicification
This is a reverse process of desilicification that occurs
under poorly drained conditions and low permeability.
69071.indb 103 4/25/08 10:41:50 AM

OH
O Si OH
COOH OH
Complex Formation
O OH
Si
COO OH
Chelation
Figure 5.1 Complex formation and chelation between monosi-

licic acid and humic acid. (From Tan, K.H. [1998].)
Leaching is inhibited, preventing loss of silica. The
resulting increase in H4SiO4 activity may lead to the
formation of smectites and illites, characterizing the
vertisols in the lowlands of East Java (Tan, 1998; Van
Schuylenborgh, 1971). Under changing physicochemical
conditions, smectite can be transformed into kaolin-
ite and the latter into gibbsite, or vice versa, by desi-
licification and silicification processes, as illustrated in
Figure 5.2. These reactions are referred to as transfor-
mation by Singer (1979).
5.2.2.3 Translocation of clays

This process, leading to the enrichment of B hori-
zons with clays, was earlier called illimerization or les-
sivage (Buol et al., 1973; Taylor and Pohlen, 1962). Such
B horizons are referred to as argillic (Bt) horizons in
69071.indb 104 4/25/08 10:41:51 AM

Desilicification
O2 or OH
Al
Si
Smectite Kaolinite Gibbsite

Silicification
Figure 5.2 Desilicification and silicification of smectite,

kaolinite, and gibbsite. (From Tan, K.H. [1998].)
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Why did the USDA Soil Sur-
vey suggest terminating this concept of soil-forming
processes, favoring the use of soil morphology? In the
author’s opinion, the terms illimerization or lessivage
are more attractive and more explanatory than the use
of morphology or profile characteristics. The same is
true for laterization, podzolization, and the like.
The migration of clays from A to B horizons is made
possible by peptization of the clays, which is enhanced
by interactions of the clays with humic acids (Greenland,
1971; Tan, 1976). Though the exact mechanism is not
known, the hypothetical reaction, as shown in Fig-
ure 5.3, serves as an example. The reaction adds an
acidic group (COOH) to the clay surface and increases
the negative charge of the clay. The surface potential of
the clay–organic complex is then larger than that of the
clay alone. Consequently, the electrokinetic potential,
related to the zeta (ζ) potential, becomes larger. As a
69071.indb 105 4/25/08 10:41:52 AM

Si O
Al OH + HO COOH
Si O
CLAY
Org. Comp
Si O
Al O COOH + H2O
Si O
Clay-Organic Complex
Figure 5.3 Formation of humo–clay complexes.

clay–organic complex, the clay remains suspended for
a longer time and moves downward with the percolat-
ing water. Several reactions are responsible for deposi-
tion and clay accumulation in the B horizon. Movement
of clay stops where the percolating water stops, result-
ing in flocculation of clay. Capillary withdrawal of
water from the pores into the soil fabric deposits clay
on walls of pores and peds, producing the argillans or
clay skins.
5.2.2.4 Translocation of aluminum and iron

The downward movement of aluminum and iron
together with organic matter results in formation of
albic (E) and spodic (Bhs) horizons. This process was
called podzolization, giving rise to formation of pod-
zols (spodosols). Several scientists believe that podzols
69071.indb 106 4/25/08 10:41:52 AM

are formed by a process called lessivage. However, the

latter process may explain the formation of argillic (Bt)
horizons but does not justify the translocation of alumi-
num, iron, and organic matter, required for the devel-
opment of spodic horizons or podzols.
Most of the iron subject to translocation comes from
the decomposition of biotite and ferromagnesian miner-
als. For mobilization of iron to take place, the soils must
be well drained, and hence, most of the iron is in oxi-
dized form—in other words, it is in Fe(III) ionic form.
The possible ionic forms of Fe(III) are Fe3+, Fe(OH)2+,
Fe(OH)2+, Fe2(OH)4+, and Fe(OH)4− (Van Schuylenborgh,
1966). For more details on the chemistry, solubility, and
mobilization of Fe compounds, including redox reac-
tions, reference is made to Tan (1998).
Almost all soil silicates are sources for aluminum.
The ionic forms of Al(III) are Al3+, Al(OH)2+, Al(OH)2+,
Al(OH)4−, Al2(OH)24+, Al2(OH)42+, Al4(OH)102+, and
Al6(OH)126+. For more details on the chemistry, solubility,
stability, and mobilization of Al, reference is made to
Tan (1998) and Van Schuylenborgh (1966).
The general consensus is that the pH range in many
soils is such that most of the aluminum and iron com-
pounds are essentially insoluble and hence immobile.
The possibility of migration of aluminum and iron in
their ionic forms shown is very small. Other agents are
required to make them more soluble. Evidence has been
presented that decomposition products of soil organic
matter, and especially humic acids, are capable of solu-
bilizing the insoluble substances by complex reactions
or chelation (Tan, 2003). As a complex or chelate, alu-
minum and iron may remain soluble at pH ranges that
69071.indb 107 4/25/08 10:41:53 AM

make them usually insoluble. Stability and mobility of

these complexes depend also on the metal concentra-
tion in the soil solution and saturation of the humic
exchange sites. If the aluminum or iron concentrations
are low, complexes will be formed in the A horizon
with low metal/organic ligand ratios. In this case, the
amount of silicon and iron chelated are insufficient to
cause immobilization of the organo-metal compounds.
The complex or chelate is then free to move down
the pedon (De Coninck, 1980). During the downward
migration, the chelates may pick up additional polyva-
lent cations, resulting in progressively decreasing their
negative charges. The presence of higher cation con-
centrations in the subsoil and an acidity different from
that in the A horizon may eventually neutralize the
remaining charges. The consequent precipitation of the
chelates gives rise to the development of spodic (Bhs)
horizons, diagnostic for spodosols (podzols) of the U.S.
Soil Taxonomy.
5.2.2.5 Redox reactions

Reduction and oxidation reactions occur in almost any
soils but have not been regarded or emphasized as a
soil-forming process. Redox reactions, in fact, contribute
to formation of plinthite and gley horizons (Tan, 1998).
Gleying is especially significant in poorly drained soils,
such as the paddy soils where artificial inundation of
the soil is a required operation for the cultivation of
lowland rice (Tan, 1968).
By definition, reduction is a gain in electrons, whereas
oxidation is a loss of electrons, as illustrated by the clas-
sical reaction as follows:
69071.indb 108 4/25/08 10:41:53 AM

reduction
Fe3+ + e− ←

 → Fe2+
 (5.1)
oxidation
Oxidation reactions usually occur in well-drained

soils. On the other hand, reduction processes are more
likely to be predominant in poorly drained soils or
where excess water is present. Usually known as the
soil redox state, this condition occurs in almost any soils.
Both oxidation and reduction conditions can occur
simultaneously in the soil. While the surface layers of
the pedon are in an oxidized state, the subsoil layers
may be in a reduced condition owing to a fluctuating
groundwater level. The latter may lead to pseudo-gley
formation or to plinthization.
The redox system in soils affects stability of iron and
manganese compounds. To a certain extent, micro-
bial activity and accumulation of organic matter are
also affected. Fresh organic matter is thought to aid
formation of a reduced condition. Bloomfield (1953,
1954) reported that aqueous leaf extracts reduced Fe(III)
into Fe(II) in soils. The mobilization of iron and man-
ganese due to redox conditions and subsequent forma-
tion of iron- and manganese-organo chelates, has been
reported to give rise to formation of iron-B, followed by
manganese-B horizons in paddy soils (Tan, 1968). In tidal
floodwater zones, reduction processes play a consider-
able role in formation of sulfur-rich soils, as discussed
in earlier publications (Tan, 2000).
Soils with different redox conditions may also react
differently upon N fertilization. In well-drained soils,
ammonium-N is subject to nitrification and con-
verted into nitrates (NO3–). However, if the ammonium
69071.indb 109 4/25/08 10:41:53 AM

fertilizer is applied to a reduced soil, such as to paddy

soils, it remains available as ammonium (NH4+). For
more details on the redox system and redox potentials
in soils, reference is made to Tan (1998).
5.2.3 Influence of climatic variations

on soil-forming processes
In the humid tropics of Indonesia, movement of water
tends to be downward in the pedon, enhancing leaching
of bases and other soil elements released by the rapid
decomposition of soil minerals. Under these conditions,
laterization or desilicification has been considered
to be the major soil-forming process in the lowlands,
provided drainage conditions are favorable (Tan and
Van Schuylenborgh, 1961a; Van Schuylenborgh and
Van Rummelen, 1955). On the other hand, podzoliza-
tion has been detected as the process of soil formation
at higher altitudes, especially in the highlands or in
Mohr’s mountain lands. In between the two zones, a
transitional zone exists, earlier called the uplands,
where both laterization and podzolization have been
noticed to occur simultaneously.
5.2.3.1 Mineralization versus humification

The zonal divisions of soil-forming processes above are
caused by the changing climates with elevation above
sea level, yielding differences in the rates of organic
matter decomposition. As indicated earlier, in the low-
lands, organic matter is observed to be mineralized
completely, and only very small amounts of humic sub-
stances have been formed. The peculiar picture of a
69071.indb 110 4/25/08 10:41:54 AM

tropical soil profile in Indonesia, exhibiting a very thin

litter layer (O horizon) on top of the mineral part of the
soil, tends to give support to the above. Consequently,
one would expect the role of humic substances to also
be very minimal, if any at all, in soil formation in the
humid tropical lowlands of Indonesia. Because of the
rapid mineralization of soil organic matter into CO2,
H2O, and other substances, several Dutch scientists
were of the opinion that the weathering agent, percolat-
ing through the pedon, is therefore mainly water con-
taining CO2 (Hardon, 1936a; Van Schuylenborgh, 1958).
Hence, the rate of mineralization of soil organic matter
and the rate of diffusion of CO2 gas into the soil and the
atmosphere are considered the determining factors for
soil formation in the humid lowlands. The produced
CO2 dissolves in soil moisture and may form carbonic
acid. The reaction may be illustrated as follows:
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (5.2)
In pure water, the amount of CO2 dissolved gener-

ally amounts to 0.984 × 10−5 moles/L, which is based on
air, containing 0.03% CO2 (at 1 atm pressure), that is in
equilibrium with water. The partial pressure of this CO2
(Pco2) equals 0.29 × 10−3 atm. The value of Pco2 in soil
air is expected to be somewhat higher than in ordinary
air because of production of additional CO2 due to min-
eralization, respiration of roots, and microbial activity.
For the chemical calculations using Henry’s law, refer-
ence is made to Tan (2000).
Dissolved carbon dioxide, CO2, affects many biologi-
cal and chemical reactions in soil. It is used by aquatic
69071.indb 111 4/25/08 10:41:54 AM

plants, such as algae, in photosynthesis (Tan, 2000). It

is chemically active and interacts with soil moisture to
form carbonic acid as indicated above and hence may
affect the soil pH. Carbonic acid is a weak acid and will
dissociate some of its protons, as indicated by the reac-
tion below:
→ HCO−3 + H+
H2CO3 ← (5.3)
By applying the mass action law, Van Schuylenborgh

(1958) reported the following relationship to be valid:
(HCO−3 )(H+ )
k= = 3.5 × 10−7 (5.4)
(H2CO3 )
He then calculated, with Equation 5.4 and Henry’s

law, the pH values of soil moisture at different levels
of Pco2 and came to the conclusion that at Pco2 = 0.25
× 10−3 atm, the soil pH = 4.23. The partial pressure above
is close to that of a normal CO2 content in air in contact
with water. Once again, for detailed chemical calcula-
tions, reference is made to Tan (2000) and Van Schuylen-
borgh (1958).
Though the value of PCO2 in soil air was considered
higher due to respiration of plant roots and microbial
activity, it can nevertheless be argued that the litter
layer (O horizon) of soils in the lowlands of Indonesia is
often very thin. This condition makes possible a rapid
exchange of the produced CO2 with the atmospheric
air above by diffusion. Consequently, the partial pres-
sure of CO2 is expected not to rise significantly above
0.25 × 10−3 atm in soil air, with the result that the pH of
the percolating water is still around 4.23 to 4.0. This is
69071.indb 112 4/25/08 10:41:55 AM

then the main weathering agent, which has an acidic

strength similar to that of weak acids.
At higher elevations, or in the highlands of Indonesia,
quite different processes are taking place. Due to the
prevailing cooler climate, chemical activities are some-
what subdued. The litter layer (O horizon) tends to be
better developed and is often considerably thicker than
that in the lowland soils. Consequently, more humus is
expected to be formed. Oxidation of soil organic matter
will also be less intensive, whereas mineralization tends
to be replaced by humification processes. The weather-
ing agent is, therefore, soil moisture, containing high
amounts of humic substances and other organic acids.
It appears that these organic compounds are playing a
greater role in soil formation than carbonic acids, espe-
cially at altitudes of 1000 m above sea level or higher.
Therefore, in the humid tropical highlands, podzolization
is considered as the main soil-forming process. The
effects of humic acids in soil formation, and especially
in translocation of clays (illimerization) and of alumi-
num and iron, resulting in formation of albic and spodic
horizons, have always attracted a lot of research atten-
tion (Aarnio, 1913; Bloomfield, 1953, 1954; De Coninck,
1980; Gallagher, 1942; Jones and Wilcox, 1929; Tan, 1986;
Van Schuylenborgh and Bruggenwert, 1965). The prin-
ciples of mobilization and immobilization of aluminum
and iron as a result of chelation by humic acids have
also been sufficiently discussed in the sections above.
In the monsoon zones, the soils are affected by a
seasonal alternating water movement. During the wet
season, water may percolate downward, favoring lateri-
zation to take place in the lowlands. Laterization is still
69071.indb 113 4/25/08 10:41:55 AM

the main soil-forming process, especially in regions

with very short dry seasons. It is also noticed that the
process can proceed to higher altitudes in the monsoon
regions. Whereas in the humid tropics, laterization is
pronounced only at altitudes of ≤600 m above sea level,
in the monsoon regions laterization is still detected at
1000 m above sea level. In monsoon areas, where the dry
season is especially longer and sharper, water move-
ment tends to be upward during the dry season, and
because of this, some calcification processes are more
likely to accompany the process of laterization.
Calcification is noticed to become more pronounced
in monsoon regions with very long dry seasons. This is
then the reason why the soils in the monsoon zones are
less acidic in reactions than the soils in the constantly
humid areas.
From the discussion above, the conclusion can be
made that the condition in the humid highlands
approaches that of a cool humid climate in temperate
regions, where humification is believed to be more
important than mineralization. This can be supported
perhaps by the data in Table 5.1, showing organic mat-
ter content and its C/N ratio in a temperate region soil
versus soils of the highlands and monsoon regions of
Indonesia. The C/N ratios of the gray-brown podsolic
soil in the humid tropics of the Indonesian highlands
compare favorably with those of its counterpart soil in
the United States. The data indicate that these ratios
decrease with depth in the profile, meaning that organic
decomposition products richer in nitrogen have been
produced (that is, humic substances). However, a dif-
ferent trend was observed in the brown podzolic soil
69071.indb 114 4/25/08 10:41:55 AM

Table 5.1 Organic C Contents and C/N

Ratios of Temperate Regions and Indonesian
Soils
Gray-Brown
Gray-Brown
Podzolic Soil Brown Podzolic
Podzolic Soil
(Alfisol), Humid Soil, Monsoona
(Alfisol), USAb
Tropicsa
Hor. %Cor C/N Hor. %Cor C/N Hor. %Cor C/N

A — 14.0 A 9.45 12.6 A 12.0 18.7
E — — E 7.19 9.2 — — —
B — 10.1 Bt1 5.45 7.9 Bt1 7.84 16.9
C — 7.6 Bt2 2.73 6.3 Bt2 7.65 21.4

a From Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1961a)
and Van Schuylenborgh, J. and Van Rummelen, F.
F.F. (1955).
b From Anderson, M.S. and Beyers, H.G. (1934).
of the monsoon regions in Indonesia. The C/N ratio is

noticed to decrease slightly from A to Bt1 horizons, to
increase again in the Bt2 horizon. The old terms in soil
classification have been used above, because no name
is available in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy system that com-
pares closely to the brown podzolic soil of the Indone-
sian monsoon region.
5.2.4 Influence of parent materials

on soil formation
Results of investigations indicate that the parent mate-
rial plays a very important role in soil formation in
Indonesia (Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1961a; Van
Schuylenborgh, 1957, 1958; Van Schuylenborgh and Van
69071.indb 115 4/25/08 10:41:56 AM

Rummelen, 1955). It appears that on andesitic volcanic

material quite different soils have been formed than
on dacitic or liparitic materials under similar climatic
conditions. Tan and Van Schuylenborgh (1959, 1961a)
have detected formation of predominantly latosols, the
current oxisols, on intermediate parent materials, such
as andesitic tuffs. In contrast, red-yellow podzolic soils
(the ultisols of today) were found on liparitic tuff, which
is classified as an acidic parent material (see Chapter 2
for definitions of the geologic terms). Both observations
were valid for the lowlands under similarly constant
humid climates.
Compared to the ultisols of the southern region of
the United States, the Indonesian ultisols and oxisols
are relatively much younger in age. The American ulti-
sols were formed after the latest ice age, the Wiscon-
sin Ice Age, which is equivalent to the Würm Ice Age
of Europe. Accordingly, they are not more than 25,000
years old. The soils in Indonesia originate from volca-
nic deposits of late Holocene to subrecent geologic age,
which is estimated to be about 12,000 years old. It can
be further argued that the Indonesian soils most likely
do not represent final stages in their process of forma-
tion but are transitional forms to other soils. In addi-
tion to the above, the prevailing higher temperatures
in Indonesia induce a more rapid weathering process to
occur than in the temperate region zones of the United
States. As discussed earlier, the average annual tem-
perature in Indonesia may fluctuate from 13 to 20°C,
whereas this temperature in the United States may
vary from 7 to 10°C. This is a difference of about 9°C.
The law of Van’t Hoff indicates that the rate of chemical
69071.indb 116 4/25/08 10:41:56 AM

reaction increases two- to threefold with an increase

of 10°C in temperature (Tan, 2000). Hence, it is perhaps
warranted to conclude that in Indonesia a certain stage
in soil formation would be reached in only one-half
to one-third of the time of that required in temperate
regions. The faster rate of weathering and soil forma-
tion is supported by the following facts. On August 26
and 27, 1883, a disastrous eruption of the Krakatau vol-
cano in the Sunda Strait occurred. Enormous quantities
of volcanic dust were ejected in the air, covering neigh-
boring Lang Island with volcanic deposits of more than
30 m in thickness. Forty-five years later, on October 31,
1928, Versteegh discovered a soil profile with a surface
soil of 35 cm in thickness.
In addition to the rate of weathering as discussed
above, an important factor affecting soil formation is
the intensity of weathering, which is also entirely differ-
ent between Indonesia and the United States. The issue
of weathering intensity is especially important for soil
formation in the mountain zones of Indonesia, where
humification plays a significant role in the decomposi-
tion of soil organic matter (see next section).
5.2.5 Precipitation and evaporation

ratio and weathering intensity
The conclusion was made in the preceding section that
soil formation was also affected by the intensity of
the weathering process, which particularly affects soil
formation in the mountains of Indonesia. The issue is
closely related to the strength of the soil solution. The
concentration of the liquid percolating through the
69071.indb 117 4/25/08 10:41:56 AM

parent material in Indonesia is believed to be much

lower than that in temperate regions. This is perhaps
caused by a dilution of the leaching solution due to the
fact that precipitation always exceeds evaporation in the
humid tropics as compared to the temperate regions. In
Indonesia, the evapotranspiration of a mountain forest
in West Java is estimated to be 860 mm of water per
year (Coster, 1937), which is considerably lower than the
amount of annual precipitation. Because North Suma-
tra has a comparable humid climate as West Java, its
evapotranspiration figure is reported to be the same.
However, the evapotranspiration value in East Java is
reported to be somewhat higher due to the presence of
a monsoon climate. Nevertheless, when the average is
taken, the mountain soils in Indonesia as a whole have
been formed in climates exhibiting a rainfall/evapo-
transpiration ratio of 3:6. In the temperate regions, this
ratio of precipitation/evapotranspiration is entirely dif-
ferent. For instance, the zone of podzolic soils, and in
particular of the alfisols (gray-brown podzolic soils),
in the United States (Beyers et al., 1935) lies in a belt,
in which the precipitation/evaporation ratio fluctuates
between 1.1 and 1.5. This ratio is perhaps a little on the
high side, because the evaporation index used includes
data of evaporation from a free water surface and hence
does not represent the loss of water by evapotranspira-
tion of a natural forest vegetation. Nevertheless, a trend
can be noticed that the ratio is substantially smaller
in the United States than in Indonesia. The conclusion
may then be drawn that dilution of the weathering solu-
tion is much greater in Indonesia than in the United
States. Therefore, weathering intensity is expected to
69071.indb 118 4/25/08 10:41:57 AM

be much smaller in Indonesia but considerably greater

in the United States. This difference explains the fact
why in Indonesia the same soils as in the United States
can be developed from more acidic or from less basic
parent materials. The following examples are given to
illustrate the differences in effect of the strength of the
leaching soil liquid on translocations of aluminum and
iron in Indonesian and temperate region soils. The data
in Table 5.2 compare the mobilities of aluminum and
iron, as expressed by the molar ratios of Al2O3/Fe2O3
in soils of Indonesia and the United States. As can be
noticed, this ratio is relatively constant with depth in the
profile of a latosol (oxisols), soils formed by laterization.
Table 5.2 Molar Al2O3/Fe2O3 Ratios of Selected Soils in
Indonesia and the United States
Red-Yellow Gray-Brown
Latosols Alfisols (Miami
Podzolic Soils Podzolic Soil
(Oxisols)a Silt Loam)b
(Ultisols)a (Alfisols)a
Horizon Al2O3 Horizon Al2O3 Horizon Al2O3 Horizon Al2O3
Fe2O3 Fe2O3 Fe2O3 Fe2O3
A1 5.50 A/E 5.28 A1 4.75 A1 4.68
A2 5.17 Bt1 5.32 E 5.85 E 4.55
A3 5.13 Bt2 6.10 Bt1 7.47 B 3.19
AC 5.09 C 8.90 Bt2 8.26 C 3.38
C 5.39
a From Van Schuylenborgh, J. and Van Rummelen (1955); Van

Schuylenborgh, J. (1957, 1958); Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylen-
borgh, J. (1959).
b From Beyers, Alexander, and Holmes (1935).
69071.indb 119 4/25/08 10:41:57 AM

As explained earlier, the weathering solution here is

composed mainly of water and CO2, which was consid-
ered a relatively weak leaching solution for soil forma-
tion. However, the Al2O3/Fe2O3 ratio increases from A
to C horizons in the red-yellow podzolic soil (ultisols)
and the gray-brown podzolic soils (alfisols) of Indone-
sia. This may suggest that translocation of aluminum
is greater than that of iron compounds. The solubility
constants (pK value) of aluminum and aluminum–
organic complexes are generally smaller than those of
iron and iron–organic complexes. At a pK = 32.0, the
concentration of soluble Al3+ is calculated by Tan (1998)
to be 1 × 10−2 moles/L. It agrees with the concept that
strongly acidic soils (pH = 4.0) contain large amounts
of aluminum. When similar calculations were made by
Tan (1998) for amorphous Fe(OH)3, an Fe3+ concentra-
tion of 1 × 10 –8.2 moles/L was obtained for a soil with
a pH = 4.0. This supports the allegations above that
iron is more insoluble than aluminum. Consequently,
aluminum and aluminum–organic complexes may
move earlier down the pedon than iron–organic com-
plexes (Tan, 1998; Van Schuylenborgh, 1966). When the
alfisol (Miami silt loam) of the United States is exam-
ined (Table 5.2), a quite different trend can be noticed.
The Al2O3/Fe2O3 ratios decrease with depth in the soil
profile, which can only mean that iron is made more
mobile than aluminum. The latter is believed to hap-
pen only when other agents are present in concentra-
tions capable of producing a stronger leaching solution
for chelating more iron. Due to the general presence of
humification processes in the temperate regions, the
concentration of the soil solution percolating through
69071.indb 120 4/25/08 10:41:58 AM

the pedon of the Miami silt loam is apparently higher

in humic acid content or other organic substances than
in the Indonesian soils.
5.3 The system of soil

classification in Indonesia
In prewar time, the classification of soils in Indonesia
followed the Dutch concept. A review of the system and
the work done in this field is given by Edelman (1947).
After World War II, the system of soil classification, as
developed in the United States, replaced the older Dutch
system. At first, soil classification based on the zonality
concept gained popularity and was soon adapted for use
in soil survey and soil taxonomy in Indonesia without or
with slight modifications, especially at the universities.
This concept grouped the soils into zonal, intrazonal,
and azonal groups (Baldwin, Kellogg, and Thorp, 1938;
Thorp and Smith, 1949). Using this system of soil taxon-
omy, the Soil Research Institute at Bogor started in 1955
to undertake a systematic survey of the soil resources in
Indonesia. A five-year working plan was established in
this respect in cooperation with the soils division of the
FAO-UN. A lot has been achieved, but only a small part
of the results has been published (Dudal and Jahja, 1957;
Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1957).
The zonality system above was later changed some-
what by Supraptohardjo (1961), who presented a revised
system based on soil morphology. The use of soil pro-
files in the identification of soils was believed to be
able to eliminate the many difficulties encountered in
69071.indb 121 4/25/08 10:41:58 AM

soil survey and mapping. The modification places a

lot of emphasis on profile characteristics as shown in
Table 5.3, whereas elements of soil genesis or soil-form-
ing factors failed to be considered.
With the progress in education starting in the 1960s,
many Indonesian scientists sent to universities and
research institutions in the United States with the Ken-
tucky Contract Team (KCT) and Midwestern Universi-
ties Consortium for International Activities (MUCIA)
projects (see Chapter 1) became exposed to the new
U.S. Soil Classification system. At first introduced by
the USDA Soil Survey Division under the title of 7th
Approximation, A Comprehensive System of Soil Classi-
fication (Soil Survey Staff, 1960), the system was later
revised to become the current Soil Taxonomy, A Basic
System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting
Soil Surveys (Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 2006b). One of the
major difficulties encountered in applying the U.S. sys-
tem in Indonesia should be briefly mentioned here. The
U.S. Soil Taxonomy is unfortunately very difficult to
read not only for many U.S. scientists, but especially
for overseas soil experts, whose primary languages are
not English. The text is excessively wordy, and overuse
of “one of the following,” followed by the many “ors”
and “eithers,” with long sentences in between, makes
one forget, when reaching the final words, what the
issue was in the beginning. An example is the follow-
ing: “Organic soils are soils that (1) have organic soil mate-
rials that extend from the surface to one of the following:
(a)...., or (b)..., or (2)..., and (a)...(1)...or (2)...etc.” (Soil Survey
Staff, 1990, p. 39, 2006a). And this example is not the
worst. The many choices and selections phrased in one
69071.indb 122 4/25/08 10:41:58 AM

Table 5.3 Soil Classification Used at the Soil

Research Institute, Bogor, Indonesia
Category Profile Development Great Soil Group
Without Profile
A. Organic Soil 1. Organosol
Development
2. Lithosol
I. Weak (A)C or
B.Mineral Soil 3. Regosol
No Profile
4. Alluvial Soil
II. AC with Prominent 5. Grumusol
A1 or Chernozemic A 6. Rendzina
III. A(B)C with
7. Andosol
Prominent A1
8. Brown Forest
IV. A(B)C with Color B
9. Noncalcic
Brown Soil
V. ABC with Textural B 10. Red-Yellow
or Color B and High Mediterranean
in Bases Soil
VI. ABC with Latosolic B 11. Latosol
VII. ABC with Textural/ 12. Red-Yellow

Color B and Low in Podzolic Soil
Bases 13. Lateritic Soil
VIII. ABC with Podzol B 14. Podzol
IX. ABC with Prismatic/

15. Solonetz
Columnar B
16. Groundwater
Podzol
X. AC/ABC with Gley 17. Groundwater
horizon and Podzol Laterite
B or Textural B or 18. Gray Hydro-
Textural B or Color B morphic Soil
or Prominent A or 19. Low Humic
Saturated with Ca, cs, Gley Soil
and sa 20. Humic Gley
21. Planosol
22. Solonchak
Sources: Supraptohardjo, M. (1961); Dudal, R. and Supraptohardjo,

M. (1957).
69071.indb 123 4/25/08 10:41:59 AM

extremely long paragraph are not only mind boggling,

but also violate the rules of writing textbooks, journals,
or reports. Nonetheless, several of the younger genera-
tion of soil scientists tried to apply the new U.S. system
in Indonesia but soon realized that it has to be modified
somewhat and adapted to local conditions. The Bogor
Soil Research Institute has used a modified version in
revising its Exploratory Soil Map of Indonesia. The 2000-
version soil map, as shown in Figure 5.1, recognizes in
its index the following divisions of soils in Indonesia,
listed below by the author in descending order from
soils with the largest acreages.
Percent (%) of Total Area

Inceptisols 38.51
Ultisols 24.27
Entisols 9.62
Oxisols 7.50
Histosols 7.01
Mollisols 4.56
Alfisols 2.77
Aridisols 2.55
Spodosols 1.16
Vertisols 1.15
Miscellaneous 0.90
The total soil acreage is listed as 1,882,102 km2 (Cen-

tre for Soil and Agroclimate Research, 2000). As can be
noticed, several of the soil orders occur in very small
acreages (for example, alfisols, spodosols, and verti-
sols), perhaps for reasons that they are not recognized
69071.indb 124 4/25/08 10:41:59 AM

or truly occur only in a limited extent. This will be dis-

cussed in later chapters.
5.4 Land use in Indonesia

The soils above are used in agriculture for the culti-
vation of food, estate, and industrial crops. The major
food crops grown in Indonesia when ranked by acre-
ages are rice, corn (called maize in European countries),
cassava, and soybean. As noticed from Table 5.4, the soil
acreages under rice far exceed those cultivated by other
food crops, with corn second, cassava third, and soy-
bean fourth in importance. Other crops, not stated here,
are found in smaller soil acreages than the four above.
From the data, it seems that the biggest concentrations
of rice cultivation are on the islands of Java and Suma-
tra, with 5 million and 3 million hectares under rice,
respectively (Biro Statistik Indonesia, 1999; FAO-WFP,
Table 5.4 Acreages of Major Food Crops of Indonesia
(× 1 Million Hectares)
Island Rice Corn Cassava Soybean
Java 5.00 1.80 0.69 0.67
Sumatra 3.00 0.65 0.27 0.20
Sulawesi 1.20 0.45 0.07 0.06
Kalimantan 1.00 0.05 0.04 0.09
Bali and N. Tenggara 0.63 0.34 0.13 0.15
Moluccas and West 0.04 0.10 0.02 0.03
Papua
Total 10.87 3.39 1.22 1.20
Sources: Biro Statistik (1999); FAO-WFP (1999); Fisher, C.A. (1966).
69071.indb 125 4/25/08 10:41:59 AM

1999). The figures refer perhaps to acreages of lowland

rice and to these should perhaps be added the acre-
ages of upland rice cultivation. It is important to note
that whenever possible, the people in Indonesia prefer
growing lowland rice or rice grown in inundated fields,
called paddy-sawah. Most of the sawah fields are located
on oxisols, ultisols, inceptisols, entisols, and peat soils
(histosols). Rice is a major staple food crop, and the 1999
paddy production was estimated to be 48.6 million tons,
an amount not much different from the 48.5 million
tons reported for 1998. According to the Biro Statistik,
Indonesia had to import in the year 2000 an additional
3.1 million tons of rice to feed its population.
The most important estate and industrial crops are
rubber, oil palm, tea, coffee, cocoa, copra, and spices. A
distinction was made by the Agency for Agricultural
Research and Development (AARD, 1986) to divide the
nonfood commodities into industrial and estate crops.
Crops produced by large plantations owned by the
government or large companies are classified as estate
crops (for example, tea, coffee, cocoa, and oil palm). All
other crops produced by smallholders, owned by small
farmers, are called industrial crops (for example, coco-
nut [copra], fiber crops, and spices). The rubber oil palm
and coconut palm estates, for the production of copra,
are generally found in lowland areas, where the climate
is most suitable for growing these plants. On the other
hand, tea, coffee, and cocoa estates are usually culti-
vated in the upland and highlands of Indonesia. They
are considered mountain crops, and the best tea and
coffee plantations are found in the cool mountain cli-
mate of Indonesia. Tea requires a cool humid tropical
69071.indb 126 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM

Af climate, and hence, most of the tea plantations are in

the mountains of Sumatra and West Java. On the other
hand, coffee is more adapted to a cool monsoon Am cli-
mate of the mountains of East Java. The name Java Coffee
is derived from this island. Another important estate
crop is sugarcane, whose cultivation is limited to low-
land areas with an Ama climate. This type of climate
is found in the lowlands of East Java where most of the
sugarcane estates are therefore located. The soils are
the vertisols with poor physical properties. Indonesia
is also known as the spice islands, and these spices were
the reasons for the Portuguese and Dutch companies to
venture east in the early days of the 1500s and 1600s. The
major crops producing spices, cultivated in Indonesia,
include pepper (Piper nigrum), clove (Eugenia caroyphyl-
lata or aromatica), and nutmeg (Myristica fragans). Pepper
plants are vines and are mostly grown by smallholders
in the Lampung lowland of South Sumatra and on the
islands of Bangka and Belitung. The pepper fruits, in
the form of kernels, are processed into black and white
pepper, respectively, for marketing. The final product is
locally called collectively merica or lada. White pepper is
the specialty of the Bangka islands, whereas black pep-
per is produced in the Lampungs. The clove trees were
orginally grown in the Mollucas, but the cultivation
was extended to West Java in the late 1960s due to soar-
ing demands for cloves by the domestic cigarette, called
kretek, industry. However, during the 1990s, clove culti-
vation seemed to wind down again due to unfavorable
government interference and because of import com-
petition from Zanzibar, Africa. The trees are grown in
West Java primarily in the lowlands on ultisols and on
69071.indb 127 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM

upland andosols. The flower buds are harvested green

and dried to produce the brown-colored cloves, locally
called cengkeh. Nutmeg (locally known as pala) trees are
also grown originally in the Molluccas, but as is the
case with cloves, its cultivation has been extended to
other islands of the Indonesian archipelago. The fruits
are very tangy and sour in taste and the large pits or
seeds inside the fruits yield after proper drying the
nutmegs (called biji pala; biji = pit), whereas the mem-
brane or fleece enveloping the nuts is producing the
nutmeg mace (locally known as kembang pala; kembang
= flower). More details on the cultivation and regional
importance of major agricultural crops will be provided
in the soil sections.
69071.indb 128 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM

chapter six
Soils in the lowlands

of Indonesia
6.1 Introduction
These are the soils that have been formed primarily by
laterization processes under the influence of year-round
humid tropical climates. Rapid and drastic weather-
ing processes are dominant, whereas organic matter is
usually mineralized into CO2, H2O, and their mineral
components. Humification is of little importance and
plays a minor role in soil formation. The major soils,
discussed in the following sections, are the latosols,
called oxisols, and red-yellow podzolic soils, called
ultisols, by the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff,
2006b). These soils tend to occur mainly in Köppen’s
Afa types of climates. As will be discussed in the sec-
tions below, it is very difficult to compare these soils in
Indonesia with those listed in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy;
hence, the Food and Agriculture Organization–United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organiza-
tion (FAO-UNESCO, 2006) and World Reference Base
(WRB) for Soil Resources (FAO-UNESCO, 1998) systems
are also consulted for proper delineations of the soils
129
69071.indb 129 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM

in question. For example, in Indonesia the ultisols can

be distinguished into lowland and upland ultisols. As
will be discussed, the lowland variety tends to be red-
yellow podzolic soils defined by acidic parent materi-
als, whereas the upland variety is more the zonal group
of red-yellow podzolic soils formed in tension zones
where both podzolization and laterization are occur-
ring. These terms of soil-forming processes are currently
phased out in the soil science of the United States, but
fortunately they are still in use and currently valid in
the FAO and WRB systems. Other important soils in the
lowland of Indonesia are the red-yellow Mediterranean
soils and grumusols, for convenience called lowland
alfisols and vertisols, respectively. Both soils are typical
in their occurrence in Köppen’s Ama climate, a mon-
soon-type climate different from the year-long humid
tropical climate of the oxisols and ultisols. This chapter
will also discuss the peat soils that occur extensively in
the coastal regions of Indonesia, which are called histo-
sols by U.S. soil scientists but are named tropical peat
soils by FAO-UN scientists (Andriesse, 1988). The soils
have recently attracted worldwide attention due to their
reclamation for food and timber production. The disas-
trous deforestation in the efforts above and the ensuing
damaging wildfires have alarmed the regions in South-
east Asia.
6.2 Oxisols
This group of reddish-colored soils of Indonesia, for-
merly known as latosols, has received considerable
attention. They are confined to the tropics (Beinroth,
69071.indb 130 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM

Chapter six: Soils in the Lowlands of Indonesia 131
1973), and many ideas concerning their genesis and

classification were suggested (Edelman, 1950; Har-
ris, 1963; Kellogg, 1949; Prescott and Pendleton, 1952).
Many arguments and objections still exist concerning
its nomenclature. Names such as terra roxas have been
suggested (Beinroth, 1973), and many other names were
introduced for this group of soils, some akin or related
to the term latosols, and others only stressing the kind
of presumed soil-forming process that may have taken
place (Aubert, 1954; Cline, 1955; Harris, 1963; Mohr and
Van Baren, 1960). The U.S. Soil Taxonomy has completely
deleted the term latosols in favor of oxisols (Soil Survey
Staff, 1975, 1990). All of them seem to have the effect in
making the problem even more complicated.
The name laterite was first used for this group of soils,
as introduced by Buchanan in 1807 (see Prescott and
Pendleton, 1952), and from which the term laterization is
derived for the weathering and soil-forming processes
of this soil. This has led to the development of names
such as laterites, lateritic soils, and latosols. Generally, it
is accepted that the process of formation of this kind of
soil involves the removal of silica, alkali, and alkaline
earth with the consequent concentration of iron and
aluminum oxides and their hydrated forms. The latter
was discussed in Chapter 5.
In Indonesia, this group of soils occupies most of the
lowlands, especially in Java. On the other islands, these
soils do not seem to be very important, and their occur-
rence seems to be limited to small areas or regions—in
South Sumatra (Lampung province), in West Sumatra
(Padang and surroundings), in the southeastern cor-
ner of Kalimantan, in South Sulawesi, and in North
69071.indb 131 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM

Sulawesi (Minahassa province). For more details about

the distribution of these soils, see the Exploratory Soil
Map of Indonesia (Figure 1.2). If one would consult pre-
war reports (Mohr, 1938), a far greater distribution of
latosols (or oxisols) in the Indonesian archipelago than
is stated above would be noticed. This problem will be
addressed in more detail in the following pages.
6.2.1 Parent materials

The latosols (oxisols) in Indonesia are derived from a
wide variety of parent materials. They have been formed
from basic to intermediate materials, such as quaternary
andesitic volcanic tuff, volcanic lahar, and river deposits
or Miocene sediments, provided good drainage condi-
tions prevail. Tertiary materials have formed soils, usu-
ally classified as ultisols (red-yellow podzolic soils) by
the Bogor Soil Research Institute (Dames, 1955), though
their morphological features are similar to those of the
latosols. The morphological criterion used to differen-
tiate ultisols from latosols was in the past the quartz
content. The Bogor Soil Research Institute thought that
in this way mapping problems could be easily solved.
The soils containing quartz were mapped as ultisols,
and soils without noticeable quartz content were iden-
tified as latosols. However, that this action creates a lot
of confusion is apparent. The central concept of latosols
(oxisols) does not exclude the existence of quartz in the
soil. True latosols (or the current oxisols) may, in fact,
contain quartz (Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 1975; Harris,
1963). Latosols, which morphologically do not exhibit
quartz, contain appreciable amounts of quartz in their
69071.indb 132 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM

sand fractions when analyzed by petrographic means

(Table 6.1).
This separation of latosols from ultisols, based on the
quartz content, is one of the reasons why the distribution
of latosols (oxisols) in Indonesia is not as large as would
have been expected from prewar reports. Many of the
soils, which could have been classified as oxisols, are
now mapped as ultisols by virtue of the quartz content.
The latosols in the lowlands, from Bogor to the coastal
plain of Jakarta, originate from parent materials pro-
duced by recent quaternary eruptions of the Salak and
Pangrango-Gedeh volcanoes. This andesitic volcanic
material stretches northward as a volcanic fan from the
foot (±600 m above sea level) of the above-stated moun-
tains to the plain of Jakarta (Verstappen, 1953). Accord-
ing to Verbeek and Fennema (1896), this volcanic fan can
be divided into two sections: a younger section and an
older section. The existence of such a separation is sup-
ported by results of petrographic (Table 6.1) and par-
ticle size distribution analyses (Table 6.2). The younger
section, which is andesitic tuff and exhibits a hyper-
sthene to hypersthene-augite association (Tan and Van
Schuylenborgh, 1959), occupies the area of Bogor north-
ward to regions located at elevations of 100 to 150 m
above sea level. From here onto the plain of Jakarta, the
older section is found, which was determined as dacito-
andesitic, a more siliceous material than the younger
andesitic volcanic tuff. The division line can be drawn
at the Ciluar profile, where the quartz content of the
sand fraction suddenly increases (Table 6.1), and where
the particle size distribution of the soil also changes
abruptly (Table 6.2). Other indications for the more
69071.indb 133 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM

69071.indb 134
Table 6.1 Mineralogical Composition of Total Sand Fraction of Oxisols
134
Mag-. Iron Silicon Zeo-. Hydr-. Volcanic Plagio-. Horn-. Hyper-. Stone Miscel-.
Horizon netite Quartz Concretion Organic lite argillite Glass clase blende Augite sthene Olivine Fragment laneous
Brown Latosol, Pasir Muncang (West Java), ±400 m above Sea Level
A1 17 1 5 — 1 — 5 24 tr 7 12 — 1 27
A3 29 2 4 — — — 10 17 2 3 5 — 2 26
B1 13 2 15 1 tr tr 5 7 2 1 7 tr 4 43
B2 13 3 8 1 — — 7 10 tr 1 5 — 1 51
C 46 3 3 — — — 5 19 — — 10 — — 14
Brown Latosol, Bogor (West Java), ±300 m above Sea Level

A1 21 4 3 — tr tr 4 12 tr 5 11 — 1 39
A3 22 3 2 — — tr 3 4 1 4 11 — 5 45
B1 19 3 6 — — 1 1 15 tr 2 7 — 5 41
B2 35 tr 9 — 1 — 1 2 tr — 1 — 1 50
4/25/08 10:42:02 AM
69071.indb 135
Reddish-Yellow Latosol, Ciluar (West Java), ±150 m above Sea Level
A1 75 16 tr — — 2 3 tr — 1 3 — — 2
A2 31 2 8 tr — 5 4 — 7 25 — 1 17
B1 30 7 6 — — 17 6 7 — 3 16 — 4 20
B2 43 12 14 — — 20 — 2 — 2 4 — 3 20
B3 50 6 15 2 — 20 2 1 — — tr 4 20
Red Latosol, Cibinong (West Java), ±100 m above Sea Level

A1 38 10 9 tr 2 — 10 2 — 2 8 — 7 12
A2 52 8 10 1 1 — 9 — — — 7 — 3 9
B1 51 12 12 1 tr — 3 1 — tr 3 — 3 14
B2 54 5 18 1 1 — tr — — — 1 — 2 18
Chapter six: Soils in the Lowlands of Indonesia
Red Latosol, Passar Minggu (West Java), Plain of Jakarta, ±50 m above Sea Level
A1 35 22 18 tr — — 7 1 — 5 1 — 5 6
A2 51 18 10 — 1 — 2 2 — — 3 — 8 5
B1 57 17 14 — — — 2 tr — — tr — 6 4
B2 54 12 23 — 1 — — — — tr — — 5 5
B3 41 17 36 — 1 — — — — — — — 3 2
135
4/25/08 10:42:02 AM
Table 6.2 Particle Size Distribution of

Latosols (Oxisols)
Soil Percentage
<50 + 50–2 <2 +
Profile I (7.5YR 4/4) A1 5.96 49.97 42.92

(Brown Latosol) A2 4.25 53.14 41.64
Pasir Muncang B1 5.10 33.86 59.11
B2 4.76 32.14 61.69
C 15.57 27.64 56.32
Profile II (5YR 4/4) A1 5.54 33.79 58.59

(Reddish-Brown Latosol) A3 5.38 36.85 54.98
Bogor B1 4.32 33.47 60.34
B2 3.92 30.89 61.71
Profile III (5YR 4/8) A1 1.16 14.45 81.12

(Red-Yellow Latosol) A2 1.88 18.57 78.71
Ciluar B1 1.23 14.89 81.70
B2 1.04 7.58 86.66
B3 1.09 13.35 85.50
Profile IV (5YR 4/6) A1 1.71 12.92 83.25

(Red-Yellow Latosol) A2 1.99 13.07 82.84
Cibinong B1 1.01 9.26 88.53
B2 1.85 8.10 89.31
Profile V (2.5YR 4/6) A1 0.86 11.49 86.15

(Red Latosol) A2 0.73 11.82 86.15
Pasar Minggu B1 0.66 8.08 88.39
B2 0.74 6.97 90.62
B3 0.57 11.04 86.15
siliceous nature of the older andesitic tuff in the plain

of Jakarta are the lower hypersthene and especially the
substantially lower augite counts in the red latosols of
both Cibinong and Pasar Minggu (Table 6.1). Hence, to
indicate the more siliceous nature of the materials in the
69071.indb 136 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM

plain of Jakarta, the name dacito-andesitic tuff is given.

Hypersthene and, in particular, augite are minerals
often used as markers for the presence of intermediate
to the more basic volcanic tuff (for example, andesite to
basalto-andesitic tuffs) (Mohr and Van Baren, 1960).
Another issue in connection with the parent materials
is the opinion that basic parent materials will produce
the darker-colored latosols, whereas siliceous volcanic
materials would give rise to the development of lighter-
colored latosols (Dames, 1955). See Table 6.2, where ref-
erence is made of brown- to reddish-brown (7.5-5YR
4/4)-colored latosols (oxisols) formed on the younger
parent materials, whereas yellowish-red to red (5-2.5YR
4/6)-colored latosols (oxisols) were found on the older
parent materials. Though higher organic matter content
may be a factor in producing the darker colors of the
latosols at higher elevations, it is believed that under
equal climatic and environmental conditions, the higher
iron content of the basic materials is another reason for
formation of soils with darker colors. When the parti-
cle size distribution of the soils is studied (Table 6.2),
it can be noticed that the Ciluar, Cibinong, and Pasar
Minggu profiles are composed of fine particles. They
are conspicuously lower in sand and higher in clay con-
tents than the Pasir Muncang and Bogor soil profiles,
which are located closer to the center of eruptions. This
may perhaps suggest that in addition to age and cli-
mate, other factors may have played a role in the forma-
tion of the different colors, such as texture of the parent
materials. It is reasonable to expect that only the finest
materials have been transported farther away from the
volcanoes and have reached the places in the coastal
69071.indb 137 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM

plain of Jakarta. As a general rule in physical chemistry,

the finer the particles, the greater will be the surface
area for better and easy attack by forces of weather-
ing. Hence, soils are formed in the plain of Jakarta with
high clay contents. Due to the prevailing hot climate in
the plains, dehydration and dessication of iron miner-
als tends to occur, giving rise to development of hema-
tites, which impose their intense bright red and yellow
colors to the latosols. On the other hand, the minerals
in the latosols (oxisols) of Bogor and higher elevations
are more goethite-like in nature, generally carrying
the dark brown colors. Mohr (1938, 1944) believes that
the coastal plain of Jakarta in question was in the past
most probably inundated by the Java Sea. Therefore,
the older parent materials would have been deposited
more likely in the sea, or after their deposition in the
Pleistocene age have been subjected to a sea bath. Either
the volcanic tuffs were submerged at one time, or after
having been weathered into brown-colored soils were
temporarily submerged in the sea. Either or both of
these treatments are thought to be sufficient to bring
about the dehydration of iron oxide minerals and the
consequent development of bright red colors.
6.2.2 Climate
As previously discussed in Chapters 1 and 3, latosols
(oxisols) are found in Indonesia as a zonal belt in the
humid lowlands, from sea level to places at elevations
of 600 m above sea level (Tan, 1958; Van Schuylenborgh,
1957). In this belt, they are formed under the influ-
ence of a humid tropical rain forest climate, classified
69071.indb 138 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM

by Köppen as an Afa climate (Table 6.3). In drier, mon-

soon (m), climates, they have been noticed to occur at
higher altitudes to approximately 1000 m above sea
level. Here, the climate is classified as Köppen’s Ama,
which is similar to a humid tropical rain forest climate,
but with a slight influence of a dry season. In general,
it was noticed by various Dutch scientists, as well as
by the present author, that the regions of occurrence of
latosols are within the limits of Köppen’s Afa to Am cli-
matic types. Latosols rarely occur in Indonesia in As
and Aw (savannah or aridic) climate types, and with
the prevailing concepts of soil survey and classification
in Indonesia, these soils are also seldom found in areas
with Cf (mesothermal) climates. Therefore, with our
present knowledge, no conclusions can be made as to
the relationship or correlations of Indonesian latosols
with the proposed subdivisions of oxisols into udox,
ustox, and torrox of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 1960, 1990). Tentatively, it can perhaps be stated
that latosols in Indonesia, falling in the udox subor-
der, most probably will be found in Afa climatic areas,
the ustox and torrox in Aw to As climates, if any. This
is one of the issues or drawbacks of applying the U.S.
Soil Taxonomy in foreign countries. There is no ques-
tion that it is a good system, but as indicated before,
it applies only for conditions in the United States. The
classification system also seems to be too artificial,
because the use of morphology only complicates and
further confuses the issue. To the new generation of soil
scientists not acquainted with the concept of the soil-
forming processes of latosols, the terms ustox and torrox
indicate that these oxisols have been formed under dry,
69071.indb 139 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM

69071.indb 140
Table 6.3 The Climate of Latosol (Oxisol) Areas in Indonesia
140
Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
<60 mm >100 mm Climate a
Location Rainfall Soil
m Months mm Köppen S&F
West Java
(Humid)
Pasar Minggu 35 3.2 7.9 2173 Afa C Latosols
Depok 95 2.0 9.9 3130 Afa A
Bogor 266 0.3 11.5 4230 Afa A
Gunung Mas 1100 0.6 10.9 3585 Af A Podzolic
C&E Java
(Monsoon)
Tasikmadu 100 3.5 7.5 2533 Ama C
Karangpandan 600 3.7 7.6 2776 Ama C Latosols
Tawangmanggu 950 3.1 8.0 3194 Am C
Sarangan 1250 3.4 7.7 2533 Cfhi C Podzolic
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldest month >18°C; C = coldest months
between 18 and −3°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; h = annual temperature >18°C;
i = difference between coldest and warmest months <5°C; m = monsoon.
4/25/08 10:42:05 AM
arid conditions. As defined in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy

(Soil Survey Staff, 1990), even the author is inclined to
think that ustox are soils derived in ustic and torrox
in aridic soil moisture regimes. However, the formation
of oxisols (or the former latosols) requires the presence
of lots of water, high temperatures, and well-drained
conditions, as conditioned by the definition of lateriza-
tion. It is very difficult to realize how these conditions
can be met in an ustic, torrox, or other aridic soil mois-
ture regime. True, these soils can be found in the dry
climates, but this does not necessarily mean that they
have been formed under the influence of the “aridic”
climate. Many believe that these oxisols are “relics” and
may have originally been formed in Afa to Am climatic
regimes. After formation, the climate has changed into
the aridic types of climates where the oxisols are now
found.
Another important problem is the influence of chang-
ing climate with increasing altitudes on the formation
of oxisols with different colors in Indonesia. As dis-
cussed above, brown to reddish-brown latosols (oxi-
sols) are generally found at higher elevations (300 to
1000 m) above sea level, whereas red-yellow to red lat-
osols (oxisols) are usually noticed at lower elevations
(200 m to sea level). This difference was explained in the
preceding section as due to differences in parent mate-
rials. However, it should also be realized that organic
matter tends to accumulate more in soils at higher alti-
tudes than in soils at lower elevations above sea level. As
discussed earlier, mineralization of soil organic matter
prevails in the lowlands, whereas humus formation and
accumulation are favorable in the soils of the uplands
69071.indb 141 4/25/08 10:42:05 AM

and highlands. The resulting difference in organic mat-

ter content is an additional reason for the occurrence of
darker-colored latosols in the uplands and lighter-col-
ored latosols in the lowlands of Indonesia. When lato-
sols (oxisols) also occur in association with andosols,
intergrades are formed at the border regions, formerly
called black latosols (Tan, 1959), which perhaps exhibit
some resemblance to the humic latosols of Hawaii (Cline,
1955). The U.S. Soil Taxonomy thought to cover some
of these latosols (oxisols) by classifying the brighter
(lighter)-colored soils as rhodic hapludox or kandiudox
and the humus-rich soils as humic rhodic hapludox or
kandiudox (Soil Survey Staff, 1990). No reference is made
to a tropical origin of the oxisols, which is expected,
because a number of U.S. scientists do not believe in
“tropical soils,” as mentioned earlier. Unfortunately, the
tropudox has been deleted altogether, as well as the tro-
pudalfs and tropudults, used in the older versions of
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 1975).
However, troporthents, tropaquents, tropofluvents, and
so forth, are still recognized, which makes the system
rather inconsistent.
6.2.3 Soil morphology

Previous concepts indicate that latosols are featureless
in morphology, exhibiting usually deep profiles with
minimum horizon differentiation. This is somewhat
reflected in the system of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy that
requires the upper boundary of oxic horizons, one of
the diagnostic criteria for oxisols, to be within a depth
69071.indb 142 4/25/08 10:42:05 AM

of 150 cm of the soil surface. Because oxic horizons are

B horizons, it is perhaps clear that a complete soil pro-
file of ABC horizons can then be more than 1.5 m (= ±5
ft) thick, and many latosol (oxisol) profiles in Indonesia
will even be 3 m (±10 ft) deep before reaching the C
horizons. In many cases, the profile was customarily
dug to a depth of not more than 1.5 m or less, and the
description will then cover only this exposed part of
the latosol. This is perhaps one of the reasons for mak-
ing conclusions that latosols (oxisols) have no clear dif-
ferences in horizons.
Under tropical conditions, such as occurring in Indo-
nesia, at least two kinds of modal profiles can be found:
a moderately deep (brown latosol) and a very deeply
weathered profile (red latosol). After careful and thor-
ough examinations in the field, the conclusion can be
reached that the oxisols of the red latosol types, which
are the oldest in age, have morphological features simi-
lar to the classical latosol profile as presented by Prescott
and Pendleton (1952). A picture showing a red latosol is
provided in Figure 6.1, and the accompanying soil pro-
file description of a red latosol is as follows:
The soil profile is located in Cibinong,

the plain of Jakarta, Indonesia (50
m above sea level), exhibiting a roll-
ing topography with the soil profile
dug on a flat part of the top of a roll-
ing hill. The vegetation is composed of
grasses and Eupatorium bushes, with
isolated bamboo forest scattered in the
surroundings.
69071.indb 143 4/25/08 10:42:06 AM

Depth (cm) Profile Description

0–20 5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown (field moist),
strong fine crumb, clay, friable, many roots,
some termites.
20–40 2.5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown (field moist),
strong fine crumb to subangular blocky, clay,
friable, iron coating, many pores, abundant
insect activity, roots.
strong fine granular, clay, friable, iron coatings,
many pores, abundant insect activity, roots.
strong fine granular, clay, friable, less iron
coatings, porous, abundant insect activity,
roots.
104–200 2.5YR 3.4, dark reddish-brown (field moist),
strong fine granular to weak medium blocky,
clay, friable, very porous, roots.
200–230 Black iron/manganese concretion layer (2 to 5
mm), little clay present, structureless.
230–280 Mottled zone, strong medium subangular
blocky to blocky, clay, firm to friable.
Red mottles: 5YR 4/6.
Grayish mottles: 10YR 7/1.
Note: The soil profile above is under field condition by the eye
bright red to reddish-brown in color.
As can be noticed, the profile is very deep, and the

transition from the concretion layer at 230 cm to the
mottled zone is very gradual. The mottled zone is con-
sidered similar as plinthite, and Dutch scientists are of
69071.indb 144 4/25/08 10:42:06 AM

Figure 6.1 Red Latosol at Cibinong, Plain of Jakarta.
the opinion that the oxisols in Indonesia can be divided

into two types: oxisols without plinthite and oxisols
with plinthite (Mohr et al., 1972). The oxisols in the low-
lands of Indonesia are usually plinthitic, whereas the
oxisols in the uplands generally do not exhibit plin-
thites in their profiles. This difference is due to dif-
ferences in soil-formation processes as discussed in
detail in Chapter 5, Section 5.2.3, stressing the impor-
tance of the effect of mineralization of organic matter
69071.indb 145 4/25/08 10:42:06 AM

in the lowlands, and the influence of humification and

chelation in the uplands and highlands. Perhaps it is
necessary to reinforce here some of the details. The
lowland oxisols of Indonesia have been formed under
the influence of leaching agents containing mineraliza-
tion products of organic matter. In contrast, the upland
oxisols are formed more by an additional influence of
leaching agents containing humic acids.
The brown version of oxisols exhibits colors that are
usually in the 10YR to 7.5YR hues and are less clayey
than its red counterpart. As indicated earlier, the profile
does not possess plinthite. Iron concretion layers, mottled
zones, and pallid zones are rarely present. The hypoth-
esis is that brown oxisols have not reached the stage of
formation of red latosols due to the influence of different
factors of soil formation at higher elevations. An example
of a brown latosol profile description is given below:
Depth (cm) Profile Description
0–16 10YR 3/4 (moist), dark yellowish-brown, clay,
strong fine to medium granular structure,
friable, many roots, termite activity, gradual
smooth boundary.
16–33 7.5YR 4/2 (moist), dark brown, clay, strong
fine granular structure, friable, many roots,
termite activity, gradual smooth boundary.
33–57 10YR 4/3 (moist), brown, clay, weak, fine
granular, friable, slightly more compact than
the horizon above, gradual smooth boundary.
57 7.5YR 4/4 (moist), brown, clay, weak fine
granular, very faint iron/manganese mottles.
69071.indb 146 4/25/08 10:42:06 AM

Profile is located in a rubber plantation,

near Bogor, West Java (250 m above sea
level), with rolling to hilly topography.
It was dug on a flat part of the area,
which is covered by an underbrush of
sparse native vegetation, composed of
mainly grasses, with isolated spots of
bushes.
Between the two modal profiles above, different kinds

of intergrades are possible. An iron concretion layer may
be present that is very thin in thickness. Part of the top
part of the soil profile can be eroded and becomes very
thin. The remaining eroded soil frequently receives new
materials from new eruptions because of the active vol-
canism in Indonesia. Recent admixtures of volcanic ash
and rock fragments in the remaining soil allow for the
occurrence of a new cycle of soil and clay formation.
At a few limited areas, where rejuvenation with vol-
canic ash has not happened and where erosion has
completely stripped off the topsoil, the concretion layer,
when present, tends to surface and become cemented
over a period of time to become an iron crust layer. This
has been noted by the author in limited areas in the
lowlands east of Jakarta. They were only a few square
meters wide and were surrounded by ordinary lato-
sols. Such formations, considered to be the start of the
formation of laterites, may take hundreds of years to
finish.
69071.indb 147 4/25/08 10:42:07 AM

6.2.4 Soil classification

Internationally, the classification and terminology of
these soils have been critically debated, since their first
introduction in soil science under the name of laterites
(Harris, 1963; Mohr and Van Baren, 1960). Many con-
cepts and many names were presented (Cline, 1955;
Kellogg, 1949). Kellogg (1949) proposed use of the name
latosol or cromosol at the subgroup level for this group
of zonal soils, which he previously called lateritic soils.
The central concept of latosols is that they are zonal
soils exhibiting dominant characteristics associated
with low sesquioxide ratios in the clay fractions, low
cation-exchange capacities, and low content of most of
the primary minerals. The soils are composed entirely
of secondary minerals and quartz, showing minimum
horizon differentiation and possessing a high degree of
aggregate stability.
A subdivision at the great group level can be created
by using appropriate adjectives to latosol. For example,
Cline (1955) classified the soils in Hawaii into the fol-
lowing great groups:
1. Low humic latosols, developed at elevation of ≤2600

m, under 125 to 1000 mm rainfall (annually).
2. Humic latosols, developed at elevations from sea
level to 750 m above sea level, under 1000 to 2500
mm rainfall (annually). This group is differentiated
from the former by a high organic matter content.
3. Ferruginous humic latosols, occurring in simi-
lar climatic zones as the humic latosols, but have
69071.indb 148 4/25/08 10:42:07 AM

purplish A horizons, overlying a heavier red to

reddish B horizon.
4. Hydrol humic latosols, developed at elevations of
150 to 1500 m above sea level, under 3800 to 9000
mm annual precipitation.
Many soil scientists seem to object to using the name

latosol, and terms such as allitic soils, sol dur alitic, ferral-
sol, and the like were suggested, especially by the French
school (Aubert, 1954; Harris, 1963). Kovda (1964), who
seemed to be influenced by the French system of soil clas-
sification, suggested a division of these soils of the humid
tropics into two major groups. Depending upon the hydro
regime and the balance between mineral and organic mat-
ter contents, Kovda presented the following divisions:
1. Allitic soils, formed on a residual allitic weathering

crust. This group includes tropical brown earth,
yellow earth, red earth, rubrozem, and bauxite
soils. The brown and yellow earth soils contain
kaolinite, but at the red earth stage, kaolinite dis-
appears and gibbsite and boehmite predominate.
2. Allitic soils, formed on ferruginous accumulative
weathering crust as a result of an ancient or con-
temporary hydromorphous process. These are the
laterites as proposed by Buchanan.
In Indonesia, the soils were first called laterite or lat-

eritic soils, but later the name latosols was adopted
(Table 6.4).
Supraptohardjo (1961) distinguishes latosols from lat-
eritic soils by claiming that the lateritic soils have iron
69071.indb 149 4/25/08 10:42:07 AM

Table 6.4 Summary of the Terms Used by Dutch and

Indonesian Soil Scientists
1910 Mohr Red laterite formation
1916 Mohr Red laterite soil, red
lixivium
1916 Mohr and de Jongh Laterite soil from
volcanic material
1933 Thorenaar
1936 Te Riele Laterite-lateritic soils
1937 Idenburgh
1938 Hardon Laterite-lateritic soils
1950 Van der Voort Lateritic soils
1951 Van Dijk Laterite soils
1955 Dames Lateritic soil
1957 Dudal and Supraptohardjo Latosols
1958 Van Schuylenborgh Latosols
concretions throughout the solum in contrast to lato-

sols. He proposes placing the lateritic soils in the group
of soils with textural/color B and low in bases, or in the
same category with red-yellow podzolic soils (Table 5.3).
With the inception of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff, 1960, 1975, 1990, 2006b), the Bogor Soil
Research Institute tried to adapt its existing concept
above to the new U.S. system. As indicated in Chapter
1, in the postwar efforts to quickly replace the Dutch
scientists, who were forced to repatriate to their home-
land, many young Indonesian scientists were sent to
U.S. universities to pursue further graduate education.
Many of them, especially the soil scientists, have been
exposed to the U.S. Soil Taxonomy system. Because this
is the only system that they were obligated to study in
69071.indb 150 4/25/08 10:42:07 AM

U.S. classrooms, they were now eager to disseminate

and apply this new acquired knowledge in Indonesia.
Hence, the U.S. Soil Taxonomy seems to gain more pop-
ularity in Indonesia than the FAO-UN soil classification
system or any other soil classification system. Moreover,
many of the FAO-UN scientists obtained most of their
education in the United States. After graduation, they
too seem to be most willing to incorporate the U.S. con-
cept into the FAO soil classification system. Therefore, it
is no wonder that the FAO-UN soil classification system
was at one time biased toward the U.S. Soil Taxonomy,
but efforts have been noticed lately to further develop
their system on their own by many of the new genera-
tion of FAO-UN soil scientists.
The U.S. Soil Taxonomy places latosols in the category
of oxisols, which recognizes five suborders: aquox, tor-
rox, ustox, perox, and udox. The orthox used by Beinroth
(1973) has apparently been deleted in newer editions. For
definitions and criteria, reference is made to Soil Survey
Staff (1990, 2006a). As can be noticed from Table 5.3, the
Indonesian soil classification system is based on mor-
phological features, similar to that of the U.S. Soil Tax-
onomy. Therefore, only small adaptations and revisions
in terminology and definitions are required. Latosols,
which were defined as soils with latosolic B, are now
conveniently changed into oxisols. As defined by the
U.S. Soil Taxonomy, these are the soils that must have an
oxic horizon with its upper boundary within 150 cm of
the soil surface or meet the requirements of ≥40% clay in
the surface 18 cm. Most of the oxisols in Indonesia will
meet the requirement of 40% clay in the surface 18 cm
(Table 6.1) but may have problems in meeting part, if not
69071.indb 151 4/25/08 10:42:08 AM

all, of the requirements for oxic horizons. The apparent

effective cation-exchange capacity (ECEC) of Indonesian
oxisols more likely will exceed the ≤12 cmol(+)/kg clay
requirement and so will be the required content of 10%
weatherable minerals in the 50- to 200-µ fraction (Soil
Survey Staff, 2006a, 2006b). These are due to the frequent
rejuvenation of the soils with fresh volcanic ash, rich in
minerals, bases, and cations, and the very rapid weath-
ering in the humid tropics. They are the reasons for
the contention that the U.S. classification concept needs
adjustments for it to properly work under Indonesian
conditions. The oxisols in Indonesia are different from,
for example, the Davidson soil of the United States, with
which they were frequently compared, or even from oxi-
sols in Puerto Rico or Hawaii. Except in Hawaii, the U.S.
oxisols are relatively old soils that have also never been
subjected to rejuvenation processes with new ash depo-
sition from volcanic eruptions, whereas their climatic
conditions for weathering are quite different from those
of the humid tropics in Indonesia.
As discussed earlier, the latosols of Indonesia may fit
placement as udox. For reasons explained before, they
rarely can be placed as ustox or torrox. Unfortunately,
latosols cannot qualify to become aquox, because the
criteria for aquox violate the basic principles of forma-
tion of latosols, requiring well-drained conditions for
desilicification or mobilization of silica. On paper, the
presence of aquox is not an issue, but under poorly
drained conditions, as required for formation of aquox,
the process of silicification occurs and no latosols will
then be formed. These processes have been discussed
in detail in Chapter 5. The issue of aquox is another
69071.indb 152 4/25/08 10:42:08 AM

reason for considering the U.S. soil taxonomy to be an

artificial system only, which lacks its connections with
field conditions of the outside world. To avoid creating
more confusion, no attempts will be made to also cor-
relate the latosols with the lower categories of the U.S.
soil classification system.
6.2.5 Physicochemical characteristics

6.2.5.1 Particle size distribution
As can be noticed from the data in Table 6.2, the oxisols
in Indonesia are very fine-textured soils. The brown- to
reddish-brown-colored oxisols, indicated earlier to be the
youngest in age, are relatively courser in texture than the
red-colored oxisols. Their clay contents range from 42.92
to 61.71%, qualifying the two brown varieties listed in
Table 6.2 to be called clayey soils. The A1 horizon of the
brown oxisol is, in fact, silty clay in texture, whereas that
of the reddish-brown latosol is clayey due to its slightly
higher clay content. The red-yellow and red oxisols are
considerably lower in sand (>50 µ fraction) and higher in
clay content than the younger brown oxisols. In the red-
colored soils, the sand content may even drop to <1.0%,
whereas the clay content may vary from 86.15 to 90.62% in
A to B horizons. In all the oxisol profiles studied, the dis-
tribution of clay seems to be rather constant with depth
in the soil profiles, confirming the concept of latosols or
oxisols with respect to their uniform particle size distri-
bution with depth. Such a high clay content and rather
uniform distribution with depth in the profile seem
to agree with the now deleted concepts of the tropical
orthox from Hawaii (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). However,
69071.indb 153 4/25/08 10:42:08 AM

these features are in sharp contrast with the Davidson

soil in the southern region of the United States. The clay
content in the Davidson soil is reported to range from
31 to 66% with depth in the profile, with the higher clay
content noted in the B horizons. Generally, soil textures
in Davidson soils of the U.S. southern regions vary from
sandy loam to clay loam and clay from A to Bt horizons
(Robertson, 1968). The occurrence of such an argillic (Bt)
horizon is a requirement for ultisols but is against the
general concept of oxisols or latosols. Dutch scientists
believe that latosols exhibiting clay movement down the
profile, yielding clay accumulations in B horizons, are
affected by podzolization and should be properly clas-
sified as podzolic soils, which agrees fairly well with the
concept of ultisols.
The rather uniformly clay distribution over a consider-
able depth in the oxisol profiles is probably due to the
nature of the clay mineral and the high content of free
iron oxides. The latter have a cementing effect on the clay
particles, giving rise to development of highly water-sta-
ble aggregates (soil structure) and the often gritty feel
of these soils when rubbed in the field determination
for soil texture. The cementing effect also decreases clay
mobility to a minimum, causing uniformity in clay con-
tent down the profile (Van Schuylenborgh, 1958).
6.2.5.2 Chemical characteristics

In general, the oxisols of Indonesia are moderately to
slightly acid in reactions, with pH values varying from
5.5 to 6.5. Some, and in particular the red-colored vari-
eties, are strongly acid soils (Table 6.5).
69071.indb 154 4/25/08 10:42:08 AM

Table 6.5 Soil Organic Matter, Nitrogen (N) Content,
Cation-Exchange Capacity (CEC), and pHH20 of Selected
Oxisols in Indonesia
pHH2O Corg % C CEC Base
Profile N%
(1:1) N me/100 g Sat. %
Humid Tropics
Brown Latosola
Ap 5.6 2.6 0.26 10 18 62
A2 5.9 1.8 0.16 11 17 73
B1 5.6 1.1 0.09 12 17 72
B2 — — — — 10 62
Reddish-Brown
Latosolb
A1 6.5 3.2 0.28 11 — 42
A2 6.2 1.3 0.16 8 — 21
Red Latosola
Ap 4.9 2.1 0.09 22 12 10
B1 4.7 1.2 0.09 14 21 5
B2 4.8 1.1 0.10 11 19 5
B3 4.3 0.8 0.05 16 22 2
Monsoon
Brown Latosolb
A1 6.6 1.38 0.10 14.2 — —
B1 6.4 0.62 0.10 6.3 — —
B2 5.8 0.41 0.04 11.4 — —
B3 5.5 0.21 0.03 6.6 — —
Reddish-Brown
Latosolc
A1 5.9 1.56 0.12 13.3 — —
B1 6.0 0.95 0.07 12.8 — —
B2 6.0 0.86 0.07 12.8 — —
B3 6.7 0.82 0.06 12.8 — —
Note: Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation analyses by NH4 ace-

tate method; me/100 g = cmol/kg.
a From Supraptohardjo, M. (1961).
b From Mohr et al. (1944); Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1958).
c From Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1959).
69071.indb 155 4/25/08 10:42:09 AM

The soils of the constantly humid regions seem to con-

tain appreciable amounts of organic matter, considering
the concentrations reported for % Corg, ranging from 2.1 to
2.6% in the surface horizons. This is not expected in view of
the soils’ red colors. It also contradicts the opinion of many
scientists about low organic matter contents in oxisols.
The nitrogen contents of the brown oxisols in the
humid tropics, ranging from 0.26 to 0.28% in their sur-
face horizons, are substantially higher than those of the
soils in the United States, where the percentage of nitro-
gen has been reported to vary from 0.06 to 0.18 in the
surface of most U.S. mineral soils (Brady, 1990). In the
red oxisols, its surface soil nitrogen content is as low as
0.09%, but this value compares favorably with that of
U.S. ultisols. The above facts seem to support the opin-
ion about the relatively high fertility level of the oxisols
in Indonesia. It validates local rumors that even sticks
will grow in Indonesian oxisols, as is the case with cas-
sava or yuca (Manihot sp.) cuttings, stuck in the soils
without any other measures of cultivation. The latter
is perhaps also supported by the often high percent-
age of base saturation. In the brown oxisol, the percent
base saturation is often reported as high as ≥70% in B
horizons (Table 6.5), though it is considerably lower in
the red oxisols of the humid regions. This difference is
acceptable, because the brown oxisols have been formed
from andesitic tuff and are the youngest in age. The red-
colored oxisols originate from less rich parent materi-
als (e.g., dacito-andesitic tuff) and are also older in age,
whereas their occurrence in the plain of Jakarta favors
a higher degree of weathering and more leaching than
in the uplands. The data of cation-exchange capacity
69071.indb 156 4/25/08 10:42:09 AM

(CEC) in Table 6.5 also suggest that the value for ECEC

(= CEC + Al) will most likely exceed the 12 cmol(+)/kg
clay, a requirement for oxic horizons, creating the issue
of U.S. oxisols being quite different from oxisols in the
humid tropics and in particular in Indonesia. For KCl-
extractable Al3_ contents see Table 6.6.
6.2.5.3 Charge characteristics

On the basis of the present knowledge of soil chemis-
try, the soil electrical charges are held responsible for
the many chemical reactions occurring in soils. These
charges, originating from both organic and inorganic
soil constituents, are usually expressed in terms of CEC
values and can be as high as 200 cmol (+)/kg for humus,
to 100 cmol(+)/kg smectite, and 30 cmol(+)/kg for illite
to as low as 8 cmol(+)/kg for kaolinite and 4 cmol(+)/kg
for sesquioxides.
Results of charge distribution analyses by Mehlich’s
method (Mehlich, 1960), as listed in Table 6.6, indi-
cate that the oxisols in Indonesia carry low permanent
charges (CECp), though it is noticed for the red-colored
oxisols to be relatively higher in these charges. The dif-
ferences are more pronounced for the CEC (v = vari-
able), CEC at pH 8.2 and CECm (m = maximum). The
data show the low values for the variable charges to
increase significantly from the reddish-brown to the
red-yellow oxisols, with the red oxisols exhibiting com-
paratively the highest variable charges. The differences
in variable charges seem to justify the morphological
divisions into brown- and red-colored oxisols, with the
lowest variable charges exhibited by the brown variet-
ies of oxisols, whereas the highest variable charges are
69071.indb 157 4/25/08 10:42:10 AM

Table 6.6 Charge Characteristics of Oxisols

Soil Profile CECp CECv CEC8.2 CECm ACE A13+
Humid Tropics cmol(+)/kg
Reddish-
Brown
Oxisol
Ap 4.64 5.62 10.26 12.42 7.82 0.3
A2 2.91 9.48 12.39 15.40 9.19 0.3
B 4.37 7.11 11.48 13.89 9.54 0.3
Red-Yellow
Oxisol
A1 4.72 9.72 13.99 14.53 6.56 1.3
A2 4.99 4.78 9.77 6.26 7.68 2.4
B 4.41 11.94 16.35 17.52 9.32 2.6
Red Oxisol,
Jakarta
A1 4.21 19.67 23.88 31.61 15.88 2.5
A2 3.27 14.08 17.35 26.32 16.99 3.1
B 2.89 7.21 10.10 18.61 13.71 2.0
Plinthite 10.07 6.26 16.33 21.90 12.65 7.5
Red Oxisol
Jonggol
A1 8.83 11.96 20.79 23.40 10.67 4.2
B1 9.85 12.78 22.63 26.12 11.12 6.5
B2 11.35 11.78 23.13 28.57 10.98 8.4
Note: Analyses by Mehlich’s method.
exhibited by the red-colored oxisols. The substantially

higher variable charges are perhaps an indication of
the presence of higher amounts of sesquioxides and
amorphous or noncrystalline clays beside kaolinite in
69071.indb 158 4/25/08 10:42:10 AM

the red oxisols. Therefore, the chemical activities of

red oxisols may be affected more by sesquioxides and
noncrystalline clays than by crystalline clay minerals.
This is in contrast with U.S. oxisols and especially with
the Davidson soil, used often as comparison, where, as
indicated earlier, crystalline clays (kaolinites) seem to
play a more important role.
6.2.5.4 Clay mineralogy

Investigations in the prewar period by Dutch scientists
(Hardon, 1939) have identified by x-ray diffraction (XRD)
analyses kaolinite in the clay fraction of latosols (oxisols).
In addition, Van Schuylenborgh (1958) detected by XRD
small amounts of hydrargillite, the European name for
gibbsite. The occurrence of kaolinite and gibbsite has
been supported by differential thermal analyses (DTA)
conducted by the author at the Institut Pertanian Bogor
(IPB). However, the DTA thermograms (Figure 6.2) also
list other details about the clay mineralogy of the differ-
ent-colored latosols. When the thermograms are studied
from number 1 to 10, it is obvious that the clays of the
brown and reddish-brown latosols (numbers 1 through
5) yield thermograms with strong endothermic peaks
at 150 to 190 C and between 500 and 600 C, which by
standards in DTA indicate the presence of halloysite.
However, considering the XRD results stated above, the
clay mineral is then more likely disordered kaolinite. The
low-temperature endothermic peaks become gradually
weaker, though still present, in the DTA thermograms
(from number 6 to 10). A thermogram with a dominant
peak only at 500 to 600 C is usually characteristic for
kaolinite. Therefore, the kaolinite detected in the red
69071.indb 159 4/25/08 10:42:11 AM

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
°C
100
300
500
600
800
900
Figure 6.2 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) thermo-

grams of Ciawi brown latosols: (1) A1, (2) A3, and (3) B3 hori-
zons; Bogor reddish-brown latosols: (4) A1 and (5) B3 horizons;
Ciluar yellowish-red latosols: (6) A1 horizons; Sukamaja yel-
lowish-red latosols: (7) A1 and (8) B3 horizons; and Pasar
Minggu red latosols; (9) A3 and (10) B2 horizons.
latosols appears to be mixed with halloysite clay. The

latter is due to transformation of some of the disordered
clay minerals into well-ordered (crystalline) kaolinite.
The occurrence of halloysite or disordered kaolinite in
69071.indb 160 4/25/08 10:42:11 AM

the brown latosols is believed to be possible, because

these soils are comparatively the youngest in age and
have probably not reached the final weathering stages
in the constantly humid climate. The red latosols, on
the other hand, are the oldest in age and have been sub-
jected to more drastic weathering, including dehydra-
tion processes, yielding high amounts of hematites, as
explained earlier. Hematites are known to carry high
variable charges. The varying amounts of gibbsite pres-
ent are indicated by the DTA endothermic peaks around
350 C, which are strongest in thermograms 4 and 5. The
latter may suggest that the reddish-brown latosols have
comparatively the highest amounts of gibbsite. For the
purpose of enhancing clarity of presentation, summa-
rized in Table 6.7 are the data on clay mineralogy of the
latosols (oxisols) in relation to their weathering stages,
as determined by different colors, thickness of soil pro-
files or profile depths, weatherable mineral contents,
and CEC.
6.2.6 Land use and evaluation

6.2.6.1 Evaluation of analytical properties
The total area of Indonesia occupied by oxisols is
approximately 141,157.65 km2 or 14,115,765 ha (see page
16 or Figure 1.2), whereas the total area of these soils in
Java amounts perhaps to 1,253,100 ha or more. They are
clayey soils, but they exhibit excellent physical prop-
erties, characterized in general by stable and strong
granular to crumb structures. Notwithstanding the
very high clay content, the soil consistence is excellent,
though in wet conditions these soils are slightly plastic,
69071.indb 161 4/25/08 10:42:11 AM

Table 6.7 Clay Mineralogy of Oxisols in

Indonesia in Relation to Degree of Weathering
Stages
Primary
Mineral Variable
Clay
Profile Content Charges in
Soil Mineral
Depth (other Terms of
Suite
than CECv
quartz)
Brown Moderate Moderate Halloysite Low

Oxisol or
Disordered
Kaolinite
Reddish- Moderate Moderate Halloysite Low

Brown + Gibbsite
Oxisol
Red- Deep Few Halloysite Medium

Yellow (+ quartz) + Kaolinite
Oxisol
Red Oxisol Very Deep Very Few Halloysite, High
(+ quartz) Kaolinite,
+ Hematite
Note: Analyses by Mehlich’s method.
and when dry may crack and shrink somewhat. In gen-

eral, they are well drained, have good permeability,
and exhibit moderate water-retaining capacity. Regard-
less of the red colors, organic carbon contents in surface
soils are not too low (Table 6.5) and contradict the opin-
ion of many soil scientists about oxisols always being
low in organic matter contents. However, the chemi-
cal activities of these soils in Indonesia are affected
more by variable-charge clay minerals than their U.S.
counterparts. Regardless of the high leaching and the
69071.indb 162 4/25/08 10:42:12 AM

resulting slight to moderate and strong soil acidity, the

percentage base saturation is relatively on the medium
to high site because of the frequent rejuvenation by
volcanic eruptions. Therefore, due to some of the more
favorable features and the often deep profiles, oxisols
in Indonesia, as a whole, form good agricultural lands
and allow for deep rooting. This is in contrast with the
opinion of Beinroth (1973), who indicates that annual
crops with shallow roots may suffer from even short
dry periods when grown on oxisols in Puerto Rico. As
will be discussed below, the oxisols in Indonesia are
considered productive soils for vegetable gardening
and fruit crops. The relatively younger oxisols in Indo-
nesia are often provided with higher amounts of plant
nutrients by new ash deposits and especially when irri-
gated can be considered as highly productive soils. The
older, more developed members are strongly leached
and have lost most of their bases (Table 6.5). These red
oxisols are also strongly acidic in reactions and may be
deficient in nitrogen and in many cases in phosphate
and potassium as well. An exception is the red oxisol
from tephretic volcanic material, which is generally
rich in potassium and phosphate. This group of oxisols
is located in Central Java, for instance, in the area of the
Muria volcano (Dames, 1955). In this case, the soil can
be classified as highly productive. Nevertheless, most
of the red oxisols in the lowland are cultivated with a
variety of crops that are surprisingly producing well.
Cassava and bananas, often grown without additional
fertilization, provide moderately good yields. However,
results of field experiments (AARD, 1986) indicate that
the yields will be increased considerably with adequate
69071.indb 163 4/25/08 10:42:12 AM

applications of organic matter and especially when the

latter is combined with artificial fertilizers.
6.2.6.2 Significance of basic soil properties

In view of the rapid mineralization processes in the
lowland of Indonesia, the organic matter contents of
1 to 2% in surface soils may quickly be destroyed upon
cultivation. This requires resupplying the oxisols with
organic matter that can be applied in the forms of plant
or organic residues or green manures, or a combina-
tion of both. The soils also need adequate fertilization
to offset nutrient losses by plant uptake and especially
by leaching. The low CEC needs perhaps to be raised
to higher values, so that more of the applied nutrients
can be held on the exchange complex for plant use and
be prevented from leaching. Because the CEC is mostly
caused by variable charges, increasing its value can be
achieved easily. The conventional method in Indonesia
is by lime application, which not only increases the soil
pH but also raises the variable charges. Lime applica-
tion appears to be very helpful in increasing the fertility
level of these types of soils in the transmigration areas of
Sitiung, West Sumatra (Hakim, 1982, 1985). From more
recent investigations, it is noticed that organic matter
is also capable of increasing the total CEC value of the
soils. Humic acid is known to carry CECs 5 to 10 times
larger than those of smectite or vermiculite minerals
(Tan, 2003a). Cultivation including the use of organic
matter will no doubt be received with enthusiasm by
the organic farming society.
69071.indb 164 4/25/08 10:42:12 AM

Figure 6.3 Female workers, usually owners or their rela-

tives, planting rice seedlings in a sawah field. They will also
weed the fields and take part in harvesting. Payment for these
services is usually in the form of a share in the paddy yield
that they can cash in by selling to one of the several middle-
men, preying as buyers in the field. Most often they will keep
it for consumption.
6.2.6.3 Agricultural operations

6.2.6.3.1 Rice cultivation Large areas occupied by
oxisols are probably cultivated with lowland rice, locally
called “sawah” for wet paddy-fields or inundated rice
(Figure 6.3). Rice cultivation in Indonesia still follows
traditional principles by impounding water in diked
terraces. These neatly man-made terraces climb up the
hillsides, and the irrigation water is recycled for use
again by passing it through from the highest terraced
fields in the mountainsides or the uplands to the low-
est sawah fields in the lowlands. The sawah method
69071.indb 165 4/25/08 10:42:13 AM

used to be very dependent on the rain for a constant

supply of irrigation water. But, during heavy rainfalls
the dikes could collapse, destroying extensive tracts
of sawah fields. Also, during periods of extremely dry
seasons, no water is available, especially when it is most
needed. To cope with those problems, the Dutch started
in 1937 building modern irrigation works and canals to
control banjirs (floods), known locally as “banjir canals,”
and began construction of “waduks” (large ponds or
reservoirs) for the storage of rainwater. This is appar-
ently continued today by the Indonesian government,
and mention is made in Chapter 1 of the 1965 Jatiluhur
multipurpose dam project for control of the annual
floods affecting the Citarum River in West Java. The
huge artificial lake created contains sufficient amounts
of water year-long for irrigation of more than 240,000 ha
of paddy-fields in the coastal plain of Jakarta. Efforts in
construction continue by building a huge dam under a
very recent Siak river project, sponsored by the govern-
ments of West Sumatra and Riau (see Chapter 1). When
finished, the project will generate hydroelectric power,
control annual banjirs, and provide a constant supply
of irrigation water to the agricultural fields of both the
provinces.
During the Dutch occupation, rice yields in the pre-
war period were generally in the range of 1000 kg (1 met-
ric ton) of dry paddy per hectare when grown without
fertilization. However, with available irrigation water
and applications of adequate amounts of nitrogen and
phosphate fertilizers, rice yields were later reported to
be doubled. However, Van Dijk (1952) mentioned a yield
of gabah or unhulled rice (for the period of 1923 to 1940)
69071.indb 166 4/25/08 10:42:13 AM

of only 1.24 tons/ha when plants were adequately fer-

tilized with NPK+Ca. It was noted that in some cases
no response was obtained by the application of potas-
sium fertilizers, which was believed to be caused by
the relatively high content of available potassium in the
irrigation water (Dames, 1955; Go, 1957; Van Dijk, 1952).
The use of improved rice varieties has raised rice yields
since 1986 to 4 to 5 tons per hectare (gabah or grain). In
the rice-producing areas of Cianjur, considered the rice
basket of West Java, the yield in 2006 was 6 tons/ha (air
dry gabah or air dry grain) from an IR64 rice variety. The
farmers in Indonesia prefer high-yielding rice varieties
that mature early and exhibit good eating qualities (for
example, IR36, IR64, and Cisadane) (AARD, 1986). The
IR36 and IR64 are varieties developed by the Interna-
tional Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in Los Bãnos, the
Philippines, and originate from a cross between the
Indica x Japonica rice variety. The Cisadane is native to
Indonesia and belongs to the Indica variety. A former
favorite Indonesian variety was the Peta, which was
used by the IRRI in its early breeding trials, which pro-
duced the IR8, the first released high-yielding rice vari-
ety, carrying the beneficial attributes of the japonica and
indica (Tan, 2000).
The paddy-fields are normally cultivated by the farm-
ers but are also often managed by a system of share-
cropping. A great many wealthy people, living in large
cities like Jakarta, consider owning paddy-rice fields as
a highly regarded social standing and have invested
their extra capital in buying sawahs in the countryside.
Because they lack the time and the knowledge to prop-
erly cultivate the sawahs, it is customary to loan their
69071.indb 167 4/25/08 10:42:14 AM

property to local farmers in the form of sharecropping.

By harvest time, the owners will be in the paddy-fields
to collect half of the paddy yield, the going rate in share-
cropping at this time. The rice yields are used for local
consumption or for sale to middlemen at a price of 2000
rupiahs/kg (dry grain), who sell it again to rice mills
for Rp. 3000/kg. In the rice mills, the grains (gabbah) are
hulled and processed into polished rice, called beras in
Indonesia. Normally 70% of the gabah yield beras. The
latter, ready for export or local consumption, is worth
Rp. 5000/kg at the markets, which amounts to US $0.50
(at a rate of $1.00 to Rp. 10,000.00). Though in the United
States rice is selling for around $2.00/kg at the super-
markets, at yields of 6 tons gabah/ha (or 4200 kg beras/
ha), rice crops are still providing a handsome income to
Indonesian farmers.
In the old days, many Dutch companies established
huge rice mills, especially in the rice-producing areas
of the northern coastal plain of Java (for example, in the
Telukpucung area near the Bekasi River and in the then-
famous Pemanukan and Ciasam lands on the banks
and surroundings of the Pemanukan River in West
Java). The farmers at that time were encouraged to grow
rice crops for sale and processing at those rice mills.
That part that the farmer kept for consumption could
usually be hulled and milled into beras at the mills for
a small fee. Today, this concept of doing rice business
seems to continue, and many locally owned rice mills
are now available from Tangerang, Bekasi, Cikampek,
Rice plant = paddy; unhulled rice grain = gabah; hulled or pol-
ished rice = beras; cooked beras = nasi; hence, we eat nasi, but
gabah and beras are birdseed.
69071.indb 168 4/25/08 10:42:14 AM

to the Krawang areas in West Java and extending into

the coastal plains of the Tegal area in Middle Java.
6.2.6.3.2 Nonrice crops The area not used for

sawahs is cultivated with upland rice, palawija (nonrice)
crops, vegetables and fruit trees, and also estate crops.
The nonrice crops include corn, soybean, peanut, mung
bean, and the like. Upland rice is rice cultivated on
dry lands, planted in the same way as corn is grown.
Upland rice and corn play a very important role in the
transmigration program of the Indonesian govern-
ment. As discussed in Chapter 1, farmers from densely
populated areas in Java are relocated in Sumatra, Kali-
mantan, or other less densely populated islands. The
transmigrants are usually provided with 2 hectares
of land, and the focus at the start is then on growing
upland rice and corn for a quick supply of food. When
adequately fertilized, corn yields are 3 to 3.5 tons/ha
(dry kernels), which have more than doubled from the
1.56 tons/ha reported for the period of 1923 to 1940 (Van
Dijk, 1952). Other important (nonrice) crops are cassava
(yucca, Manihot utilissima) and sweet potatoes (Ipomoea
batatas), which can yield 12 to 16 tons/ha and 10 to 20
tons/ha, respectively, when grown on the oxisols with
adequate fertilization (O. Iskandar, Bogor Agriculture
University, IPB, and D. H. Goenadi, Research Institute
of Biotechnology for Estate Crops, personal communi-
cations). With complete NPK+Ca fertilization, the yield
of cassava in Indonesia has topped 33.6 tons/ha (Tan
and Bertrand, 1972).
In the humid regions, corn, cassava, or sweet potato
are often also grown in rain-fed sawah fields in rotation
69071.indb 169 4/25/08 10:42:14 AM

after rice (for example, rice in the rainy season, followed

by the nonrice crops during the relatively dryer season).
However, where irrigation is available, farmers prefer
growing two rice crops or more per year.
6.2.6.3.3 Vegetable crops The vegetable, fruits, and

other horticultural crops are grown preferably in the
vicinity of large towns or near major population centers
(Thrower and Dudal, 1957), where the demands for these
commodities can command high prices. The vegetables
are the local lowland varieties—for example, spinach
(Amaranthus spp., locally called bayem), green onions
(Allium fistulosum), long beans (Vigna sinensis, locally
called “kacang panjang”), cucumbers (Cucumis sativus,
or “ketimun”), eggplants (Solanum melongena, locally
called “terong”), “sawi” (Brassica rugosa), “kangkung”
(Ipomoea reptans), and the like. They are raised on small
patches of empty lands, on riverbanks for ease of water-
ing, or as backyard gardening (Figure 6.4). Often, large
treatments with organic manures or compost are neces-
sary and are applied to the oxisols to ensure the growth
and production of commercially acceptable crops. Arti-
ficial fertilizers were either not available at that time or
were relatively expensive. Shallots (Allium cepa), locally
called “bawang merah,” are usually grown after rice
in the dry paddy-fields of the northern coastal plain of
Central Java, near the towns of Brebes and Tegal (west
of Semarang), where the climate is more favorable for
this kind of crop. Cabbage, carrots, and other temperate
region vegetables are usually cultivated in the uplands,
and especially in the highlands of the mountain areas
of Indonesia on different kinds of soils.
69071.indb 170 4/25/08 10:42:14 AM

Figure 6.4 Farmer carrying vegetables grown on empty

land in a suburban area in town. The garden is close to a river
for ease of watering and conveniently located in close prox-
imity to consumers and local marketplaces.
6.2.6.3.4 Fruit crops A variety of fruit trees are

also grown on oxisols in the vicinity of population cen-
ters. For example, several varieties of mangoes (Man-
gifera indica); rambutans (Nephelium lappaceum), a sort of
69071.indb 171 4/25/08 10:42:15 AM

A B
Figure 6.5 (A) Rambutans and (B) ripe guava fruits ready

for market. (C) Papaya semangka growing on the trees.
litchi; guava (Psidium guajava), locally called jambu kelu-

tuk (Figure 6.5); sawo (Achras zapota); and mangosteens
(Garcinia mangostana) are growing well around large
towns as backyard gardening or in small orchards on
the oxisols, often without applications of fertilizers of
any kind. Recent investigations have shown that spray-
ing with 1% KNO3 of the flower buds of mangoes (of
69071.indb 172 4/25/08 10:42:16 AM

Figure 6.6 A typical fruit stall in the Cibinong area, show-

ing baskets of jeruk siam, papaya semangka hanging from
the ceilings, and other varieties of fruits, enticing buyers from
travelers and people from nearby metropolitan Jakarta, capi-
tal of Indonesia.
the arumanis variety) increases the number of fruits by

28% (AARD, 1986). The Cibinong area near metropoli-
tan Jakarta is known for these small orchards on red
oxisols, and the fruits are offered year-long in small
stalls lining up major highways to town (Figure 6.6).
The area is also known for producing particular types
69071.indb 173 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM

of oranges, called locally “jeruk siam” or “jeruk paseh”

(Citrus nobilis), favored by consumers in Jakarta for their
sweet taste and juicy nature. When citrus is grown on
sandy soils, the plants may show micronutrient defi-
ciencies with symptoms resembling a CVPD (citrus
vein phloem degeneration) disease. Fortunately, this
can be corrected easily by application of zinc, manga-
nese, and magnesium (AARD, 1986). Another popu-
lar Cibinong product, grown on oxisols, is a special
type of papaya (Carica papaya), called locally “papaya
semangka” (semangka means “watermelon”), due to its
deep red melon-like flesh. Bananas (Musa sp.) and sev-
eral other vegetables are often grown as intercrops with
paddy rice on the dikes of the sawahs.
6.2.6.3.5 Estate crops The major estate crop grown

on oxisols is rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Fiber crops, such
as cotton (Gossypium barbadense), “kapok” (Ceiba pentan-
dra), “sisal” (Agave sisalana), and “cantala” (Agave angus-
tifolia), were at one time also cultivated on the Dutch
plantations, due to their suitability for growth on oxi-
sols in the humid lowlands.
The rubber plantations are located mostly in the low-
lands, but some estates and smallholders’ plantations
can occasionally be found in the lower uplands. Because
of their origin from Central and South America, char-
acterized also by hot and humid climates and almost
similar soil conditions as in Indonesia, the hevea trees
have shown to be the only plants specifically adapted for
plantation agriculture on Indonesian oxisols. Tea and
coffee are cultivated more on different soils in the cool
mountain regions of Indonesia. Rubber has attracted
69071.indb 174 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM

attention since the days of the conquistadors because of

its elasticity, its application as erasers in the 1700s, and
later also for sealing objects to make them watertight.
Several varieties were originally available in their native
homelands (for example, Hevea brasiliensis, Hevea guya-
nensis, Ficus sp., and Manihot glaziovii). The oldest rubber
plantation (dating back to 1846) was presumably a Ficus
plantation, located at the Pemanukan-Ciasem lands in
West Java (Maas and Bokma, 1957), but Hevea brasiliensis
was later considered superior over the others in rubber
production. The hevea rubber cultivation in southeast
Asia started when hevea seeds were, allegedly, in 1876
smuggled from the Amazon jungles, Brazil, by Henry
Wickham, who germinated them in the Kew Gardens
of England (Fisher, 1966). This story was disputed by
Dutch scientists, who claimed that, though very roman-
tic, the seeds were obtained and sent, in fact, with the
proper license (Maas and Bokma, 1957). It was presum-
ably grown at first in the English gardens for its botani-
cal value, but after the discovery of the vulcanization
process by Goodyear and Dunlop, revolutionizing the
tire and automobile industry, hevea rubber became a
very important crop at the start of the twentieth cen-
tury. Its cultivation spread quickly through south and
southeast Asia, and by the end of 1920, it was the lead-
ing export product of the then Dutch East Indies. Since
1929, the demand for rubber has increased even further
due to the invention of foam rubber. Unfortunately,
this demand for natural rubber diminished sharply
in 1945 because of the discovery and development of
synthetic rubber in Germany. In Indonesia, many of the
69071.indb 175 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM

rubber plantations have now been replaced by oil palm

plantations.
In plantation agriculture, the hevea plants are planted
as clonal seedlings or bud-grafts in neatly laid out rows.
Experiment stations in Indonesia, such as Algemene Ver-
eeniging voor Rubber Onderzoek ter Oostkust van Sumatra
(AVROS) (see Chapter 1) in Sumatra, have put much
effort into developing high latex-yielding rubber clones
resistant to the leaf blight disease by Dothidella sp., capa-
ble of wiping out whole plantations. Depending on the
methods used, the number of plants may vary from 400
to 500 trees per hectare or less when planted with inter-
crops for cash crops. Without intercropping, the empty
spaces between the rows of trees are covered by cover
plants, preferably legumes, which vary from bush types
(e.g., Crotalaria and Tephrosia spp.) to creeping cover
plants. The creeping legumes favored for use as cover
and green manure plants are, for example, Centrosema,
Pueraria, Mimosa, or Calapogonium spp. Clean weeding
operations, used in the beginning, were later aban-
doned because of erosion and soil degradation hazards.
The cover plants are expected to protect the soils and
at the same time improve the physical, chemical, and
biological conditions of the soil for the growth of the
hevea plants in the rows. Except during planting time,
when phosphates were placed in the planting holes, the
trees are seldom fertilized. The cover plants, instead,
usually receive treatments with phosphorus and potas-
sium fertilizers. Nitrogen fertilizer treatments of young
hevea trees are often deleted for fear of wind damage
(Maas and Bokma, 1957). However, trees at producing
stages may receive fertilizer treatments of ±100 g sulfate
69071.indb 176 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM

of NH4 plus 50 g KC1 per tree. Though the suggestion

was always to fertilize trees once in 2 years, results of
investigations have shown latex production to increase
to 700 to 800 kg/ha with annual fertilizer applications,
as compared to 300 to 400 kg/ha when unfertilized
(Maas and Bokma, 1957). The latex yields have been
increased dramatically today with the use of new high-
yielding clones (e.g., AVROS 2037, BPM 1, PR 255, and
PR 300). The average yield of a 5-year tapping period
was recorded to range from 1000 to 2000 kg/ha per
year (AARD, 1986). With the decline of the large rubber
estates, smallholders’ plantations have apparently taken
over the cultivation of rubber in Indonesia, because 70%
of the rubber is now produced by these small farms.
The latex yield is still low, but they hope to increase it
in the future by using new high-yielding clones and by
changing the tapping system. Instead of the now-in-use
single tapping system, the use of a double-panel system
is encouraged and being investigated. The trees are cut
at two different heights, and preliminary results have
shown a 20% increase in latex yields (AARD, 1986).
6.3 Ultisols
This group of soils was previously called red-yellow pod-
zolic soils and constitutes important soils worldwide. In
contrast to the latosols, the red-yellow podzolic soils are
found not only in tropical regions, but are also impor-
tant soils in New Zealand, Australia, and especially the
United States. They cover extensive areas in the south-
ern region of the United States from Virginia on the
eastern seaboard to Texas in the west. These soils have
69071.indb 177 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM

been formed in the Southeastern States from clayey and

loamy sediments of the Coastal Plain, derived from ero-
sion of Appalachia (Fiskell and Perkins, 1970; Perkins et
al., 1973), and the concept of their genesis was discussed
by a number of scientists (McCaleb, 1959; Simonson,
1949). By Western standards, red-yellow podzolic soils
are considered to be formed by podzolization processes
on soils’ materials accumulated through lateritic weath-
ering in tension zones. The latter are defined as areas
where the climate facilitates both laterization and pod-
zolization processes, such as is likely to happen in the
southern region of the United States and perhaps also in
the lowlands of New Zealand. Simonson (1949) believes
that such a theory is difficult to maintain, because red-
yellow podzolic soils also occur in the tropics, which
in his opinion cannot be considered as tension zones.
At that time, Simonson, along with most U.S. scientists,
perhaps did not realize that the uplands of Indonesia
exhibit climatic features favoring the occurrence of both
podzolization and laterization. However, under Indo-
nesian conditions, red-yellow podzolic soils can occur
in the tension zones as well as in the lowland areas
depending on the type of parent material. This will be
explained in more detail below.
The red-yellow podzolic soils appear to be more
widely distributed in Indonesia than are the latosols
(oxisols). With a reported soil acreage of 45,678,616 ha
(see page 16 or Figure 1.2), the extent of red-yellow pod-
zolic soils is 3 to 4 times larger than that of the latosols.
Based on the size of their distribution, these soils are
perhaps, next to inceptisols, the most important soils of
Indonesia. Similar to the latosols, they are also reddish
69071.indb 178 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM

to yellowish-red in color, and if it was not for their quartz

contents and their origin from acidic parent materials,
they are often difficult to distinguish from the oxisols.
They are major soils in the lowlands of Sumatra, Kali-
mantan, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, and Papua, where most
of the dacites, liparites, and granites are found. In the
lowlands of Java, red-yellow podzolic soils occur only
in Bantam, the western province of West Java, on dacitic
and andesito-dacitic parent materials. On intermediate
or more basic parent materials, red-yellow podzolics
are more typical in the upland areas. For example, in
Central and East Java, where andesito-basaltic tuffs are
more prevalent, the soils are found only in the uplands
above the zones of latosols, in the tension zones.

The red-yellow podzolic soils in the lowlands of Indo-
nesia have been derived from acid parent materials.
They may range from rhyolitic or liparitic to dacitic
to andesito-dacitic tuffs, with quartz contents decreas-
ing in this sequence (Table 6.8). In some cases, the soils
can also be formed from intermediate to more basic
tuffs or from calcareous materials of tertiary origin,
which often contain quartz (Supraptohardjo, 1961; Tan
and Van Schuylenborgh, 1961a). In the latter case, they
are found in the uplands, called earlier the tension
zones. In the western part of West Java and in neigh-
boring Lampungs, South Sumatra, the parent mate-
rials are dacitic in nature. A considerable part of the
region between the villages of Serang, Rangkasbitung,
69071.indb 179 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM

69071.indb 180
180
Table 6.8 Mineralogical Composition of Acidic Tuffs

Green. Brown.
Nature. Volcanic . Oligo-. Bio-. Horn-. Horn-. Hyper-.
of Tuffs Glass Quartz Sanidine Albite clase Andesine Magnetite Ilmenite tite blende blende sthene Apatite Zircon
Rhyolitic m a m md md — f f a md — f f a
Dacito- m a md f m — m m m m f md f m
Liparitic
Young m m f — m md a a md a md m f md
Dacitic
Old m md f — m m m m m a f a md md
Dacitic
Andesito- m f — — a a m m m m md a f f
Dacitic
Notes: a = abundant (++++); m = many (+++); md = moderate (++); f = few (+); – = rare or trace.
Source: See also Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1961).
4/25/08 10:42:18 AM
Serpong, and Tangerang in Bantam, West Java, is cov-

ered by this dacitic volcanic tuff. It originated from
eruptions of the now extinct Danau volcano of the Pleis-
tocene era, located in the extreme northwestern part of
West Java. The latest eruption was so catastrophic that
it destroyed the mountain from the Earth’s surface.
Part of the tuff also covers large areas of neighboring
Lampungs, located across the Sunda Strait in South
Sumatra. Another part was deposited in the Java Sea and
the Sunda Strait and mixed to some extent with tertiary
sediments.
In the other parts of Sumatra, the parent materials of
red-yellow podzolic soils vary in northern direction of
the island from dacitic to liparitic or rhyolitic.
In Kalimantan, the parent materials are also acidic in
nature, but the difference is that they are not of recent
volcanic origin. Here in Kalimantan, the materials
belong to the oldest land surfaces present in Indone-
sia (see Chapter 2). Granites, tertiary calcareous mate-
rials, shales, sandstone, and other tertiary sediments
containing quartz can be found and contribute to for-
mation of the red-yellow podzolic soils in Kalimantan
(Supraptohardjo, 1961).
6.3.2 Climate
In temperate regions, as in the United States, New Zea-
land, and elsewhere, the climate of the area in which
red-yellow podzolic soils occur may be classified as
Köppen’s Cw or Cs climate types. These are temperate
region climates (C) with wet winters (w) or temperate
69071.indb 181 4/25/08 10:42:19 AM

region climates with dry winters (s), respectively. This

is not the case in Indonesia, where the climate in which
these soils occur is limited to the Afa climate types or
the humid tropical rain forest climates (Table 6.9). They
are seldom found in Awa climates or in C types of cli-
mate (Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1957). In the cooler
areas of the tropics (Köppen’s C-type climate), usually
the brown podzolic soils, gray-brown podzolic soils,
and podzols occur on acidic parent materials.
Depending on altitudinal climatic differences, the
darker-colored or redder members are located at rela-
tively higher elevations, whereas the brighter-colored or
yellow members are found more at lower elevations.

The standard concept of red-yellow podzolic soils
in the United States is that they are well-developed
and well-drained acid soils, having thin organic (O)
and organomineral (A) horizons over light-colored
bleached (E) horizons. These surface horizons are
underlain by red, yellowish-red to yellow, more-clayey
(Bt) horizons. Coarse reticulate streaks or mottles of
red, yellow-brown, and light gray are characteristics
of deeper horizons where parent materials are thick
(Fiskell and Perkins, 1970; Perkins et al., 1973; Simon-
son, 1949). Such a concept of red-yellow podzolic soils
is also used in Indonesia, with the exception that the
soils often lack the E horizons. It is often very difficult
to identify a bleached (E) horizon because of frequent
rejuvenation with volcanic tuffs. In the latter case, the
69071.indb 182 4/25/08 10:42:19 AM

69071.indb 183
Table 6.9 The Climate of Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil (Ultisols) Areas in
Indonesia
Rainfall Mean Type of
Altitude Annual Climatea
Location Rainfall Soil
<60 mm >100 mm

Bantam (West Java)
Rangkasbitung 15 1.1 10.0 2379 Afa A RY Podzolic

Jasinga 90 0.5 10.9 3348 Afa A
North Sumatra
Pakanbaru 6 0.5 10.4 2870 Afa A

Pematang Siantar 400 0.2 11.0 3130 Afa A RY Podzolic
Parapat Brown Podz.

920 2.2 8.4 1921 Afa B
Kalimantan
Tanjung 36 1.6 9.3 2509 Afa B RY Podzolic
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldest month >18°C; a = warm-
est month >22°C; f = humid.
183
4/25/08 10:42:20 AM
soil exhibits an almost similar morphology as red lato-

sols. The keys to the U.S. Soil Taxonomy seem to sup-
port the latter, because no E (albic) horizons are stated
as characteristic horizons of ultisols (Soil Survey Staff,
2006a, p. 33). When the text is consulted and after won-
dering about the proper choices following the several
“eithers” and many “ifs” and “ors,” the conclusion
can be made that only an argillic (Bt), a kandic, and a
fragipan are the three major horizons characterizing
a profile of ultisols. No mention is made about base
saturations. An example of a profile description of a
red-yellow podzolic soil of Indonesia fitting the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) morphological
concept in general is as follows:
Red-yellow podzolic soil, in the low-

land (100 m above sea level) of Bantam,
West Java; topography: gently rolling
hills; vegetation: dense tropical lowland
forest with underbrush composed of
bushes and grass. The profile is located
on the top of a low hill, with moderately
well-drained conditions.
Horizon Depth (cm) Description

A 0–10 10YR 5/6 (field moist), yellowish-
brown, silty clay loam, strong gran-
ular to moderate fine subangular
blocky, friable.
Bt1 10–40 7.5YR 5/6, strong brown, clay,
moderate fine subangular blocky,
faint clay/iron coatings, friable.
69071.indb 184 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM

Bt2 40–52 7.5YR 4/6, yellowish-red, clay, mod-

erate medium subangular blocky,
friable, iron coatings, some mottles.
Bt3 52–85 5YR 4/8, yellowish-red, clay, mod-
erate, medium subangular blocky,
friable, clay and iron coatings,
mottles.
Bt4 85–110 5YR 5/6, yellowish-red, clay,
massive, slightly firm, mottles.
C + 110 10YR 7/2, very pale brown, clay,
massive, slightly firm, mottles.
Another profile description, representing the red-

yellow podzolic soils of West Sumatra, is given below.
This profile is located in the experimental fields of the
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Andalas, Limau
Manis Campus, Padang, Indonesia. The area is located
at 350 m above sea level. The soil is derived from dacitic
tuff, is well drained, and is located on the slope of a
small hill. The hilly area is covered by vegetation com-
posed of bushes (for example, Pandanus sp., Diplazium
sp., Piper sp., and Imperata sp. grasses).
A photograph, illustrating the soil profile above, is
presented in Figure 6.7.

Ap 0–15 10YR 4/4, dark yellowish-brown,
clay, weak fine blocky, friable,
many macropores, lots of coarse
and fine roots, diffuse wavy
boundary.
69071.indb 185 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM

Bt1 15–29 10YR 5/6, yellowish-brown, clay,

weak medium blocky, friable,
abundant macro- and micropores
and lots of coarse and fine roots,
diffuse wavy boundary.
weak medium blocky, friable to
slightly firm, coarse and fine roots,
less macropores but abundant
micropores, diffuse, broken,
boundary.
weak medium blocky, friable to
slightly firm, some fine roots, less
macropores but abundant micro-
pores, diffuse broken boundary.
C +116 5YR 5/8, yellowish-brown, clay,
massive to weak medium blocky,
friable, small amounts of roots,
small amounts of macropores, lots
of micropores, diffuse, broken,
boundary.

The taxonomic classification of red-yellow podzolic
soils is apparently less confusing than that of latosols
(oxisols). In the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff,
2006a), the soils are placed in the ultisols order, which is
defined as a group of soils having argillic, Bt, horizons,
69071.indb 186 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM

Figure 6.7 Red-yellow podzolic soil (ultisol) at the experi-

mental fields of the University of Andalas, Padang, West Suma-
tra, Indonesia. (Courtesy of Ir. Burhanuddin, former Assistant
Dean Faculty of Agriculture, and Ir. Datuk R. Imbang, Soil
Scientist, University of Andalas.)
and base saturations <35% in the control zone. These

soils are formerly known in New Zealand as yellow-
brown earths (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962) and are classified
as acrisols in the FAO-UN system. (FAO-UNESCO, 2006).
In the Australian soil classification system, the clos-
est fit is the kurosol, due to a description requiring the
presence of a strongly acidic Bt horizon (CSIRO‑ACLEP,
69071.indb 187 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM

2006). The Australian chromosol is defined as having a

Bt that is not strongly acidic. The Canadian system does
not recognize this group of soils, and this is also true
for the other temperate region countries, where tropical
and subtropical conditions are not present. In Indonesia,
some of the problems, as discussed earlier, are the fact
that often these soils are very difficult to distinguish
from latosols. Because the E horizon is often obscure
or missing, and due to a morphology almost similar to
that of latosols, only careful laboratory analyses may be
able to solve this issue satisfactorily. Though a textural
B can easily be determined by professional soil survey-
ors, it should be realized that not every soil surveyor
in Indonesia has at his or her disposal a well-equipped
laboratory for checking percentages of base saturation.
Therefore, in the past, these soils were classified in Indo-
nesia as laterites, lateritic soils, and the like. As can be
noticed from the summary of names used (Table 6.10),
the only distinction to make these “laterites” qualify
being red-yellow podzolic soils is the quartz content.
Under Indonesian conditions, three subgroups can be
recognized on the basis of colors and drainage condi-
tions. In gently rolling topography, as reported by Van
Schuylenborgh (1957), the soil drainage ranges from
rather well drained on top of the hills grading in to
moderately well-drained conditions on the slopes to
become somewhat poorly drained in the valleys. This
leads to the development of red podzolic members on
the top of the hills, red-yellow podzolic members on
the slopes, and yellow podzolic soils in the valleys. In
contrast, the U.S. Soil Taxonomy recognizes five subor-
ders on the basis of wetness and color, organic matter
69071.indb 188 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM

Table 6.10 Names Used for Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils by

Previous Authors in Indonesia
1916 Mohr Kwartshoudende lateriet grond
(Quartz-containing laterite)
1932 Te Riele Rode kwarts gronden (Red
quartz soil)
1937 Idenburg Rode kwarts gronden (Red
quartz soil)
1939 Hardon Rode lateritische kwartz zand
grond (Red lateritic quartz sand
soil)
1950 Van der Voort Degraded lateritic soil
1955 Dames Podzolized lateritic soil
1957 Dudal and Red-yellow podzolic soil
Supraptohardjo
1957 Van Red-yellow podzolic soil
Schuylenborgh
content, and soil moisture regimes (for example, aquults,

humults, udults, ustults, and xerults). In view of the
soils’ occurrence in Indonesia mainly in Afa climate
types, most of the Indonesian red-yellow podzolic soils
can perhaps be correlated with the udults. As indicated
earlier, red-yellow podzolic soils seldom occur in Awa
or dryer climates; hence, ustults and xerults are less
likely to be found in Indonesia (Dudal and Suprapto-
hardjo, 1957). The yellow members as described above
by Van Schuylenborgh (1957) can be placed in the group
of aquults. Some humults may perhaps be present at
higher elevations in the tension zones.
69071.indb 189 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM


As can be noticed from the data in Table 6.11, the texture
of the ultisols (red-yellow podzolic soils) of Indonesia is
not as heavy as that of the oxisols (latosols). However,
the clay content in Indonesian ultisols is substantially
higher than that of their counterparts in the United
States. The Tifton soil (thermic plinthic Kandiudults) in
Georgia is reported to have only 10 to 13% clay in A and
Bt1 horizons, with a maximum of 41.6% noticed in the
Bt2 (Fiskell and Perkins, 1970).
In contrast to the relatively uniform distribution of
clay with depth in the profiles of oxisols, the ultisols in
Indonesia are characterized by clay increases in B hori-
zons (the Bt horizons), indicating the presence of pod-
zolization in their formation. After comparative studies
on the thicknesses of A and B horizons of ultisols in
Indonesia, Van Schuylenborgh (1957) tends to agree
with the idea of Simonson (1950) that the increase in clay
content in the B horizon has not been caused entirely by
mechanical translocation of clay from A to B horizons.
Such an increase could have been the result of clay for-
mation in situ from hydrolytic breakdown substances of
soil minerals produced in A horizons, such as soluble
Si and Al substances, which are leached down into B
horizons. Though the explanations given seem to be
reasonable enough, note that in all cases the C horizons
are always heavy in texture. In many cases, the clay
content in the C horizons is 50 to 60% (see Table 6.11),
exceeding distinctly the amount of clay present in the
upper A horizons. The latter is suggesting, in fact, that
69071.indb 190 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM

Table 6.11 Physicochemical Characteristics of

Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils (Ultisol) in Indonesia
Particle Size Distr. Base

C N
Soil pHH2O Sat. C/N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ %
Red Podzolic
(Kalimantan)
Ap 31.0 36.0 33.0 4.4 12.4 — — 17
Bt1 24.0 32.0 44.0 4.3 20.0 — — 14
Bt2 23.0 30.0 47.0 4.4 23.0 — — 15
Red-Yellow Podzolic
(Bantam, West Java)
A1 15.0 48.2 36.8 5.4 24.5 4.4 0.32 13
Bt1 11.1 41.4 47.5 4.2 32.0 1.0 0.07 14
Bt2 9.5 35.3 55.2 4.3 43.3 1.0 0.06 16
C 8.1 28.0 63.9 4.6 40.3 0.8 0.05 16
Red-Yellow Podzolic
(West Sumatra)
Ap 10.6 11.3 78.1 5.6 55.4 4.8 0.46 10
Bt1 4.2 11.3 84.5 5.0 13.3 1.9 0.18 10
Bt2 20.1 18.7 61.2 5.2 8.9 1.3 0.10 13
C 33.4 15.5 51.1 5.1 11.5 1.7 0.10 17
the heavier texture of the B horizons could have also

been the influence of the parent materials, or in other
words is a lithologic effect, which finds support by the
following. Fiskell and Perkins (1970) have reported that
extensive weathering of the parent materials of ulti-
sols may have been the cause for the presence of heavy
textures in subsoils. Such a high degree of weathering
deep down in the pedon is then a form of geochemical
weathering in contrast to pedochemical weathering, which
mostly occurs in surface soils. Another possibility worth
69071.indb 191 4/25/08 10:42:22 AM

mentioning is that in Indonesia the coarser texture of

the surface horizon could be due to it being younger
than the horizons below. Small amounts of fresh vol-
canic ash are being deposited from time to time due to
volcanic eruptions.

The soils are strongly acidic in reaction. With pH val-
ues varying from 4.0 in A horizons to 5.0 in the lower
B horizons, they are a unit more acidic than the oxisols.
The base saturation of 24 to 50% in A horizons is sur-
prisingly high, but is, however, within the limits (<35%)
in Bt horizons for qualifying them to be placed as ulti-
sols. The data in Table 6.11 indicate that the ultisol of
Java exhibits comparatively the highest percentage base
saturation than those of the soils in North Sumatra and
Kalimantan. This is to be expected because the soils
have been formed in Java on younger and less acidic
(dacitic versus liparitic in North Sumatra and granite in
Kalimantan) parent material. The high value of 55.4%
for the A horizon of the Sumatran ultisol is attributed to
the high organic matter content, because samples were
collected in virgin soils covered by native forest stands.
Organic matter contents in A horizons are also sur-
prisingly high with values recorded as high as 4% in
terms of organic carbon. Organic carbon of >0.9% in the
Bt horizons of the red-yellow podzolic soils of Indone-
sia may perhaps qualify them to be placed as humults in
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Even the yellow podzolic soil
(Table 6.11) with a B2g horizon, confirming the poorer
drainage in their formation as postulated above, exhibits
69071.indb 192 4/25/08 10:42:22 AM

organic carbon contents of >0.9% in the upper 15 cm of

the argillic horizon.
6.3.5.3 Charge characteristics

The ultisols (red-yellow podzolic soils) in Indonesia are
characterized by low permanent charges (CECp) of the
order of 3 to 7 me/100 g or 3 to 7 cmol(+)/kg, with the
lower values exhibited by the soils of Kalimantan. The
soils are invariably high in free or exchangeable Al con-
tents, but again the red-yellow podzolics of Kalimantan
exhibit, comparatively, substantially lower exchange-
able Al percentages than the soils in Java and Sumatra
(Table 6.12).
The variable charges, as expressed by CECv, are some-
what higher, and their values vary only very slightly
between the soils of Java, Kalimantan, or Sumatra.
However, the CEC at pH 8.2 and the maximum CEC
are quite large, showing values twice as high as those
of the CECv. Several of the exceptionally high values of
CEC8.2 and CECm in the A horizons are contributed by
the high organic matter content. The samples, as indi-
cated earlier, were collected from virgin soils under the
original vegetation cover. The observations above con-
firm the opinion that these soils are variable-charged soils
and hence may exhibit a chemical behavior upon use
and cultivation different from permanent-charged soils
(Tan, 2003b). The conclusion for considering these soils
as variable charged is supported by the presence of rel-
atively high positive charges, as expressed in terms of
AEC (anion-exchange capacity) values, ranging from 8
to 14 me/100 g or 8 to 14 cmol/kg soil. The exception
is in the ultisols of Kalimantan, derived from granite,
69071.indb 193 4/25/08 10:42:23 AM

Table 6.12 Charge Characteristics of

Ultisols
Soil A13+ CECp CECv CEC8.2 CECm AEC
Humid
cmo1(+)/kg
Tropics
Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil, Bantam, West Java
A 4.6 5.45 7.75 13.20 16.24 8.42
E 4.3 5.60 7.85 13.45 15.30 9.28
Bt1 6.2 6.10 10.30 16.40 20.50 11.46
Bt2 6.2 6.00 9.00 15.00 19.13 10.60
Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil, Aceh, North Sumatra
A 2.8 7.06 7.26 14.32 19.20 3.94
Bt1 4.1 6.76 7.07 13.83 9.32 3.74
Bt2 5.8 5.36 13.57 18.39 7.38 3.33
Red Podzolic Soil, Kalimantan
A 1.3 3.85 17.02 20.87 28.82 12.53
E 0.7 3.13 9.25 12.38 21.94 12.35
Bt1 1.1 4.34 9.77 14.11 20.63 13.53
where AEC values are in the range of 3 to 4 me/100 g or

3 to 4 cmol/kg soil.

Differential thermal analysis (DTA) of the clay frac-
tions shows a mixture of 1:1 type of clay minerals,
gibbsite, and the dominant presence of amorphous or
noncrystalline clays. This observation is in support of
69071.indb 194 4/25/08 10:42:24 AM

considering the soils as variable charged. The presence

of some 2:1 clays, as reported from x-ray diffraction
analyses by Van Schuylenborgh (1957), is less obvious
by DTA. Smectite, when present, creates serious issues
in the prevailing concepts of ultisols in the United
States, where kaolinite is believed to be the character-
izing clay mineral (McCaleb, 1959; Rich and Obenshain,
1955). Simonson (1949) also suggested the use of smec-
tite as the distinction between ultisols (red-yellow pod-
zolic) and alfisols (gray-brown podzolic soils). The soils
containing kaolinitic clay minerals are, in his opinion,
ultisols, whereas soils with smectite in their clay frac-
tions should be called alfisols. The noncrystalline or
amorphous clays are shown in DTA by the combina-
tion of very sharp low endothermic (±200 C) and very
sharp high exothermic peaks between 900 and 1000
C (Figure 6.8). X-ray diffraction analyses of the ultisol
clays, yielding weak diffractograms or curves with very
weak low-intensity peaks (Figure 6.9), support the pres-
ence of large amounts of amorphous, noncrystalline,
or short-range-order clay minerals (Goenadi and Tan,
1989). This is in sharp contrast with the XRD curves of
the oxisols, showing sharp high-intensity peaks at 0.712
and 0.359 nm for the presence of crystalline clays (e.g.,
kaolinite). This mineral is, however, also considered a
variable-charged clay mineral. Its permanent charge
is relatively small due to the small amount of isomor-
phous substitution in the tetrahedral and octahedral
positions. Most of the negative charge in kaolinite origi-
nate more from dissociation of the H– ions of exposed
octahedral-OH groups, a process which is also soil pH
dependent. Therefore, the electronegative charges of
69071.indb 195 4/25/08 10:42:24 AM

°C
200
400
600
800
1000
Figure 6.8 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) thermo-

grams of red-yellow podzolic soil clay fractions: (1) A and (2)
Bt Horizon, Aceh, North Sumatra; (3) Bt Horizon, Kaliman-
tan; (4) Bt and (5) C Horizon, Bantam, West Java.
kaolinite will also rise and fall depending on soil pH

values. Nevertheless, some of the soil scientists disagree
with the above and are of the opinion that kaolinite, as
is the case of smectite, does not possess pH-dependent
charges unless aluminous impurities are present (De
Villiers and Jackson, 1967; Fiskell and Perkins, 1970).
69071.indb 196 4/25/08 10:42:24 AM

1.402 nm
A
ULTISOL
0.369 0.719 B 11
0.444
0.359 0.712 nm
OXISOL A
0.444
B
28 20 12 3
2θ
Figure 6.9 X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrograms of A and

B horizons of clay fractions of ultisols (Bantam, West Java)
and oxisols of Indonesia. (From Goenadi, D.H. and Tan, K.H.,
[1989].)

As indicated earlier, the ultisols are perhaps the most
widely distributed soils of Indonesia. The total area
with ultisols far exceeds the total acreage of the oxisols
in the archipelago. The soils cover most of the lowlands
in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Maluku, and Papua. In Java,
the ultisols occur mostly in Bantam and perhaps also at
higher elevations in the tension zones.
69071.indb 197 4/25/08 10:42:25 AM

However, in contrast to oxisols, the ultisols in Indone-

sia generally exhibit poor physical and chemical proper-
ties. Most of the soils are relatively heavy-textured soils
but possess a low degree of stable aggregation, which
often results in low permeability. These properties tend
to make them very sensitive to severe erosion. Drastic
weathering and high leaching have also resulted in
strongly to very strongly acid conditions, with pH val-
ues often exhibited one unit below those of the oxisols.
Most of the nutrients have also been transported to
deeper layers. However, because the base saturation in
the subsoil is less than 35%, the amount of nutrients held
is most likely inadequate for plant and crop growth. In
addition, at a depth of 1 to 2 m, the nutrients may be
relatively out of reach to shallow-rooted crops. These
soils are, therefore, considered to be poor agricultural
soils. Similar characteristics have been reported for
temperate region ultisols (for instance, in the southern
coastal plain of the United States), making these soils
infertile unless properly managed (Fiskell and Perkins,
1970; Perkins et al., 1973). However, soil organic matter,
nitrogen, available phosphorus, calcium, and especially
potassium contents, though generally considered low
in surface soils, show considerable variation in Indone-
sian ultisols. For instance, the ultisols of West Java are
comparatively more fertile than their counterparts on
the other islands. Due to their location in the moun-
tain range of Java, these ultisols have experienced from
time to time some kind of a rejuvenation process in the
form of nutrient-rich andesitic ash showers. Worth men-
tioning are the ultisols in Sumatra and the Moluccas,
which are rich in potassium. The ultisols in Sumatra
69071.indb 198 4/25/08 10:42:25 AM

are developed mostly from liparitic tuff, relatively rich

in feldspar, biotite, and muscovite (Van Dijk, 1952).
These minerals are important sources of potassium for
perennial crops, such as rubber and oil palm, which are
extensively grown in the lowlands of Sumatra. This is
especially true for the younger members or soils that
have received rejuvenation in the recent past in the
form of volcanic ash showers. The ultisols in the Moluc-
cas originated from schists, rich in micas, and are there-
fore also rich in potassium. Nevertheless, the ultisols of
both Sumatra and the Moluccas may still have the poor
physical properties exhibited by ultisols in general (Tan
et al., 1963, 1965).
To the above should perhaps be added that in virgin
conditions where the vegetation cover is still present,
the ultisols in Indonesia may still have high amounts of
organic matter in their surface layers, as can be noticed
from the data in Table 6.11. In addition, the nutrient con-
tent of the soil surface is often maintained at adequate
levels for proper plant growth by the process of nutrient
cycling. But as soon as the area is deforested and the soil
cultivated for as little as 1 year, the available nutrient
supply of the soil surface is soon exhausted.

The properties related to low degree of aggregate
stability and low pH have to be corrected when ero-
sion hazards are to be decreased. Chemically, this can
be achieved by liming the soils properly, a process
by which not only the soil pH can be adjusted to the
desired level for proper crop production but will also
increase or enhance aggregation of soil particles. Good
69071.indb 199 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM

aggregation of soil particles is required for the devel-

opment of soil structures, which in turn promotes the
formation of pore spaces, beneficial in improving soil
permeability. In addition, the application of organic
matter, compost, green manuring, and other types of
soil-structure-enhancing processes may be performed
alone or in combination with the above. The applica-
tion of soil amendments, such as phosphogypsum and
other soil stabilizers, is considered by some scientists
an alternative method to traditional procedures for con-
trol of erosion (Levy, 1995).
As the soil pH is increased by liming procedures, the
variable charges, arising from soil organic matter and
the highly weathered clay, are also increased substan-
tially. The latter, as reflected in higher CECv, CEC8.2,
and CECm values (Table 6.12), was discussed earlier
for enabling the soil to store more nutrients for plant
growth. Enlarging the soil CEC is very important, in
view of the need to apply fertilizers in controlling the
soil’s inherent low nutrient content and in offsetting
nutrient losses by leaching and plant uptake. However,
as indicated in the aforementioned section, in the fer-
tilization procedure, it should be kept in mind that sev-
eral of the ultisols are potentially rich in potassium and
may not need large amounts of K-fertilizers.

6.3.6.3.1 Shifting cultivation Most of the area cov-
ered by ultisols is located on the rather thinly populated
islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua.
Because in this case large areas of lands are available,
shifting cultivation is often practiced. This method is
69071.indb 200 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM

locally called the ladang or huma system and is often

erroneously considered synonymous with the slash-
and-burn method. By definition, shifting cultivation
involves complex cycles of processes that allow lands
to lie fallow for some time after cultivation and recover
before again being slashed, burned, and cropped. Com-
monly, a family or unit of settlers functions collectively
in clearing the forest. They then claim customary rights
over the particular stretch of territory that was culti-
vated, often amounting to 50 km2 or more, which was
referred to in Chapter 1 as tanah adat.
This method of shifting cultivation, practiced mostly
in the tropical rain forest, has attracted worldwide
attention due to an allegedly massive deforestation.
However, when conducted properly, it encourages at
the end of the cycle the growth of a secondary forest
and hence will result in minimal ecological damage.
Slash-and-burn is only part of it and can be practiced
on its own without the necessary cycles of fallow fol-
lowed by development of a secondary forest stand. The
method is practiced lately in close relation to the Indo-
nesian government transmigration program for a rapid
clearing of the forest and production of enough food
for the migrant settlers during their first years, ensur-
ing in this way the success or failure of the resettlement
program. Due to violent conflicts in the 1990s between
the settlers and indigenous people (see Chapter 1), and
because of the Asian financial crisis in August 2000,
large-scale transmigration programs have now been
cancelled. Slash-and-burn was, in fact, also conducted
in temperate-region forests of Northern Europe, where
it was known by different names (for example, swidden,
69071.indb 201 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM

assarting, and svedjebruk). On its own, it is a very contro-

versial method, and many scientists consider it harmful
to the ecology. The issue of slash-and-burn is exacer-
bated when the method contributed since 1990 to the
deforestation of lands of more than 40,000 ha annu-
ally in Colombia for the cultivation of crops, producing
illegal drugs, such as marijuana and coca. It has also
received worldwide attention with the disastrous flare-
ups of wildfires, destroying in 1997 and 1998 parts of
the peat forest in south Kalimantan. Thick, toxic smoke
from these wildfires was also covering Medan and
Palembang in North and South Sumatra, respectively,
and has even spread dangerously over neighboring
Singapore and Malaysia, forcing temporary closures of
their airports.
In shifting cultivation, most of the trees and other
types of vegetation are cut and left to dry. Parts of the
timber are collected and used as building material,
whereas another part may be used as firewood or for
making charcoal. As soon as the residual vegetation is
dry, it is burned to clear the soil for cultivation. In view
of the strongly acidic reaction and low nutrient contents
of ultisols, the ash proves to be temporarily beneficial
in increasing the soil pH and supplying nutrients. The
cleared plots are usually cultivated with upland rice,
maize, or root crops—for example, cassava (Manihot
utilissima) and banana (Musa paradisiaca) or other fruit
trees. Recently, hot pepper plants (Capsicum annuum or
Capsicum frutescens) are becoming very popular as huma
crops. Most Indonesian food is very spicy, and hot pep-
per is one of the main ingredients used to make it hot
and spicy. The increasing demand for hot pepper has
69071.indb 202 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM

increased its market price often to such a level that it is

more profitable growing hot pepper than upland rice in
the humas. Intercropping is often practiced, and three
stories of crops may then be present, with sweet pota-
toes, hot peppers, and taro as the “ground-dwelling”
crops, whereas cassava, banana, or papaya constitute
the middle story, and coconut, jackfruit, and other fruit
trees are the upper-level crops. In the heyday of rubber,
rubber trees were also favored intercrops. When crop
yields decrease after 1 to 3 years, due to a decline in
soil fertility, the fields are left fallow, allowing them to
return into a secondary forest stand, a cycle vital for
this type of cultivation. The banana and other fruit
trees are still producing in the secondary forest growth,
when cultivation has to shift to a new plot that has been
cleared also by the slash-and-burn method. The rub-
ber trees are then also ready to be “tapped.” All these
provide a welcome addition either to the diet or to the
settler’s income. If the method is carried out properly,
the old site can be used again in about 8 to 10 years.
The International Center for Soil Research and Agro-
forestry (ICRAF, personal communications) at Bogor
is even of the opinion that ideally 20 years are needed
before returning cropping at the first site. They believe
that by giving the land enough time to recover, shift-
ing cultivation can be productive with fewer ecological
implications while providing a method of sustainable
agriculture in the lightly populated regions of Indone-
sia. If and when the cycle is too short, this may pro-
duce vast areas of wasteland invaded by cochon grass,
locally called alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica). The lat-
ter is the case in many areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan,
69071.indb 203 4/25/08 10:42:27 AM

and the Moluccas. Setting fire to the dry grasses during

the dry season in order to produce young shoots that
attract deer and other game animals contributes to the
further impoverishment of the ultisols. Natural refores-
tation needs considerable time and much help on such
poor soils. Despite the untidy and sloppy appearance
of the cultivated plots, the link between the protective
vegetation and preservation of a fertile soil is implicit in
shifting cultivation, whereas the use of ash after burn-
ing as a source of nutrient supply and avoiding exces-
sive weeding and other drastic cultivation practices are
considered by many people eminently sound (Fisher,
1966).
6.3.6.3.2 Rice cultivation Because rice is a major

staple food in Indonesia, growing rice has received
more attention in the agricultural operations of Indo-
nesia than other crops. As discussed earlier with the
oxisols, rice is cultivated in Indonesia by two methods
(for example, inundated paddy-field and dryland meth-
ods). The paddy-field (locally called sawah) method,
by which lowland rice is grown in diked and inundated
plots of land, is the traditional method. This method
is practiced extensively in Java and Bali, where paddy-
fields are dotting the landscape from the lowlands to
the mountain regions. In the less densely populated
areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua, the
paddy-fields are less numerous, though still considered
the most important method for growing rice. Therefore,
relatively large concentrations of paddy-fields on ulti-
sols seem to be located more near centers of populated
areas in Sumatra (e.g., Banda-Aceh, Medan, Padang,
69071.indb 204 4/25/08 10:42:27 AM

Jambi, Benkulu, and Lampung). Substantial areas with

lowland rice areas are also found in West Kaliman-
tan, Southeast Sulawesi, Maluku, and near Merauke in
Southeast Papua. In the surrounding areas of Medan,
North Sumatra, and in Solok, West Sumatra, the paddy-
fields produce the Medan and Solok rice, respectively,
favored for consumption by local people in Sumatra.
Under sawah culture, the soils need fertilization with
large amounts of nitrogen, phosphate, and in some ulti-
sols also with potassium. Heavy applications of lime
and phosphate (e.g., 1 to 5 tons CaCO3 and 200 to 500
kg triple superphosphate per hectare) have been recom-
mended by Go (1961) to ensure optimum rice yields. The
nitrogen used should be applied preferably in the form
of urea, because its acidity is only one-third that of sul-
fate of ammonia. In the absence of additional fertiliza-
tion, rice yields may be as high as 1700 kg/ha in terms
of dry grain (Van der Giessen, 1949; Van Dijk, 1952).
With adequate liming and fertilization, the rice yields
are in the range of 4 to 5 tons/ha, though in experimen-
tal fields using hybrid rice (for example, Batang Samo
and Batang Kampar) yields of 8 to 10 tons/ha have been
reported (AARD, 1986; Sujitno, 2004).
Grown as ladang rice, also called padi gogo or upland
rice in shifting cultivation, a short-growing variety is
recommended that can produce within a period of 4
months when rainfall is relatively the largest. The yields
of this type of rice are usually lower, but with yields
recorded at 2 to 5 tons/ha with adequate liming and
fertilizer applications, they are still good rice yields,
though some of the padi gogo varieties (e.g., PB-36 and
Singkarak) have been reported in experimental fields to
69071.indb 205 4/25/08 10:42:27 AM

yield 3 to 5 tons/ha (Sujitno, 2004). The two varieties

are resistant to the blast disease, caused by the fungus
Pyricularia oryzae, that often creates serious problems in
the cultivation of upland rice (AARD, 1986).
6.3.6.3.3 Estate crops A large variety of estate

crops were grown during the prewar Dutch colonial
time on the ultisols of Sumatra, including rubber, sisal
(Agave sisalana), cantala (Agave angustifolia), manilla-
hemp (Musa textilis), and many other crops that toler-
ate the prevailing tropical humid climate (Holthuis et
al., 1950). The fiber from the agave and musa crops pro-
vides important raw material for the thriving rope, cord,
and string factory, located in Lampung, South Sumatra.
Some tobacco cultures and a little tea were also noted
in North Sumatra. Because of the need for intensive
care and heavy fertilization on the nutrient-deficient
ultisols, tobacco cultivation seemed later to be moved
to the more fertile lowland andosols on the footslope
of Mount Sibayak in North Sumatra. However, during
that time, rubber was still considered the major estate
crop on ultisols. But due to the threat from synthetic
rubber in 1945 and hence decreasing world demand in
natural rubber, much attention has been given lately
to replacing it with oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), locally
known as kelapa sawit. Its cultivation has since grown
substantially in importance, especially with the poten-
tial for use of its crude or residual oil as biodiesel, an
alternative fuel source for powering automobiles and
the like (Goenadi, 2006).
The country of origin of oil palm is still a big issue,
though a majority of scientists believe that it was
69071.indb 206 4/25/08 10:42:27 AM

introduced in Indonesia from tropical Africa. However,

others claim South America as the country of origin
because not only E. guineensis (the only species found in
Africa), but also E. Melanoccoca and many other species
were found wild in South America (Van Heurn, 1950).
The oil palm came in Indonesia long before the rubber
“crisis,” perhaps in the nineteenth century, and like rub-
ber is well adapted for growing in the humid tropics of
Sumatra. Because the ultisols of Sumatra were reported
to vary widely from rich to poor in, especially, potas-
sium content, such conditions will be reflected in the
growth of the trees. A poor crop will be found on the
soils low in potassium-bearing minerals (<0.100% K2O
soluble in 25% HCl), whereas the soils with relatively
higher contents of the potassium minerals (>0.100% K2O
soluble in 25% HCl) are noted to support better crops
(Van Dijk, 1952). The average yield in 1940 was 3500 kg
oil per hectare.
In the wild, the oil palm grows to considerable heights,
making it very difficult to harvest the fruits that develop
in clusters at the tops of the trees. Recently, dwarfed
trees (Figure 6.10) have been developed by proper breed-
ing to facilitate the harvesting of the fruits by means
of manually cutting the clusters from the ground with
a knife perhaps attached only to a short pole. Today’s
breeding programs in Indonesia are aimed at produc-
ing very short, high-yielding palms with low cholesterol
and high vitamin A content. The dwarf hybrids came
from the crossing between the Duras, descendants from
a palm species in Bogor, and the Dumpy, a palm spe-
cies from Serdang, Malaysia. At 6 to 9 years of age, the
cross is reported to yield a record 30 tons per hectare
69071.indb 207 4/25/08 10:42:27 AM

Figure 6.10 Dwarf oil palm tree. (Courtesy of the Indone-

sian Research Institute for Estate Crops. Photo provided by
Dr. Ir. Didiek H. Goenadi, Director.)
annually in terms of fresh fruit bunches (FFBs) (AARD,

1986). The Indonesian Research Institute for Estate
Crops considers this yield of 30 t/ha the attainable yield
and believes that the genetical potential FFB yield is in
the range of 35 to 40 t/ha. The oil is derived from both
the mesocarp around the kernel and from the kernel
itself, and the oil extraction rate (OER) is around 22%
69071.indb 208 4/25/08 10:42:28 AM

from the mesocarp and 6% from the kernels. Most of

the vitamin A, if not all, is in the mesocarp oil (personal
communication, Didiek H. Goenadi).
6.4 Lowland alfisols

The name lowland alfisols was selected to represent a
group of reddish-colored soils derived from calcareous
parent material, formerly known as terra rossa soils or
red Mediterranean soils. These soils are called chromosols
in the Australian Soil Taxonomy (Isbell, 2002), and kas-
tanozems in the FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World.
The closest fit in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy is the alfisols,
though this may not agree fully with the concept of red
Mediterranean or terra rossa soils, as discussed further
below. Therefore, the name lowland alfisols will be used
in this text because of their main occurrence in the low-
lands of Indonesia and in view of their close association
with oxisols.
Red Mediterranean or terra rossa soils, often called
terra rosa or terra roxa soils, are widely spread in the
Mediterranean regions, from Portugal and Spain over
Italy to the Balkan peninsula. They are also found in
the north coast of Africa. Of the several concepts pres-
ent, the most popular is the concept as proposed by
Reifenberg (1929) and Blanck (1930), who define the
soils as follows: Red Mediterranean soils are more or
less deep red loams, formed on limestone as a result
of specific soil-formation processes, dictated by condi-
tions of a typical Mediterranean climate, and generally
characterized by rainy winters and hot, dry summers.
The soil-forming processes may be a combination of
69071.indb 209 4/25/08 10:42:28 AM

lixiviation, calcification, and laterization or ferraliti-

zation. Consequently, the soils show enrichment with
sesquioxides and some silica. The high content of iron
with the usually low organic matter content gives rise
to the development of bright red colors, properties that
distinguish them from a standard alfisol of the temper-
ate regions. Compared with other soils of the humid
tropics (for example, oxisols and ultisols), they possess
a higher content of alkali and alkaline earth and are
also alkaline in reaction. Calcium and iron concretions
may be present. Reifenberg (1929) was of the opinion
that the soils should be considered as a preliminary
stage of laterite formation. Such an idea was supported
by Joffe (1949), who placed the soils in the group of soils
affected by laterization. He also suggested that the soils
might have been formed in an earlier geologic time
when in the Mediterranean region a humid tropical cli-
mate prevailed. The stress upon the calcareous origin
is the subject of many arguments, and many Italian soil
scientists have proposed the idea of aeolian or volcanic
origin (Joffe, 1949).
In Indonesia, this kind of soil is found in Central
and East Java, Madura, and in Nusa Tenggara, over the
islands of Bali, Lombok to Timor. On the other islands
of the archipelago they are of little importance.

As far as the author’s experiences are concerned, the
red Mediterranean soils of Indonesia originate from
reef limestone parent materials. However, a number
of soil scientists in Indonesia have noticed that the
69071.indb 210 4/25/08 10:42:28 AM

soils can also be formed from calcareous sandstone

and basic volcanic materials (Dudal and Suprapto-
hardjo, 1957). They have found these soils on basaltic
ash deposits, located on the lower slopes of the Baluran
volcano in the eastern corner of East Java. With respect
to the above, Wisaksono (1953) suggested to divide the
soils into two groups: pure red limestone soils and false
red limestone soils, respectively. The former has devel-
oped on pure limestone rocks, whereas the latter has
been formed from calcareous materials, which have
received contamination in the form of volcanic ash. The
latter soils are, therefore, found more in the neighbor-
hood of the volcanic chain. These differences in parent
materials have been substantiated by results of miner-
alogical analyses. The pure red limestone soils possess
sand fractions, composed of iron oxides and the pri-
mary minerals, zircon, tourmaline, epidote, and anda-
lusite, considered typical minerals of old nonvolcanic
sediments. On the other hand, the sand fraction of the
false red limestone soil is typified by a volcanic mineral
suite, containing augite and hornblende, in addition to
magnetite. The iron content in the false red limestone
soil is comparatively also much higher than that of its
pure counterpart.
The differences in parent materials are usually cou-
pled with the topography and the physical conditions
of the soils. When formed on reef limestone or calcare-
ous parent materials, relief is undulating. When formed
on volcanic materials, relief ranges from hilly to moun-
tainous. The pure red limestone soils are also more dif-
ficult to cultivate and behave more like heavy-textured
69071.indb 211 4/25/08 10:42:29 AM

soils than the false red limestone soil. In the dry season,
pure red limestone soils tend to form wide cracks.
6.4.2 Climate
The occurrence of the soils tends to be limited to the
southeastern part of Indonesia, which is generally
characterized by the driest climate of the whole archi-
pelago. As can be noticed from Table 6.13, the real
(pure) terra rossa soils are located in areas with Asa
or Ama (Köppen) climate types. The Asa type of cli-
mate is characterized by a long dry season from the
months of May through September, where some of
the months often receive less than 3 to 5 mm rainfall/
month. This dry season is alternated by a rainy season,
which climaxes during the months of December, Janu-
ary, and February, where the highest average monthly
rainfalls are recorded between 200 and 300 mm. Such
a climatic pattern, common in the surroundings of
Tuban, Madura, and Kupang, resembles closely that of
a Mediterranean climate. However, as can be noticed
from Table 6.13, the soils can also develop in Ama
(Köppen) climatic types. Though this type of climate
was defined earlier as a monsoon climate, the rela-
tively longer wet season also has its climax during the
period of December through February. It has a very
sharp dry season with average rainfall often recorded
of less than 5 mm/month.
69071.indb 212 4/25/08 10:42:29 AM

Table 6.13 The Climate of Terra Rossa Soils (Lowland

Alfisol) Areas in Indonesia
Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
Location Climatea Soil
<60 mm >100 mm Rainfall
East Java
Tuban 0 5.6 5.2 1373 Asa E Terra Rossa
Bojonegoro 15 4.0 7.3 1872 Ama C
Cepu 30 3.9 7.2 1901 Ama C
Randublatung 55 3.1 7.7 2312 Ama C
Madura
Tanah Merah 47 4.1 6.9 2006 Asa C Terra Rossa
Nusa Tenggara
Kupang 48 6.0 6.0 1687 Asa E Terra Rossa
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldest

month >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; m = monsoon; s = sum-
mer dry season.

The morphology of the soils is in fact not too com-
plex. Like the other red-colored soils discussed in the
preceding pages, the red Mediterranean or terra rossa
soils have almost no distinct horizon differentiations.
Depending on the local conditions, the soil profile may
be very deep, but often it can also be thin. An example
of a deep profile is given on the next page. The vegeta-
tion is composed of village garden crops with lowland
fruit and kapok (Ceiba pentandra) trees and grasses as
undergrowth.
69071.indb 213 4/25/08 10:42:30 AM


Ap 0–33 2.5YR 3/2, dusky red, clay, weak
medium crumb, friable, many
roots.
B1 33–69 2.5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown,
clay, weak fine crumb to granular,
friable, few CaCO3 fragments pres-
ent, horizon is more compact than
the A.
B3 69–95 2.5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown,
clay, weak fine crumb to granular,
friable, some very faint clay
coatings.
B3 95 2.5YR 3/6 dark red, clay, granular,
friable, faint Fe coatings, horizon is
comparatively more compact and
drier.
In cases of rather thin or shallow profiles, which are

more common in Madura, the dusky red surface soil is
often 50 to 100 cm thick, underlain directly by the par-
ent rock, composed of CaCO3 or calcite.
Based on color differences, it appears that these red
Mediterranean soils can be distinguished into the
following:
1. Red Mediterranean soils with colors near 2.5YR

3/2 to 3/6.
2. Brown Mediterranean soils with colors between
7.5YR 3/2 and 6YR 3/4.
3. Red-yellow Mediterranean soil with colors near
5YR 4/4 to 6/8.
69071.indb 214 4/25/08 10:42:30 AM

This group of Mediterranean soils often occurs in

association with other groups of soils according to
topography. The red Mediterranean soils are located
generally on top of the hills, grading into rendzinas on
the slopes and into black margalitic soils (grumusols, ver-
tisols) in the valleys where drainage conditions are the
poorest. Such a sequence of soils is often found in the
Rembang-Tuban hills in Central–East Java. A different
topographical sequence of soils was reported by Dames
(1955) in the southern mountains of Central–East Java.
On top of the hills, red lateritic soils, with acid reactions,
low base saturation, and exchange capacities, are grad-
ing into brown to dark brown soils on the slopes and
into margalitic soils again at lower elevations or in the
valleys. Soil acidity decreases, whereas base saturation,
cation-exchange capacity, calcium content, plasticity,
and stickiness of the soils gradually increase from the
top of the mountains to the valleys as natural drainage
gradually becomes poorer.

As discussed earlier, the soils were first called terra rossa
or red Mediteranean soils and by the Australian Soil Tax-
onomy later identified as chromosols (Foster et al., 2004).
The FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World considers
them to be related to kastanozems, though the descrip-
tion of rendzinas may also fit somewhat the concept of
red Mediterranean soils. In the European literature, the
soils are typical for regions having a climate resembling
that of a Mediterranean climate with the rainy winters
69071.indb 215 4/25/08 10:42:30 AM

and dry summers (Blanck, 1930; Reifenberg, 1929). Most

European soil scientists consider the soils to be lateritic
in nature, whereas some believe that they are in the ini-
tial stages of forming laterites, as indicated above. In
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy, these soils are grouped in the
alfisols, a soil order defined as having argillic, kandic,
or natric horizons, and base saturations >35% in the
control zone. The soils can perhaps be placed as ustalfs,
under the great group name rhodustalfs. The ustic mois-
ture regime is correlated for tropical regions with a
monsoon climate that has at least one rainy season of 3
months or more during the “winter” months. However,
in the temperate regions of subhumid climates, the
rainy seasons are occurring in spring and summer or
in spring and fall. Such a climatic pattern, occurring,
for example, in the state of Georgia, does not agree with
a Mediterranean climate as described above. Never-
theless, red-colored soils, similar in morphology with
oxisols or ultisols, but possessing base saturation >35%
in the control zones, have been identified in Georgia
as alfisols (H.F. Perkins, personal communication) and
elsewhere in the southern region from the plains of the
Mississippi to Texas and Oklahoma (Slusher and Lytle,
1973). Soils, identified as Pleistocene Terra Rossas, do, in
fact, exist in central Texas, which are considered more
paleosols (Young, 2006). In contrast, Kubota et al. (2005)
classified terra rossas of Paraguay as either oxisols or
ultisols, which seemed to have obtained tacit approval
for publication from the editors of Soil Science Society of
America Journal.
In Indonesia, these red soils were formerly classified
as lateritic soils derived from limestone (Table 6.14), then
69071.indb 216 4/25/08 10:42:30 AM

Table 6.14 Summary of Names Used by Previous

Authors for Red Mediterranean Soils in Indonesia
Year Author Name
1922 Mohr Rood aarde (red earth)
1938 Mohr Laterite ground van kalksteen
1944 Mohr Laterite from limestone
1932 Te Riele Kalk roodaarde (red limestone
1937 Idenburg soil), Terra rossa
1939 Hardon Rode kalk grond (red
limestone soil), Terra rossa
1950 Van der Voort Red lateritic limestone soil
1953 Wisaksono Tubuh tanah kapur merah (red
limestone soil)
1953 Van Rummelen Kalk roodaarde (red limestone
soil, Terra rossa; class notes,
personal communication)
1955 Dames Red limestone soil, Terra rossa
1957 Dudal and Red-yellow Mediterranean
Supraptohardjo soil, Terra rossa
1960 Mohr and Van
Baren Terra rossa soils
1962 Dudal Red Mediterranean soils
1972 Mohr, Van
Baren, and Van
Schuylenborgh Red Mediterranean soils
renamed red-yellow Mediterranean soils in the 1960s

by the Bogor Soil Research Institute (Dudal and Supra-
ptohardjo, 1957; Supraptohardjo, 1961). In analogy to
red-yellow podzolic soils, using the name of red-yellow
Mediterranean soil then allows for subdividing the
69071.indb 217 4/25/08 10:42:30 AM

group into red, red-yellow, and brown Mediterranean

soils. Today, these soils are recognized in Indonesia as
alfisols. Because the amounts of free sesquioxides can
often reach high values in this group of soils of Indone-
sia, the question often arises as to why they cannot be
defined as having oxic horizons too. But, the high per-
centages of base saturation and higher soil alkalinity
may raise additional difficulties for placing them into
the ustox group.

The data in Table 6.15 indicate that the majority of
the soils are fine in texture. They are not loamy soils
as defined by Reifenberg (1929) and Blanck (1930) for
a modal concept of a red Mediterranean soil, but the
Indonesian varieties are more clayey soils. They also
show a sharp increase in clay content from A to B hori-
zons. Although an argillic horizon (Bt) is thus present,
due to their granular and crumb structures, an excel-
lent to good soil porosity is maintained, permitting the
development of excellent internal drainage conditions.

The soil reaction is in the slightly acidic category, with
nearly all pH values above 6, which is in sharp contrast
with the oxisols and ultisols. The same is true for the
soil base saturation. This is commonly very high, often
reaching values of percentage base saturation ≈99%
(Table 6.15). The high base status is perhaps one of the
reasons for the formation of a relatively stable crumb
69071.indb 218 4/25/08 10:42:31 AM

Table 6.15 Physiochemical Characteristics of Lowland

Alfisols of Indonesia
Particle Size
Soil Distribution (%) pHH2O Base C N
C/N
Profile Sat. % % %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Red Mediterranean Soil (Tuban, East Java)

Ap 1.63 49.1 49.3 7.1 — 2.5 0.18 13.5
Bt 1.50 32.9 65.6 6.9 — 1.9 0.09 19.4
B2 1.41 45.4 53.2 7.0 — 1.6 0.07 23.0
B3 1.05 48.9 50.1 7.1 — 1.2 0.06 18.6
Red-Yellow Mediterranean Soil (Madura)

Ap 41.0 32.0 27.0 7.7 99.0 1.0 0.12 8.3
Bt 20.0 22.0 58.0 7.2 99.0 0.9 0.12 7.5
B2 15.0 11.0 74.0 6.8 82.0 — — —
Brown Mediterranean Soil (Baluran Volcano, East Java)

A 16.0 33.0 51.0 6.5 89.0 — — 15.0
Bt1 7.0 18.0 75.0 6.5 78.0 — — 18.0
Bt2 7.0 19.0 74.0 6.2 65.0 — — 18.0
to granular structure. As discussed in preceding pages,

the soils are found limited to areas with pronounced
dry seasons and wet “winters.” The climate is thus of
the type that permits an alternating downward and
upward movement of soil water, as discussed in Chap-
ter 3. Bases that percolate down the pedon during the
wet season will most likely be moved or transported
upward again to the surface soil during the dry season, a
69071.indb 219 4/25/08 10:42:32 AM

process previously called calcification. The latter process

will saturate the clay complex with bases and hence
will precipitate and aggregate the clay and other soil
particles to form crumbs or granular structural units.

According to Hardon (1939), the clay fraction of the red-
yellow Mediterranean soil is characterized by halloy-
site. This is substantiated by more recent analyses of
the present author, who also noticed by DTA analyses
the presence of additional clay minerals, such as vary-
ing amounts of sesquioxides in amorphous or parac-
rystalline forms. The red-yellow Mediterranean soils of
the Rembang-Tuban hills in East Java especially seem
to contain substantially high amounts of sesquiox-
ides. The latter are also confirmed by total elemental
analyses, and specifically by the determinations of sili-
con, aluminum, and iron contents of the clay fractions,
showing the soils to have silica/sesquioxides {SiO2/
(Al2O3 +Fe2O3)} ratios in the range of 0.9 to 1.1. Such low
ratios are generally exhibited by the amorphous clay
fractions of Andosols. Consequently, these particular
red Mediterranean soils of Indonesia have to be con-
sidered more allitic or ferralitic in nature than the other
red soils in Indonesia. Crystalline clays of the 1:1 layer
types are usually characterized by ratios in the range
of 2 to 3, as frequently reported for the kaolinitic clays
of oxisols, and ultisols (Mohr et al., 1972). Reifenberg
(1929) and Joffe (1949) mentioned silica/sesquioxides
ratios of 3 and higher for the red earths on limestone
in the Mediterranean regions. These high values are
generally indicative for the presence of 2:1 layer types
69071.indb 220 4/25/08 10:42:32 AM

of clays, such as smectites or montmorillonites. Several

scientists in Indonesia also mentioned the presence of
smectite minerals in the “pure” terra rossa soils from
limestone rocks (Mohr et al., 1972; Wisaksono, 1953),
because of the basic environment favoring the forma-
tion of 2:1 clays. However, it is believed that halloysite
and other 1:1 layer types of minerals are more typical of
the clays of “false” terra rossa soils, due to the admix-
ture of the parent materials with volcanic ash.

Chemically, the soils are poor in nitrogen and organic
matter contents, and in many cases also in phosphate
and potassium. However, the soils developed from vol-
canic ash may often show a tendency to contain higher
amounts of phosphate and potassium. The calcium
content in these particular soils is relatively lower than
that of the soils formed on pure limestone rocks (Dames,
1955; Wisaksono, 1953). But as a whole, the red-yellow
Mediterranean or lowland alfisols can be considered as
having better base saturation conditions than the red
latosols or red-yellow podzolic soils.

The agricultural potentialities of these lowland alfisols
are for the greater part determined by the distribution
of rainfall, the drainage conditions, and the great local
variations of soils with regard to pedon depth and stoni-
ness. The profile depth may vary from several centime-
ters to a meter (or more) thick. The shallow soils are as a
69071.indb 221 4/25/08 10:42:32 AM

rule rather stony and contain many rock outcrops. The

physical soil properties are perhaps almost comparable
to those of the red latosols. The clay contents are also
very high, which tend to cause the soils to become
slightly plastic and sticky. However, the extremely high
base saturation is the reason for the presence of strong
crumb to granular soil structures, resulting in good
soil permeability. On drying, the soils tend to crack
into medium-sized blocks that are first rather hard, but
which usually crumble after prolonged drying.

6.4.6.3.1 Small landholders’ or farmers’ crops As a
rule, agricultural operations are limited to places with
deeper soils. Where irrigation is possible, the soils are
used for rice crops, sugarcane, and tobacco. The rice is
often grown as sawah culture. In areas where irriga-
tion is not possible and where the water supply has to
depend on the local rainfall, corn is planted in the begin-
ning of the wet season, followed by tobacco, after which
the soils remain fallow during the driest period of the
dry season. On very shallow soils, one planting season
is usually followed by fallow for 1 or 2 years. The fal-
low lands, locally called tegalans, are especially found
in large acreages on the poorer soils in the parched
limestone regions of the northeastern part of Java and
in Madura. However, the tegalans support goats and
many heads of cattle (Dames, 1955; Supraptohardjo,
1961), raised mainly for pulling carts or drawing loads,
though some may be killed for their meat.
On deep soils, intercropping of cassava (Manihot
utillissima) and upland-rice crops is common practice.
69071.indb 222 4/25/08 10:42:32 AM

This is conducted every year, followed by a crop of corn

and peanuts or soybeans. Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) trees
together with betel (Piper betle) plants, fruit trees, and in
certain cases also cotton, are grown on lowland alfisols.
The betel plant is a vine or climbing pepper, whose leaves
are harvested green and chewed with betel nut and lime
as stimulants. In addition, smallholder cultivation of
tobacco has been encouraged by the Indonesian govern-
ment for export and local consumption. The area under
tobacco in East and Central Java and Madura is now esti-
mated to be 200,000 ha and growing, but the yield of 300
to 650 kg/ha is still considered low (AARD, 1986). Local
varieties of tobacco, such as the Madura type, Jepon
Kenek, are commonly grown for the manufacture of the
now famous kretek cigarettes. These cigarettes, spiced
with cloves and when burned produce a very pungent
smell, were produced first for local consumption only.
Recently, they have been exported, and the demand for
kretek allegedly continues to grow rapidly both locally
and internationally. The Virginia-type tobacco, mainly
for export, is planted in Central and East Java on lands
ordinarily used for upland rice. They include the variet-
ies of North Carolina, NC 95 and NC 254.
6.4.6.3.2 Estate crops The two major estate crops

are kapok and teak. Kapok is planted in the old Dutch
plantations as a fiber crop, whereas teak is planted for
timber by the State Forest Service as a forest stand. Both
plants, developing into huge trees, are usually grown in
the driest regions of Indonesia. In this respect, the cli-
mate of the lowland alfisols turns out to be most favor-
able for cultivation of these crops. A long, dry season
69071.indb 223 4/25/08 10:42:32 AM

with no more than 4 months having 60 to 100 mm rain/

month is most suitable for the cultivation of especially
kapok trees.
6.4.6.3.3 Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) The kapok

trees are not indigenous to Indonesia and are found wild
in the southern part of Mexico, the West Indies, and in
Senegal and Angola, Africa. Two types of kapok—the
Caribbean and Indica—were formerly used by the Dutch
estates. The name implies that the Caribbean kapok
tree should have originated from the Caribbean Islands,
West Indies, but Toxopeus (1950) indicates that it was a
Congo variety. On the other hand, the indica kapok is
native in South Asia.
Kapok is planted as seedlings, cuttings, or buddings,
and in the former Dutch estates they were generally
neatly arranged in rows using a 10 × 10 m plant dis-
tance. In some of the estates, cacao (chocolate, Theobroma
cacao) is often used as the intercrop. In contrast, kapok
is frequently also planted by local farmers, called tani or
petani, in irregular patterns in the yard, along the roads,
or on areas separating the tegalans from the padi-sawah
fields. In East Java and in Sulawesi, another kapok area,
the trees are often planted to form hedges surrounding
each of the tani’s privately owned tegalans. The fiber is
produced in large elongated fruit pods, like cotton pro-
ducing its fiber in “fruit balls.” The fiber pods are usu-
ally harvested during October and November, which
are the end of the dry season, by climbing in the tree
and shaking them loose from the branches, in a simi-
lar manner as harvesting pecan in the United States.
The cleaned and processed fiber is used today mainly
69071.indb 224 4/25/08 10:42:33 AM

as mattress filler, for filling pillows and cushions, and

as the filler-lining of jackets and other winter clothing.
A kapok mattress is cool and firm, easy to repair, and
far cheaper than the spring mattresses of today; hence,
kapok is a sought-after commodity in Indonesia. In the
Dutch colonial time, kapok was also used as insulation
material in refrigerators, walls, and ceilings, but this
practice was discontinued because of the fire hazard.
Unfortunately, the fiber is of such quality that it can-
not be spun into thread, like cotton. Research in this
respect is still ongoing, and threads of kapok and cot-
ton mixtures have successfully been produced.
6.4.6.3.4 Teak (Tectona grandis) Teak, the other

important tree crop for these dry regions, is usually cul-
tivated as a forest stand by the Forest Service of Indone-
sia. The plant is native to India and other countries in
South Asia, where three major species are recognized:
Tectona grandis, the common teak, which is widely dis-
tributed in India and Thailand; Tectona hamiltoniana,
known as dahat teak, is a local species of Myanmar; and
Tectona philippinensis, also called philippine teak, is native
to the Philippines. The name teak allegedly came from
thekku, a term from the language of the people in Kerala
of South India.
Because of its excellent wood for timber, teak plants
are today introduced in the West Indies, Belize, and
Panama and in Zambia, Tanzania, Nigeria, and other
West African countries.
In Indonesia, the common teak, locally called jati, is
planted and historically cultivated mainly on Java by
the State Forest Service using an agroforestry system.
69071.indb 225 4/25/08 10:42:33 AM

The plants are especially adaptable to the areas with

poor soils on the tertiary ridges of East Java. They do
not grow too well in the regions of the humid tropi-
cal rain forest. The plants are usually cultivated from
seedlings and raised on nursery beds, and vegetative
propagation by means of using stem cuttings is still
under investigation. Teak is known to be a difficult
and very slow-growing plant. Given adequate time,
the plants may grow into very large trees of 30 to 40 m
tall. They are deciduous in nature, because in Indone-
sia they shed their leaves in the dry season. The green
leaves are often harvested by local farmers and used as
material for wrapping meat and produce. The trees can
be harvested as poles and small timber at the age of 7
to 8 years but will attain a height of 10 m or taller and a
girth ≈60 cm at the age of 20 years. The age of the tree is
usually assessed from the annular rings formed inside
the tree trunk.
Teak wood is weather, seawater, and termite resistant;
hence, it is very desirable for building quality houses,
boats, and furniture. It is extensively used for layering
wooden furniture, as is the case with the Danish-style
furniture, and for producing various grades of plywood.
Because of the teak wood’s superior quality, experiments
are conducted today in India and Thailand to raise
teak on small local farms as a sustainable estate crop.
Many of the local teak farms often use annual crops
as intercrops (e.g., mung beans), providing the needed
cash income for the first 6 years of growth. In India, the
young teak plants are often irrigated when needed and
given 100 g of NPK fertilizers in the pit at the time of
planting. However, teak grown under irrigation is often
69071.indb 226 4/25/08 10:42:33 AM

reported to be prone to wind damage, whereas blisters

may develop in the inner heartwood.
6.5 Vertisols
These are the dark-colored soils that have been called
grumusols in many countries. A review is given by
Oakes and Thorp (1950), who mentioned the occur-
rence of extensive areas of grumusols in Africa, India,
the southern United States, South America, Australia,
the Philippines, and various islands in the South Pacific.
Hence, various names are used for this group of soils
(e.g., black cotton and regur soils in India, and black turf
soils in Africa). At one time, the soils were also identi-
fied as a tropical chernozem (Joffe, 1949). In Indonesia the
soils were formerly called marl soils or margalitic soils
(Dames, 1950; Mohr and Van Baren, 1960). Neverthe-
less, the soils all have certain fundamental characteris-
tics in common. They are usually extremely plastic and
sticky when wet, and will shrink upon drying, forming
wide and deep cracks. When wet, they will swell again,
closing the cracks. The clay fraction is usually domi-
nated by smectite or other montmorillonitic or 2:1 layer
type of clay, which is the major reason for the soil’s high
shrink–swell capacity. Because of the physical proper-
ties above, the soils are often considered as black self-
mulching soils.
In Indonesia, these kinds of soils seem to cover rather
extensive areas of the lowlands of Central and East Java.
They are found in particular in the Demak plain, east of
Semarang, and along the north coast from Rembang to
Madura, where they often occur in toposequence with
69071.indb 227 4/25/08 10:42:33 AM

the lowland alfisols or red Mediterranean soils, as dis-

cussed in the preceding section. Grumusols are also
found to the west of Yocyakarta, in the lowlands to the
north of Surakarta, in the regions of Madiun and Kediri,
and in the area of the Lusi-Randublatung-Solo river val-
leys of Central Java. They are major soils occupying the
areas between Pasuruan and Bangil and in the south-
ern mountains of East Java. In West Java, grumusols are
limited in occurrence and can be found only to a very
limited extent in the surroundings of Cheribon, in the
Cimanuk river valley northwest of Bandung, in the val-
ley of Rajamandala between Bandung and Cianjur, and
in Jonggol near Jakarta. Vertisols appear not to occur
extensively outside Java, because the parent materi-
als for soil formation in Sumatra and Kalimantan, for
example, are mostly liparitic (or rhyolitic) tuffs and
granite, respectively. These types of parent materials
are too acidic and hence are unfavorable for formation
of smectite clay minerals.

Oakes and Thorp (1950) indicate in their review that in
the various countries where grumusols occur, the soils
have been found mainly on limestone, clayey calcareous
sediments, or residuum of basic rocks, such as basalt,
gneiss, and argillaceous limestone. In Indonesia, the
soils were thought at first to be connected with marls,
and hence the name marl soils was used in prewar time
by Dutch soil scientists for this group of soils. How-
ever, this name was later revised by Dames (1950) into
margalite from marga, the Latin word for marl. It was
69071.indb 228 4/25/08 10:42:33 AM

noted later that the soils can also develop on volcanic

tuffs, claystone, and even on materials enriched with
quartz, provided the other soil-forming factors will be
such that they tend to favor the development of an alka-
line environment rich in silica. Dames (1955) reported
gray margalitic soils derived from andesitic volcanic
ash at the foot of the Lawu Volcano in the eastern part
of Central Java. Another area with grayish-black mar-
galite was found at the foot of the Batuagung Moun-
tain range at the southeastern section of Central Java.
These soils were called the acidic types of margalites,
due to the lower calcium contents and lower pH, which
is generally in the slightly acid range. Margalitic soils
have also been found on alluvial plain deposits, such as
in the Lusi River valleys, but these deposits originated
from materials eroded from the Kendeng and Rembang
hills, which generally are composed of reef limestone.
Tertiary marine volcanic tuffs and shales containing
little or no lime have also been recognized as impor-
tant parent materials for formation of margalitic soils
(Dames, 1955; Wisaksono, 1953). In this respect the top-
ographic location favoring poor drainage conditions is
most important. Detailed discussion of the genesis of
margalitic soils from noncalcareous or less basic parent
material is given by Mohr and Van Baren (1960). Based
on differences in parent materials, Dames (1955) pro-
posed a division of grumusols into three groups:
1. Grumusols of the tertiary hills, which include the

southern mountains of Central and East Java, the
Kendeng hills and the Rembang hills.
2. Grumusols of the quaternary volcanoes.
69071.indb 229 4/25/08 10:42:34 AM

3. Grumusols of the alluvial plains, which include

the Lusi valley, the Demak and Rembang plains.
6.5.2 Climate
Grumusols occur worldwide in cool and warm temper-
ate zones as well as in tropical climates. Nevertheless, the
occurrence of the soils has been found to be limited to
regions with a well-defined rainy season, alternated dur-
ing the year by a very sharp and dry season. Oakes and
Thorp (1950) believe that the total annual rainfall should
be less than 1270 mm (50 inches). In Indonesia, the annual
rainfall of the areas where the soils are located may exceed
in many cases the limit stated above by Oakes and Thorp.
However, according to Mohr and Van Baren (1960) this
total annual rainfall may not exceed 2400 mm/year. The
regions with this relatively high amount of precipitation
a year are then the upper limits in which grumusols can
occur. The typical climate of vertisols in Indonesia is sup-
posed to be the dry monsoon Awa climate with a sharp
and long dry season. However, as indicated by the data in
Table 6.16, the soils are also commonly found in Köppen’s
Ama climate with a total annual rainfall of more than 2000
mm, such as is the case in Tasikmadu. But in this region,
other soils (for example, latosols) tend also to become of
more importance in association with the vertisols.
Grumusols have rarely been reported to occur in the
humid Afa or in the cool mountain, Cf or Cs, climate types.
In West Java, which in general is considered a humid Afa
area, the regions with grumusols are also known to be
characterized by a sharp, though short, dry season during
69071.indb 230 4/25/08 10:42:34 AM

Table 6.16 The Climate of Grumusol (Vertisol) Areas in

Indonesia
Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
Location Climate a Soil
East Java
Tuban 0 5.6 5.2 1375 Awa E Grumusol
Bojonegoro 15 4.0 7.3 1872 Ama C
Randublatung 55 3.1 7.7 2312 Ama C
Madiun 66 4.1 6.6 1887 Ama D
Tasikmadu 100 3.5 7.5 2265 Ama C Grum+Lat.

month >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; m = monsoon; w =
sharp dry season.
the year. For instance, the climate of Cheribon can fall in

the category of an Ama climate. However, more recently
black margalitic soils have been reported by Van Loenen to
be present near Lake Wissel in Papua in a perhumid region
with 5000 mm annual rainfall (Mohr and Van Baren, 1960),
though as stated above the soil is seldom found outside
Java due to the unfavorable type of parent material for its
formation. Based on topographic variations, Dames (1955)
suggests dividing the soils into upland margalitic soils, as
found in the Rembang-Tuban hills of Central and East Java,
and lowland margalitic soils, mostly located in the plains
and river valleys. It is not clear whether Dames meant to
use the terms as popular terms, but the two groups of soils
in question seem to differ in fertility.
69071.indb 231 4/25/08 10:42:35 AM


The typical grumusols in Central and East Java are
usually deep, dark, clayey soils, containing smectite or
montmorillonitic clays. In dry conditions, the surface
soil generally has a typical strong granular to fine struc-
ture, which is designated by the Dutch soil scientists
as a cauliflower soil structure, because of its appearance
similar to a cauliflower (Wisaksono, 1953). An example
of a deep grumusol profile is given below:
Grumusol of south Tuban (East Java).

The area is characterized by a rolling
topograpy and the profile is located in
a valley. The vegetation is a secondary
teak (Tectona grandis) forest with grass
and weeds as undergrowth.

A1 0–17 5Y 4/1–3/1 (field wet), dark gray
to very dark gray, clay, crumb,
friable, many roots.
A2 17–27 5Y 4/1, dark gray, clay, friable to
slightly sticky, crumb, few small
CaCO3 fragments, roots.
A3 27–45 5Y 5/1–4/1, gray to dark gray, clay,
granular to weak medium blocky,
friable to sticky, moderate amounts
of CaCO3 fragments or concentra-
tions, faint clay coatings, roots.
69071.indb 232 4/25/08 10:42:35 AM

AC 45–59 5Y 5/1, gray, clay, granular to fine

strong blocky, friable to sticky,
many CaCO3 fragments or concre-
tions, clay coatings, fine roots.
C 59–80 5Y 4/2, olive-gray, clay, fine strong
blocky, sticky, abundant CaCO3
fragments or concretions.
The solum of margalitic soils is generally considered

relatively thick. Soils with very shallow topsoils, rest-
ing directly on the parent rock, are in fact not consid-
ered margalites in Indonesia, but rendzinas. This group
of soils is found in the Rembang-Tuban hills, frequently
occurring in an irregular pattern in association with
the red Mediterranean or terra rossa soils. An example
of a rendzina type of soil is given below:
The soil is located in south Tuban in

hilly topography. The profile is dug
on a flat part of a slope in a coconut
(Cocos nucifera) garden with grasses as
undergrowth.

A 0–14 2.5 6/2 (field wet), light brownish-
gray, silt loam, crumb, friable, fine
CaCO3 fragments.
D +14 Soft limestone rock.
69071.indb 233 4/25/08 10:42:35 AM

Under the concept of grumusols, this type of rendzina

belongs to the same group of margalites and other dark
clayey smectite or montmorillonitic soils as defined by
Oakes and Thorp (1950).
As is the case in other countries, the soils in Indonesia
show some variations in color and other soil properties.
In the soil description above, one can notice the absence
of distinct eluvial and illuvial horizons. In some cases,
horizons of calcium concretions may develop to that
extent that they could then qualify to be B horizons.
Dames (1955) has reported that in well-developed gru-
musols, the particular lime horizon is sometimes 1 m
thick. In other cases, interbedding of limestone plates
has been observed. In the relatively more acidic soils,
lime concretions are usually absent. Coarse prismatic
to massive subsoil structures are common in the acidic
margalitic soils, and on Sumba Island with the more
extreme dry seasons, gilgai formation has been noticed
(Howard, 1939).
The color of the soils is often dark gray to black in
the surface horizons and gray in the lower horizons.
It is possible that smectite clay is not the only reason
for the color, because gray colors often develop when
poor drainage conditions prevail. It is then used as
an indication for advanced gleization. Gleization pro-
cesses have been reported to play a role in the forma-
tion of grumusols. The presence of iron concretions,
frequently reported, in grumusols supports the pres-
ence of gleization. Such a case has been noted in the tirs
of Morocco, and accordingly, these soils are called gley
tirs (Oakes and Thorp, 1950). Dames (1955) has used the
color differences for subdividing the soils of Indonesia
69071.indb 234 4/25/08 10:42:35 AM

into black margalites, dark gray to brown margalites, and

yellow margalites. He believes that the humus and cal-
cium content are partly to blame for the development
of different colors. The margalitic soils rich in lime are
mostly black, whereas those comparatively poor in lime
are more grayish to yellow in color.

As mentioned earlier, the soils were known in various
countries under different names. In India, they were
called black cotton or regur soils, whereas in Morocco
names such as gley tirs, deep and crust tirs were used.
According to Mohr and Van Baren (1960), the black turf
soils of South Africa belonged to this category. Other
names used in the past were tropical black soils and
smonitza (Soil Survey Staff, 1960). In the older U.S. soil
classification system they were classified as rendzinas.
The houston clay was a typical example used by Oakes
and Thorp (1950). These soils were included in the clas-
sification system of Thorp and Smith (1949) as intra-
zonal soils and given the official name rendzina. Though
Oakes and Thorp (1950) tended to agree somewhat,
they also stated that the usage of the term rendzina in
the United States may be in conflict with the prevail-
ing concepts of rendzinas elsewhere in the world. They
suggested the use of the term grumusol (grumus means
“little heap, hillock, or crumb” in English) for all the
dark clayey soils with the striking physical and struc-
tural features as previously stated. This term has since
been used worldwide. With the introduction of the
69071.indb 235 4/25/08 10:42:36 AM

U.S. Seventh Approximation (Soil Survey Staff, 1960), a

second attempt was made to group these soils together
under vertisols (from the Latin verto, meaning “invert,
to turn”), which was chiefly based on the outstand-
ing physical properties of high shrinking and swelling
due to the dominating influence of expanding 2:1 lat-
tice types of clays. The name vertisols is maintained in
the current U.S. system of soil taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 2006a) and also used in the FAO-UN world soil
map. Why the term verti is chosen instead of verto (as is
the case of andi instead of ando with respect to andisols)
is still one of the many controversies of the U.S. Soil
Taxonomy. The current Australian soil classification
system uses the name vertosols and sees nothing wrong
with using verto, which is in fact the real Latin term for
invert (CSIRO-ACLEP, 2006).
In Indonesia, the soils were formerly classified as marl
soils (Dutch: mergelgrond), as indicated earlier, which
was later revised by Dames (1950) into margalites. In
this respect, Dames (1955) was of the opinion that mar-
galites correlates with rendzinas. In the following years,
Dudal and Supraptohardjo (1957) proposed the use of
the term regur soil in the Bogor Soil Research Institute’s
program of the systematic soil survey of Indonesia with
the cooperation of the FAO-UN. However, this name
was gradually phased out, and grumusol was at that
time widely accepted in Indonesia, which was changed
again recently into the name vertisols, the officially
accepted name used today in Indonesia.
69071.indb 236 4/25/08 10:42:36 AM


Margalitic Soils (Vertisols)
Particle Size Org. N
Profile Distribution (%) pHH2O C
C
Horizon N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Margalite (Tuban, East Java)

A1 1.89 23.42 74.69 7.15 2.65 0.23 11
A2 1.48 20.51 78.01 7.25 1.90 0.16 12
A3 1.59 22.39 76.02 7.60 0.99 0.09 11
AC 1.29 28.19 70.52 7.75 0.78 0.06 13
Rendzina Type (Tuban, East Java)

A 0.52 18.69 80.79 6.65 2.77 0.09 30
D — — — 7.31 — — —
Margalite (Tomo-Cheribon, West Java)

A 9.0 39.0 52.0 6.8 1.0 0.10 10
AC 9.0 39.0 52.0 7.0 0.6 0.08 8
C 10.0 41.0 49.0 7.0 — — —

The data in Table 6.17 indicate that the grumusols (ver-
tisols) in Indonesia are generally heavy-textured soils,
showing clay contents between 49 and 80%. This agrees
with reports by Dames (1955), who claims that the clay
contents usually exceed 50%, unless the parent materi-
als are rich in fine quartz. Wisaksono (1953) also noticed
69071.indb 237 4/25/08 10:42:37 AM

that the soils developed from quartz-rich parent mate-

rials tended to be lighter in texture, and found the very
fine quartz content to be as high as 50%. Because this
fine quartz is <2 µm, it is by definition clay. However, it
may not exhibit the stickiness and plasticity of clays, and
hence, the soil can feel more like a loam-textured soil,
though this may have affected only slightly the other
characteristic physical properties due to the presence
of the 2:1 layer lattice-type of clays. Similar to vertisols
in other countries, the margalitic soils of Indonesia are
extremely plastic and sticky when wet. They shrink on
drying, forming wide and deep cracks.
No mechanical eluviation of clay can be noticed. The
soil has an almost constant or a decreasing clay content
with depth in the pedon, because the surface soil mulches
itself during the dry season, and considerable amounts
of soil materials from the A horizon are sloughed down
into the bottom of the cracks. This material is moved up
(coughed up) again during the wet season.

The soils vary in soil reactions, exhibiting pH values
generally from 6.5 to 7.8. The alkalinity increases with
depth in the soil profile (Table 6.17). The cation-exchange
capacity is very high and is often reported in the range
of 50 to 100 cmol/kg, which is mainly saturated by cal-
cium and magnesium (Dames, 1955). Some of the soils
may only be partly saturated with calcium and magne-
sium, and they are then called the acidic types of verti-
sols. In vertisols affected by very dry conditions, most
of the calcium may even have been replaced by sodium
ions. In such a case, a solonetzic type of soil may occur.
69071.indb 238 4/25/08 10:42:37 AM

Iron concretions are noticed to be generally present in

the pedons and increase in contents with depth in the
soil profile. This is in support of the general belief of
some of the Dutch scientists that gleization is present.
In addition, most of the margalitic soils (vertisols) are
low in phosphate and potassium. Perhaps, only those
that have been developed from basaltic volcanic ash are
somewhat richer in phosphate and potassium.
The organic matter content is usually low for such dark
colors. In terms of organic carbon, it may range from
0.6 to 3.0% in the surface horizons. But Dames (1955)
indicates that it may increase to 4 or 5% if under forest,
and he is of the opinion that the amount of humus and
calcium content determine the color of the soils. The
soils rich in lime and humus are mostly black, whereas
those that are more acidic (less saturated with calcium
and magnesium) are more gray in color. A detailed dis-
cussion is provided by Mohr and Van Baren (1960) on
the effect of organic matter on the color problem. These
authors believe that not only the organic matter content,
but also the degree of humification and the nature of the
clay minerals are important factors affecting the devel-
opment of the black colors of the vertisols of Indonesia.

Vertisols in general are characterized by clay fractions
containing smectites or montmorillonites, which are 2:1
layer lattice-type clays. The vertisols of Indonesia are no
different in this respect and are characterized by smec-
tite clays as has been determined with x-ray diffraction
analyses by Hardon (1939). This is also substantiated by
the present author with differential thermal analyses.
69071.indb 239 4/25/08 10:42:37 AM

Wisaksono (1953) also noticed the dominating presence

of smectites in the grumusols. The smectite content was
estimated to vary from 75 to 100% in the clay fractions
of the surface horizons of black margalitic soils. In the
yellow margalites, their clay fractions seemed to be
mixtures of smectite and kaolinite, and in some cases,
both minerals may amount to 50% of each.
The silica/sesquioxide ratios are in support of the
presence of smectites. The values of the SiO2/R2O3
ratios are considered to be 1.0 to 2.0 for 1:1 layer types
of clays (kaolinite and halloysite), but in the range of
2.0 to 3.0 for 2:1 layer types of clays (smectites). As can
be noticed from the data in Table 6.18, the silica/sesqui-
oxide ratios of the clay fractions of oxisols are in the
range of 1.0 to 2.0, whereas those of the clays of verti-
sols are from 2.0 to 4.0. These high SiO2/R2O3 ratios are
indicative of a nonlateritic type of clay formation and
support the presence of 2:1 layer types of clays. Addi-
tional support is provided by the extremely high cat-
ion-exchange capacity, which can even reach values of
100 cmol/kg, as indicated in the section above. Because
the electronegative charges of smectites originate from
isomorphous substitution, the negative charges are con-
sidered permanent or constant charges. Hence, the cation-
exchange capacity will remain relatively constant and
may not change significantly with changes in soil pH.
This group of soils is generally classified as permanent
charged soils, in contrast to the oxisols, which were des-
ignated earlier as variable-charged soils (Tan, 2003b).
69071.indb 240 4/25/08 10:42:37 AM

Table 6.18 Silica/Sesquioxide Ratios of Clay

Fractions
SiO2 SiO2 SiO2 Al2O3
R2O3 AI2O3 Fe2O3 Fe2O3
Vertisol (Margalite)
Tuban, East Java
A1 2.33 2.88 12.22 4.24
A2 2.44 3.07 11.85 3.87
A3 2.33 2.93 11.52 3.94
AC 1.97 2.52 8.85 3.52
Vertisol (Rendzina)
Tuban, East Java
A 4.04 4.44 44.70 10.06
Oxisol (Red Latosol)

Cibinong, West Java
Ap 1.40 1.70 — —
B1 1.60 1.90 — —
B2 1.40 1.80 — —
B3 1.60 1.90 — —
Andosol, Deli, North

Sumatra, 50 m abs
A1 1.25 1.38 11.8 8.59
A2 1.06 1.19 10.2 8.72
B 0.96 1.05 9.5 9.19
Andosol, Bogor
West Java, 600 m abs
A1 1.27 1.54 7.45 4.86
A3 1.25 1.51 7.24 4.80
B 1.03 1.22 6.42 5.27
Note: R2O3 = Al2O3 + Fe2O3; abs = above sea level.
69071.indb 241 4/25/08 10:42:38 AM


Chemically, the soils are rich in calcium and magne-
sium, though these contents may vary in the several
types of margalites from higher to lower levels, depend-
ing on origin and locations. The margalitic soils, devel-
oped from volcanic tuffs or limestone mixed with
volcanic ash, are more likely to be lower in calcium and
magnesium contents. Soil reactions are in the range of
slightly acidic to slightly basic, and the soil pH is sel-
dom noticed to decrease below 6.5. At this slightly acidic
reaction, the soils are called the acidic margalitic soils
and often lack CaCO3 concretions in the A horizons. On
the other hand, margalitic soils are generally deficient
in phosphates and can also be rather low in potassium
and in nitrogen. In this case, it is noticed that the soils
from volcanic tuffs are apt to contain higher amounts
of phosphates and potassium than those derived from
limestone. This is perhaps due to the phosphorus- and
potassium-bearing minerals in the volcanic ash. Nev-
ertheless, Dutch scientists have reported citric acid-
extractable P2O5 and K2O contents in the range of 0.002
to 0.040% and 0.004 to 0.025%, respectively, which are
commonly considered to be low for proper plant pro-
duction. The soils that have been cultivated for a long
time may be extremely deficient in phosphates (Dames,
1955; Van Dijk, 1952).

The most striking features of the soils are the swell-
ing and shrinking properties according to moisture
69071.indb 242 4/25/08 10:42:39 AM

contents. The shrinking of the soils during the dry sea-

son produces wide and deep cracks, whereas swelling
of the soils during the rainy season tends to favor mass
movement. In this way, sheet and gully erosion are
enhanced, and erosion control methods are very diffi-
cult to practice. The soils are also very hard when dry
and very sticky and plastic when wet, making them
very difficult to plow. The soils are also very heavy and
impermeable. Water movement and aeration are con-
sidered very poor. Due to the shrinking and cracking,
water may run through the cracks to the subsoil, satu-
rating in this way the deeper soil layers, causing them
to stay moist for a long time. This perhaps enhances
gleization processes, suspected by several Dutch scien-
tists to be an additional soil-forming process of mar-
galitic soils.
Because of the poor physical characteristics and the
low nutrient contents, as discussed above, the soils will
form in generally poor agricultural lands. Development
of roots to deeper layers is often impeded, whereas with
the development of cracks, many of the roots may also
be ruptured or their development harmfully decreased.
The unfavorable physical properties make it very hard
to cultivate these soils; in the dry season it is stone hard,
whereas in the wet season it is slick and very plastic.
However, it is believed that they can be cultivated easier
at a moisture content called field capacity. At this condi-
tion, soil moisture content is just adequate for produc-
ing a friable soil consistence. The soil is then not too
sticky or too plastic to work with, whereas soil structure
is expected not to become damaged upon plowing and
digging. It is often suggested to keep the soils under
69071.indb 243 4/25/08 10:42:39 AM

green manures, or other types of vegetation, even under

grasses when fallow, in order to improve soil structure
and other physical properties. Due to the low nutri-
ent contents, especially in phosphorus and potassium,
adequate fertilizer applications are needed to ensure
proper plant growth and crop yields on margalitic soils.
These are permanent charged soils, and liming will not
increase their cation-exchange capacities to the extent
as is the case with oxisols. Moreover, their calcium and
magnesium contents are often adequate, and they may
need lime only to offset the loss of calcium and magne-
sium due to plant uptake and leaching.

Where irrigation water is available, the soils are used
for sawah or paddy-fields. Usually the water supply is a
formidable challenge in these dry regions of Indonesia,
and in many areas irrigation is possible only in the rainy
season. If not used for growing lowland rice, the soil is
cultivated with sugarcane, corn, soybeans, peanuts, and
Virginia tobacco. In the dry season, even the rivers may
run dry. Drought-resistant crops are favored during this
time of “hardship,” called locally the season of paceklik.
This is the region where most of the palawija or nonrice
crop is produced. On nonirrigated fields, farmers dig a
large hole, lifting and placing as a whole the block of soil
on the side of the pit to let it gradually crumble by itself.
Cassava, corn, or other palawija crops are planted in the
hole, which is then filled with compost, litter mixed
with manure and the crumbled soil material from the
block. This method, known locally as the golan method,
seems to be adequate for many farmers (Dames, 1955).
69071.indb 244 4/25/08 10:42:39 AM

Another frequently applied method is planting the

crops on raised narrow beds, which may improve the
drainage, by rapid removal of stagnant water during
heavy rains. The areas of vertisols in general are also
the main regions for growing sugarcane. However, in
fact, it is not the soil but the climate that determines
the sugarcane culture in the region. Sugar plants need
a dry season for the ripening process. Teak is another
important crop cultivated on margalitic soils.
6.5.6.3.1 Small landholders’ or farmers’ crops As

is the case elsewhere in Indonesia, in East Java rice is
also the most favored crop, grown in inundated fields
by local farmers. The major paddy-fields or “sawahs,”
where lowland rice is grown in the vertisol region,
are present only in areas where irrigation is avail-
able, such as in the Lusi river valley and in the Demak
plain. Irrigated lowland rice is also found in the plains
of Rembang, north of Demak. In sawah culture, the
poor physical properties of the soils seem to be of little
problem, because the soil medium is puddled, whereas
irrigation brings nutrients and silt, improving in this
way the soil conditions for lowland rice. In general, the
rice yields are considered moderately good by the use
of NPK fertilizers (Dames, 1955; Van Dijk, 1952). The
rice crop is usually followed in the dry season by crops
of cassava, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), soybeans,
green beans (Phaseolus radiatus), castor oil beans (Rici-
nus communis), an assortment of chili crops (Capsicum
annuum), and some cotton.
On the nonirrigated fields, where rain is the main
supplier of water, maize, cassava, and chilies are grown
69071.indb 245 4/25/08 10:42:39 AM

during the wet season, which is followed in the dry sea-

son by a second crop of corn, soybeans, mung beans
(Phaseolus radiatus), and some watermelons (Citrullus
vulgaris).
Fruit trees are often grown by the farmers as backyard
gardening, such as coconut (Cocos nucifera); several vari-
eties of mangos (Mangifera indica); sawo (Achras sapota);
jackfruit, locally called nangka (Artocarpus integra); and
kedondong (Spondias dulcis), a sweet–sour fruit with a
large, serrated pit. Another crop, well adapted to this dry
region, is the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale). The
fruit is consumed by local farmers, whereas the dried
nuts are cash crops. Large concentrations of cashew nut
production are also found in the Maros area of South-
ern Sulawesi.
The fruit trees survive well during the dry season,
because they can draw moisture from the subsoil, which
is wet most of the time, for reasons discussed above.
In addition, some kapok and bamboo trees are grown.
The bamboo is used mainly as material for building
houses, though excess may be sold in the nearby village
market. This is also the case with the other agricultural
products, which are grown mostly for consumption but
may be sold as cash crops when available in excess.
6.5.6.3.2 Estate crops The major estate crops are

sugarcane, coconut, and teak. As stated earlier, by virtue
of climatic conditions, this is the region of sugarcane, as
are Sumatra and Kalimantan the main regions of rub-
ber and oil palm due to their humid tropical climate,
and the Moluccas the region for spices. Another prob-
lem is that the cultivation of sugarcane is not conducted
69071.indb 246 4/25/08 10:42:39 AM

on lands owned by the estates, but on lands, preferably

sawah lands, rented from local farmers. After the cane
harvest, the sawahs have to be returned to the local
owners for their usual cultivation with rice and other
food crops. Several people, especially British scientists,
believe that the cane sugar plant (Saccharum officina-
rum) finds its origin in India, but Koningsberger (1950),
a Dutch scientist, indicates that the species Saccharum
spontaneum, locally called glagah, is found growing in
the wild in Java. Because of its strong root system and
vigorous growth, it is used for breeding at the Sugar
Experiment Station at Pasuruan, East Java. By crossing it
with the S. Officinarum, the 2878-POJ (Proefstation Oost
Java = East Java Experiment Station) variety was devel-
oped, at that time famous for its resistance against the
sereh (witch-hazel) disease. This disease was detected
in 1881 and has almost destroyed the sugarcane culture
in Java between 1880 and 1900. It was part of the reason
for the establishment in rapid succession of several sug-
arcane experiment stations. Sugarcane, locally known
as tebu, cultivation apparently started in the 1880s in
the areas of Cheribon, Pekalongan, and Tegal, stretch-
ing from the eastern part of West Java to the northwest
of Central Java, where in 1885 the Sugarcane Experi-
ment Station of West Java (Proefstation West Java) was
established at Kagok, Slawi near Tegal, followed a year
later by the Proefstation Central Java at Semarang, and
finally in 1887 by the Proefstation Oost Java at Pasuruan,
East Java. The latter gradually assumed all major activi-
ties in sugarcane research, because most cane cultiva-
tion was concentrated later in Central and especially
in East Java, where the climate is most favorable for
69071.indb 247 4/25/08 10:42:40 AM

growing tebu or cane. However, plans are on the draw-

ing board to cultivate sugarcane in Telung Bawang of
the Lampungs, South Sumatra, though this region is, in
fact, too humid for a productive sugar yield of the cane
crops.
Stem cuttings are planted in the estates usually at the
start of the dry season, in April or May, when advan-
tage can still be taken from the last showers at the end
of the rainy season. The cane is usually ready for har-
vest around 18 months of age. Hence, in August of the
following year, the land usually has to be returned to
the local farmers for their food production. The success
in cane production by the Dutch growers was the appli-
cation of the Reynoso system, sometimes known as the
Java method, a cultivation method using a trench sys-
tem, developed by a Cuban scientist, Alvaro Reynoso,
in 1865. This method has made the Dutch in Java alleg-
edly the best producers of cane, and since then the
method was copied all over the world. After the land
has been returned, or even before that, the farmer moves
in quickly and starts planting his palawija crops, in
this way taking advantage of the residual effect of NPK
fertilization from the previous cane crop. The subsoil,
which is often moist during this dry season for reasons
discussed earlier, will still provide enough water for
plant growth (Koningsberger, 1950).
It is perhaps necessary to add that the production of
sugar in Indonesia is also carried out by local farmers.
However, in contrast to the white refined crystallized
sugar produced by the Dutch estates, the farmer’s sugar
is not produced from sugarcane only, but often from
cell sap of other plants producing sugar—for example,
69071.indb 248 4/25/08 10:42:40 AM

Figure 6.11 Coconuts in a coconut tree.
aren palm (Arenga saccharifera), lontar palm (Borassus fla-

bellifer), and coconut palm (Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12).
The sap collected from the aren palm and the coconut
water are boiled to evaporate the excess water. The thick
brown mass collected is then poured into forms, usu-
ally bamboo cups, to consolidate, yielding brown sugar,
called gula aren (gula means “sugar”) and gula mangkok,
respectively. The gula aren is favored by housewives
in Indonesia for its nice aroma. The sap collected, drip-
ping from an incision at the base of the flower cluster of
the aren palm, is also often made into palm wine.
6.5.6.3.3 Coconut (Cocos nucifera) This is another

important crop not only for sugar production, but also
for the production of copra, a major export product of
69071.indb 249 4/25/08 10:42:40 AM

A B
Figure 6.12 (A) Aren palm with fruit clusters. (B) Fruits of the
aren palm, produced by cracking and removing (hulling) the
hard fruit shells, are a delicacy as dessert in ice and syrup.
Indonesia and in many cases also for local consump-

tion. Today coconut is not considered an estate crop by
the Indonesian government but is grouped together
with tobacco, fiber, and spice crops as industrial crops.
Estate crops are rubber, oil palm, tea, cacao, and sugar-
cane. The division between industrial and estate crops
is arbitrary and based only on the fact that the plants in
the coconut group are cultivated mostly by local farm-
ers, whereas the second group (rubber, and so forth) is
cultivated by large estates (AARD, 1986).
69071.indb 250 4/25/08 10:42:41 AM

In contrast to sugarcane, coconut is not restricted to

the area of vertisols only. Whereas climatic restrictions
have concentrated sugarcane in East Java, rubber and
oil palm in Sumatra and Kalimantan, the palm tree is
found extensively throughout the Indonesian archipel-
ago. They are often adorning the coasts of many islands
from Sabang in the west to Merauke in the east, pro-
viding the classical image of a tropical island. At one
time in the past, coconut cultivation for the production
of copra seemed to be concentrated more in the east-
ern half of the Indonesian archipelago, and rubber in
the western part. The major copra-producing areas are
noticed especially in Sulawesi, where the Yayasan Kelapa
Minehassa (Minehassa Coconut Foundation) is located
and in the Digul area near Merauke in Papua. However,
today, important smallholder plantations are found not
only in Sulawesi, but also in Maluku; West, Central,
and East Java; Lampung (South Sumatra); Aceh (North
Sumatra); and West Sumatra (AARD, 1986).
The plant will grow on a variety of soils from the
heavy vertisols, to oxisols, ultisols, and the light-tex-
tured, sandy alluvial deposits alongside the rivers and
on coastal terrain. Coconut trees are found to flourish
on the sandy dunes in West Sumatra, West Kalimantan,
and the southern coastal areas of Pangandaran, West
Java, and Merauke, Papua. The plants are even culti-
vated on coral sands in Talisse estate, a former Dutch
estate in North Sulawesi, located on the coral island of
Kinabohutan. The plants are usually grown by trans-
planting pregerminated coconuts from the nurseries
into the fields (Reyne, 1950), and it takes an average of
8 to 10 years before the trees reach their full productive
69071.indb 251 4/25/08 10:42:42 AM

capacity (AARD, 1958). The tall varieties may then reach

heights of 20 to 30 m, but dwarf varieties are also avail-
able and preferred for ease in harvesting. Several of the
dwarf varieties are often used in Java and Sumatra as
breeding materials for crossing with the normally tall
trees. The two commonly known in the past were kelapa
gading (kelapa means “coconut” and gading means “ivory
color”) with ivory-colored fruits and kelapa puyuh (puyuh
means “dwarf”) distinguished by green-colored fruits
(Reyne, 1950). Today, the Nias Yellow Dwarf is used for
breeding new high-yielding hybrids (AARD, 1986). For
the purpose of harvesting, mounting steps are often
cut in the tree trunks, which apparently do not dam-
age the tree. In certain cases, especially in Sumatra,
the farmer can rent a beruk (Macacus nemestrinus), a big
ape, trained for harvesting coconuts. Payment is often
done by sharing the coconut harvest with the trainer
or owner. Most of the plants in Indonesia today are 60
years old and considered beyond their full productive
capacity. They need to be replaced by younger plants
that are more hardy and can yield 50 to 120 fruits/tree
per year, which according to the Indonesian Agency for
Agricultural Research and Development will meet a
production target of 2 to 4 tons copra/ha per year, with
minimum input (AARD, 1986). As stated earlier, copra
is a major export commodity for Indonesia for use in
the oil and soap industries.
In addition to the importance of producing copra,
coconut provides the farmer with a variety of home
applications. The coconut juice, squeezed from the
coconut meat, yields cooking oil for frying, preferred
locally over peanut oil or oil-palm oil. Coconut water,
69071.indb 252 4/25/08 10:42:42 AM

if not used for drinking, is evaporated to produce the

gula mangkok. The meat is sometimes used for local con-
sumption, but its squeezed juice, when not used for the
production of cooking oil, finds extensive application
in the preparation of the many local dishes (e.g., ren-
dang, or Indonesian beef stew). A coconut variety, pre-
ferred for consumption of its meat, is the kelapa kopiyor
(Cocos nucifera var. pultaria). The coconut flesh is soft
and mushy, not hard as ordinary coconut, with a tex-
ture between thick yogurt and cottage cheese. It can be
scooped easily with a spoon and is very nice with ice
and syrup or used in ice cream. The coconut husk finds
application for home and kitchen cleaning purposes
and often also as a medium for growing orchids. On
the other hand, the coconut shell, sometimes used for
making charcoal, is now a sought-after material for lin-
ings or inlays of tabletops and other types of furniture.
Polished properly, the shell tops exhibit a perfect shine
competing with that of turtle and other seashells. The
leaves can be woven into baskets or room dividers and
walls. They can also be arranged to produce roof-thatch
for the farmers’ houses.
6.6 Histosols
This chapter is about the organic soils in Indonesia,
locally called tanah gambut, or peat soil. The use of the
name Histosols as the title of this chapter is only for con-
venience, because the order histosols also includes min-
eral soils that are high in organic matter contents. Many
people have defined organic soils in different ways, and
the newer versions are usually either an extension or a
69071.indb 253 4/25/08 10:42:42 AM

revised version of the older definition. Originally, soils

containing more than 20% organic matter by weight (or
>50% organic matter by volume) are called organic soils
(Brady, 1990). This traditional concept of organic soil is
today reflected in the FAO definition of folic horizon, a
horizon that must have >20% Corg by weight (Driessen,
2001), and by the U.S. Soil Taxonomy definition of histic
epipedon, where the minimum limits of Corg are set at
18% or 16%, depending on the contents of the soil clay
fractions (Soil Survey Staff, 2006a). The two horizons
above are considered diagnostic horizons for histosols,
a name chosen by USDA scientists to replace the name
organic soils. From the above, it is perhaps clear that
histosols are not necessarily to be peat soils, but they
may include peat soils.
Peat has been studied by biologists and botanists,
and its science has developed the most in countries
possessing huge areas of peat, such as in Russia and
in Finland, where the headquarters of the International
Peat Society (IPS) is also located. This society in Fin-
land calls the areas with peat deposits peat lands, which
include wetlands, moor, bog, marshes, mires, and fens.
Peat lands and mires are considered wetland ecosys-
tems, containing large accumulations of organic matter,
leading to the formation of peat (IPS, 2004). The Swiss-
based Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, first established
in 1971 in Iran, defines peat land as a deposit of semi-
decayed plant material accumulated over 5000 to 8000
years (Ramsar, 2006). Other scientists are calling peat
swamps and the vegetation above peat swamp forest.
Some people also include mangrove swamps and tidal
lowlands in this category (Driessen, 2001; Kyuma, 2003;
69071.indb 254 4/25/08 10:42:42 AM

Van den Eelaart, 2004), making the concept of peat and

peat swamps very confusing.
Most of the peat soils in the world are generally
located in coastal plains, deltas, and fluvial and lacus-
trine areas. According to Driessen (2001), the type of
organic material may vary in the world from peat moss
of the arctic and boreal regions, to sphagnum, reeds,
and sedges in temperate regions, and trees of mangrove
and peat swamp vegetation of the humid tropics. The
sphagnum is a moss, growing in wet areas, whereas the
sedges are tufted marsh plants, growing together as a
bunch of fluffy plants. Their remains when compacted
or mixed with other plant debris form the temperate
region peat. Accumulation of the decomposed material
is conditioned or made possible worldwide either by low
temperatures or excess water (Brady, 1990). To these, two
more factors were added by Driessen (2001) for slowing
the decomposition of organic residues: extreme acidity
plus low nutrient content and high levels of electrolytes
plus organic toxins. Other scientists consider the latter
more the results rather than the reasons for peat forma-
tion, which will be explained below.
Different types of peats have been recognized in the
world, and different names have been used by differ-
ent authors, aggravating the existing confusion about
the concept of peat as mentioned earlier. The oldest,
and perhaps also the simplest concept, was the division
into two main types of peats: basin peat, developed in
depressions or low-lying areas of marshes and bogs,
and blanket peat, which forms in areas with high levels
of rainfall and that practically covers the area as a blan-
ket. Lately, low moor peats are recognized in contrast to
69071.indb 255 4/25/08 10:42:42 AM

high moor peats (Driessen, 1978, 2001). The former is usu-

ally found more in delta, marine, and fluvial regions,
and is considered topogenous, which is explained by
Andriesse (1998) as peat affected by hydrotopography or
by the action of the groundwater level. The second type,
called high moor peat, is ombrogenous or peat formed by
the action of rainwater only. This type of peat is found
in the uplands, though Driessen added that in lowland
areas the ombrogenous type could also form on top
of topogenous peat. It seems, therefore, that the latter
type of peat is related to basin and the ombrogenous
one to blanket peat. The ombrogenous peat is called
ombrophilous peat by Andriesse (1988), who considers it
to be oligotrophic or a very acidic and nutrient-deficient
peat. The type of water involved in the formation of this
type of peat is normally low in calcium, magnesium,
and potassium contents, which produces pH values of
≤4. This is in contrast to temperate region peats, called
reophilous peat by Andriesse, which is more eutrophic.
For example, water entering peat swamps in Scandi-
navia, is characterized by pH values between 6 and 7
because of enrichment with bases and nutrients leached
from the surrounding lands (Moore and Bellamy, 1974).
In between rheophilous and ombrophilous, Andriesse
recognizes transitional peat, which he considers mesotro-
phic. For a more detailed discussion of the types of peat
above, reference is made to Moore and Bellamy (1974)
and Andriesse (1988).
In Indonesia, peat soil or tanah gambut occurs exten-
sively in the coastal lowlands, and only in Papua has
some highland or mountain peat been discovered. Some
believe that the peat soil is formed more inland behind
69071.indb 256 4/25/08 10:42:43 AM

the mangrove swamps, but others have reported that

peat soil can exist not only in the mangrove but also
in the coastal tidal swamps. The latter finds support
by the existence in Indonesia of peat soils without and
with pyrite. As will be explained in a later section, the
pyrite as well as the tidal effect of the sea can produce
very acid soils. The FAO-UN, bulletin 59, places the peat
soils of Indonesia in the group of tropical peats, defined
as all organic soils in the wetlands of the tropics and
subtropics lying within the northern and southern lati-
tudes of 35 degrees, including those at high altitudes
(Andriesse, 1988). However, it should be realized that
not all the wetlands produce peat, since in Sumatra,
West Kalimantan, and Indonesian Papua, large areas
of freshwater wetlands are present in addition to the
peat-forming wetlands (Page, 2006). The use of the
Tropical prefix in the terminology of this group of peat
soil is deemed essential to distinguish Tropical peat
from Temperate Region Peat because of differences in
formation and composition. The plant materials in the
tropical regions, and in particular in Indonesia, from
which the peat soils have originated are mainly trees.
In temperate regions, the vegetation for peat formation,
as indicated earlier, is mainly sphagnum (Sphagnum sp.)
and sedges (Cyperaceae sp.).
According to the Soil Map of the Soil Research Institute
of Indonesia (Figure 1.2, page 16), the acreage of tanah
gambut is 13,193,500 ha, next to or almost equaling the 14
million ha of the latosols or oxisols. However, the FAO-
UN Bulletin 59 estimated an acreage of 17 million ha of
tropical peat in Indonesia, second to Canada and Russia
where the extent is stated to be 150 million ha in each of
69071.indb 257 4/25/08 10:42:43 AM

the countries (Andriesse, 1988). However, such a compar-

ison is perhaps in error, because the very large acreages
in Canada and Russia are most likely composed of mix-
tures of temperate region peats and other soils high in
organic matter. The table, as a matter of fact, uses organic
soils as the title, which has, of course, a wider meaning
than tropical peat soils. This group of peat soils was rec-
ognized in Indonesia only at the beginning of the twen-
tieth century, after the discovery by Koorders in 1895 of
extensive peat areas in Sumatra (Andriesse, 1988; Polak,
1950). The general consensus before that time was that
peat cannot exist or be formed in the tropical climates
of Indonesia, favoring rapid decomposition and miner-
alization of organic matter. This issue will be addressed
in more detail below. Today the soils have attracted a lot
of attention for use in increasing crop production due to
the increasing demand for food to meet the population
growth in Indonesia.

Tanah gambut or tropical peat of Indonesia originated
from different kinds of materials than mineral soils
(for example, oxisols, ultisols, and the like). The parent
materials are vegetative remains from the vegetation
of the peat swamp forest. This vegetation then equals,
in essence, the meaning of a “parent rock” in terms of
the genesis of mineral soil. The dead vegetative residue,
defined as litter in soils science, is then the parent mate-
rial for peat formation. Andriesse (1988) objects in relat-
ing litter to peat, which confuses the concept of peat and
its formation even further. Litter is indeed not equal to
69071.indb 258 4/25/08 10:42:43 AM

peat, but it is the parent material for peat formation, as

indicated above. The decayed litter, in various degrees of
decomposition, forms the peat deposits, which depend-
ing on conditions can be 50 cm to 1 m thick.
Several of the theories indicate that the peat swamp
forest vegetation ordinarily develops on sediments
deposited at the inland edges of coastal mangrove
swamps as rivers drain toward the coast (Andriesse,
1988; Page, 2006; Wikramanayake et al., 2002). The river
sediments, trapped between the tangle of mangrove
roots, are slowly building up, forming a peat swamp.
The latter is less subject to frequent flooding and is
considered by many a rain-fed swamp, which is in sci-
entific terms called ombrogenous. As indicated earlier,
the vegetation of the peat swamp forest of Indonesia is
composed of trees. At the edges of the peat swamp for-
est, the trees are often growing tall, with a tree trunk
diameter of 50 to 80 cm at heights of 1 to 2 m. Moving to
the center of the swamp, they become gradually smaller
and slender, usually exhibiting narrow crowns; hence,
the name of pole forest is used by Wikramanayake et al.
(2002) to identify this part of the swamp forest. These
trees often exhibit smaller trunks and basal areas,
and because of these, the pole forest tends to have a
higher density of trees. It covers the central part of the
swamp forest as a dome and is believed to function as
a sponge regulating water in the peat swamp. Most of
the trees are not endemic, and many of the Dipterocar-
paceae plants from the neighboring tropical lowland
rain forest can also be found in the peat swamp forest.
However, in comparison to the tropical rain forest, the
variety of tree species is relatively smaller in the peat
69071.indb 259 4/25/08 10:42:43 AM

swamp forest (Wikramanayake et al., 2002), whereas its

composition in Sumatra and Kalimantan is reported to
be not much different. Some of the major species found
in both regions are the tall trees of the Shorea sp., locally
called pohon meranti (pohon means “tree”), Gonystylus
bancanus or locally known as pohon garu, and Tristania
obavata or sumatrana or pohon mulu. The three are con-
sidered as perhaps the most valuable trees for timber.
Two palm trees have also been mentioned (e.g., Livis-
tona hasseltii and Cyrtostachys lakka) as characterizing
the peat swamp forest of Indonesia by Wikramanayake
and coworkers. In addition, the following trees have
been reported growing in the peat regions: Plorarium
alternifolium, belonging to the tea family and locally
called pohon rengadean; Polyathia glauca or pohon karau;
Stemonurus sp. or pohon batu item; and Radermachera
gigantae or pohon tuwi batu. All four are found especially
on the east coast of Sumatra. From the swamp forest
of Kalimantan, the following trees have been reported,
although they may also grow in Sumatra: Cratoxylon
glaucum or pohon geronggang; Calophyllum sp., a fern tree,
called pohon paku; Combretocarpus sp. or pohon teruntum
batu; Palaquium sp. or pohon semaram; and Parastemon sp.
or pohon meriawak.
Destruction of the primary peat forest by natural,
accidental, or deliberately set forest fires may not only
be harmful to the loss of biodiversity in plant and ani-
mal life, but may also result in regrowth with gelam
vegetation, trees of the paper bark Melaleuca sp., or
with alang-alang grass (Imperata cylindrical). These types
of vegetation, often developing as monocultures, are
69071.indb 260 4/25/08 10:42:44 AM

difficult to control, and are considered to convert the

areas practically into wastelands.
6.6.1.1 Decomposition of litter and genesis of peat

According to Russian authorities in peat formation, the
litter is generally subjected at first to decomposition by
aerobic biochemical processes of microorganisms pres-
ent in the surface layers of the deposits during periods
of low subsoil water (Kurbatov, 1968). The deeper lay-
ers of the peat formed by this initial process are then
affected by anaerobic processes. According to Andriesse
(1988), this form of peat is a forest peat, which is essen-
tially no different from a thick litter deposit. In contrast,
Andriesse believes that the tropical peat of Indonesia,
mostly developing in swampy conditions, is affected
more by anaerobic processes, due to specific hydroto-
pographical conditions. This creates redox conditions
with a substantial reduction in oxidation reactions, often
reflected by high sulfur and sodium contents in the peat
deposits. This process of peat formation in waterlogged
or reduced conditions, called by Andriesse paludifica-
tion, involves a primary peat formation at the bottom
of a depression, followed by formation of a secondary
peat layer on top of it, with a tertiary peat deposit above
this. In the humid tropics and monsoon regions of Indo-
nesia, with their high evapotranspiration, formation of
secondary and tertiary layers of peats is considered
possible only where the conditions are continuously
wet, such as in the coastal lowlands of Sumatra, Kali-
mantan, and West Papua. Because many scientists also
regard the peat ecosystem in these regions as ombrog-
enous or ombrophilous, the water entering the system is
69071.indb 261 4/25/08 10:42:44 AM

derived only from precipitation, as explained earlier.

Andriesse (1988) believes that this type of peat is com-
parable to high moor peat, whereas the eutrophic low
moor peat is considered more uncommon for condi-
tions in Indonesia.
Peat swamps are considered by local peat authorities
as giant sponges, soaking up or adsorbing huge amounts
of water from rain or rivers to release it again partly
during the dry season. In this way, they serve as water
catchments that are able to control floods during peri-
ods of heavy rains. They also seem to play an important
role in buffering coastal lands from the harmful effect
of saltwater from the sea. In addition, the peat swamps
are believed to have a filtering effect, by which con-
taminants and potential pollutants are filtered, which
may be harmful when they reach the groundwater and
water of lakes and rivers of the surrounding areas.
6.6.2 Climate
In the humid tropics and monsoon regions of Indone-
sia, with their high temperatures and high evapotrans-
piration, formation of peat is possible only where the
conditions are continuously wet during the year. Such
conditions appear to be present in the coastal lowlands
of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and West Papua. Together
with the tidal effect of the sea, this combination of con-
ditions appears to be ideal for promoting the anaerobic
ecosystem needed in the accumulation of large deposits
of decomposed and partly decomposed organic mate-
rial, called tropical peat. The data in Table 6.19, adapted
from rainfall data collected during a 30-year period
69071.indb 262 4/25/08 10:42:44 AM

69071.indb 263
Table 6.19 The Climate of Tanah Gambut or Tropical Peat Areas in Indonesia
Altitude. Rainfall (months) Mean Annual Type of Climatea
Location (m) <60 mm >100 mm Rainfall (mm) Köppen S&F Soil
Coastal Areas of Sumatra
Medan 30 0 9.0 1947 Afa C
Padang 5 0 12.0 4486 Afa A
Pangkal Pinang 5 0 12.0 2496 Afa A
Pakanbaru 15 0 11.0 2445 Afa A Tanah
Jambi 10 0 12.0 2161 Afa A Gambut
Palembang 25 0 11.0 2277 Afa A
Bengkulu 30 0 12.0 3373 Afa A
Coastal Areas of Kalimantan
Pontianak 10 0 12.0 3215 Afa A Tanah
Banjermasin 15 0 10.0 2411 Afa A Gambut

Coastal Areas of Papua
Manokwari 20 0 12.0 3233 Afa A
Merauke 20 6.0 6.0 1402 Ama
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldest month >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; m = monsoon.
Source: Courtesy of the Badan Meteorologi & Geofisika, Jakarta, Indonesia. (Adapted from 30 years of monthly rainfall data pro-
vided by Dadang Mishabudin, S. Kom, BMG, and Abu Dardak, former Department Chair, Agronomy, University of North Suma-
263
tra, Medan.)
4/25/08 10:42:44 AM
from 1971 to 2000 from rain stations located close to the

peat swamp regions, are in support of the presence of
year-long wet conditions. The only exception is perhaps
the area near Merauke, Papua, where a 6-month dry
period has been recorded, alternated by a 6-month wet
season. The areas near Medan, Pakanbaru, and Palem-
bang in Sumatra do not exhibit months with rainfalls
>60 mm. Medan, located on the northeast coast of
Sumatra, seems to be characterized by a climate with
9 rainy months of >100 mm per month. The remaining
3 months do not qualify to be called “dry” (rainfall <60
mm), because the amount of rainfall is between 92 and
98 mm/month, recorded in particular for the months
of February, March, and April, respectively. The same
is true for the 1 month of “drier” period in Pakanbaru
and Palembang, respectively. Pakanbaru, situated in the
peat area of Riau (mideast coast of Sumatra), received
on average 98 mm of rain during the month of June,
whereas Palembang, in South Sumatra, received 81 mm
of rain in the month of August. Therefore, the particu-
lar months with rainfalls <100 mm can practically be
considered as wet months.

An example of a tanah gambut profile is provided below
from the Silaut peat area, located at the southern border
of West Sumatra, close to the province of Benkulu. The
area was formerly considered inhospitable and seem-
ingly inaccessible, where health hazards discouraged
local farmers from settling. However, the Silaut peat
69071.indb 264 4/25/08 10:42:44 AM

swamp was opened recently for the now terminated

transmigration program of the Indonesian govern-
ment in its effort to relieve the stress in Java, due to its
increasing high population density, and also to increase
crop production to meet the demand for more food by
the growing population of Indonesia. The soil profile
description was recorded by a team of scientists and
professionals from the University of Andalas, Padang,
under the leadership of Ir. Datuk Imban, pedologist-
soil morphology and classification.
The peat soil in the Silaut swamp forest varies from 0.5
to 3 m thick, whereas in some places it can be more than
3 m thick. The deeper the peat soil, the less “attractive”
or the more “monotonous” the description, by showing
only O horizons; hence, a peat profile of 1 m thickness
was selected for the example below, with the purpose
to also show the mineral soil layers. In the cultivation of
these peat soils, it appears that the presence or admix-
ture with mineral soils proves to be of advantage by
being more fertile than the pure deep peat deposit that
is often also very acid.
The peat soil profile is located on flat topography of
the peat swamp of Silaut at an elevation of 3 m above
sea level. The parent material is dead residue from the
trees growing in the swamp, showing characteristics of
a pole forest (see Figure 6.13). They are composed of the
following species: Parinarium sumatranum, locally called
pohon batu or pohon kalek; Campnosperma microphyllum
or auriculatum, locally called pohon terantang; and a
few other trees that were not determined. The profile
descriptions are as follows:
69071.indb 265 4/25/08 10:42:45 AM


Oa 0–74 10YR 2/1, black, sapric peat, satu-
rated with water, nonsticky and
nonplastic, abundant knee-roots.
Oe 74–87 10YR 3/2, very dark grayish-
brown, hemic peat, saturated with
water, nonsticky and nonplastic,
no knee-roots.
C1 87–100 10YR 5/4, yellowish-brown, sandy
clay loam, massive, slightly sticky,
nonplastic, saturated with water,
no roots.
C2 100–132 5YR 6/2, pinkish-gray, sandy clay
loam to clay loam, massive, slightly
sticky, nonplastic, saturated with
water, no roots.
C3 132–169 10YR 4/3 dark brown to brown,
sandy loam, massive, nonsticky
and nonplastic, saturated with
water, no roots.
The mineral parts above, C1, C2, and C3, are integral
parts of the peat soil profile. The symbols C are used
instead of A, because these horizons were considered
parent materials, though others may object and prefer
the use of the symbol A. According to Russian concepts,
peat soils include the peat layers and the upper hori-
zons of the mineral soil underneath. The organic and
mineral horizons are considered together as a pedoge-
netically homogenous soil profile, with a similar his-
tory of development (Inisheva, 2006).
69071.indb 266 4/25/08 10:42:45 AM

Figure 6.13 Native peat swamp forest at Silaut transmigra-

tion area, showing the tall slender trees, characteristic of a
pole forest.

The classification of peat soils has attracted special atten-
tion in countries possessing large areas of peat lands,
though most of them have placed these soils today in
the histosols order. The World Reference Base for Soil
Resources (WRB), developed by an international effort
69071.indb 267 4/25/08 10:42:45 AM

between the International Union of Soil Science (IUSS),

the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the
International Soil Reference and Information Centre
(ISRIC), has classified them as histosols (FAO-UNESCO,
1998). The histosols order was introduced by the USDA,
Soil Survey division to replace the name of organic soil
as discussed earlier. This soil order was later adapted
by the FAO system, which, in contrast to the U.S. Soil
Taxonomy, includes a folic horizon as diagnostic for his-
tosols. For definitions and criteria of both the FAO and
U.S. Soil Taxonomy, reference is made to FAO-UNESCO
(1998), Driessen (2002), and Soil Survey Staff (2006a). As
always in science, exceptions seem to be present to the
above. For the purpose of making the issue somewhat
more complete, but not too longwinded, two of the clas-
sification systems on peat soils deviating from the above
will be mentioned below.
The Canadian soil classification system has provided
different versions of classification of peat soils, with one
placing them in the order of organic soils, divided into
fibric, mesic, and humic suborders, whereas the second
version has placed peat soils under the wetlands group.
The wetland classes, bogs, fens, swamps, marshes, and
shallow waters all contain peat. However, the bogs
and fens are, in essence, composed of dense layers of
peats. The bog types of peats are the oligotrophic types,
whereas the fen types of peats are the more eutrophic
types (CWS, 2006). Another exception is found in the
Australian Soil Classification system, which placed peat
soils as organosols (CSIRO-ACLEP, 2006).
Andriesse (1988) made suggestions for a classifica-
tion scheme of peat soils on the basis of topography,
69071.indb 268 4/25/08 10:42:46 AM

surface vegetation, chemical properties, botanical ori-

gin, physical properties, and genetic properties. It is
perhaps a grand idea, if more details have been pro-
vided instead of only a very sketchy idea. Moreover,
only plain names have been presented—no real classifi-
cation system was outlined. The six basic factors above
also have to be streamlined properly, because surface
vegetation and botanical origin seem to be the same.
Sedge, heath, and sphagnum are surface vegetation but
can also be considered botanical origin. The examples
of Temperate Region and Tropical Peats for classifica-
tion under genetic properties appear to indicate that
perhaps “genetic properties” should be more appropri-
ately changed into “climatic properties.”
In Indonesia, the soils are called tanah gambut or
peat soil, as stated earlier. But since the Indonesian Soil
Research Institute has adapted the U.S. Soil Taxonomy
as the basis for soil classification, these soils have been
placed in the histosols order. The U.S. system recognizes
four suborders—folists, fibrists, hemists, and saprists—
though no folic horizon or folic material is recognized
as is the case in the FAO-UN system. The characteristics
of the four suborders emphasize the contents of sphag-
num fibers only and their degree of decomposition. Peat
soil in Indonesia has been derived from trees and is
one reason why Andriesse (1988) prefers to call it tropi-
cal peat, which he considers different from temperate
region peat derived from sphagnum, hedges, and heath
vegetation. Nevertheless, the authorities at the Univer-
sity of Andalas, Padang, placed the soil profile described
above as a troposaprist. The tropi prefix, from tropic, is
perhaps more warranted and would be accepted more
69071.indb 269 4/25/08 10:42:46 AM

favorably by U.S. soil taxonomists due to their habit

of using the vowel “i” (for example, andisol instead of
andosol). Judging from the rapid decomposition rate in
the humid tropics of Indonesia, most of the peat soils in
Indonesia are expected to be tropisaprists.

6.6.5.1 Acidity of peat
The data in Table 6.20 show the tanah gambut or tropi-
cal peat soil of Silaut to exhibit pH values of 3.2, and
similar pH values are detected in the mineral parts
(C1, C2, and C3) of the soil profile underneath. These
strongly acidic reactions have always been used by
almost all peat authorities for considering this type of
tropical peat as oligotrophic or ombrophilous in nature.
The scientists believe that the poor condition was cre-
ated by the water entering the peat deposits. However,
rainwater, though indeed deficient in bases, exhibits pH
Table 6.20 Physiochemical Characteristics of the Silaut

Tanah Gambut
C
Horizon N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Oa — — — 3.2 59.7 4.03 15
Oe — — — 3.2 51.4 3.26 16
C1 54.0 21.0 25.0 3.6 2.3 0.19 12
C2 45.0 22.0 33.0 4.4 1.3 0.12 11
C3 79.0 11.0 10.0 3.5 1.4 0.13 11
69071.indb 270 4/25/08 10:42:47 AM

values between 6 and 7, and only in very few exceptions

(e.g., acid rain) will its pH be ≤4. In the author’s opinion,
humic acids may have some effect, but it is the anaero-
bic decomposition of organic matter and the presence of
pyrite that produce the extremely acidic conditions and
poor nutrient status. These will be explained below.
Andriesse (1988) reported that most peat in Indone-
sia may contain high amounts of sulfur because of its
formation in anaerobic environments due to the spe-
cific hydrotopographic conditions. In such anaerobic
ecosystems, sulfur bacteria are capable of using oxygen
from sulfates for decomposition of organic matter. The
anaerobic reaction can be illustrated as follows:
2CH2O + SO42– + 2H+ → H2S + 2CO2 + 2H2O (6.1)
Formation of H2S is common in swamps and may

especially occur in tidal swamp areas affected by sea-
water, such as in mangrove swamps. Seawater con-
tains high amounts of sulfates, which are retained by
the coastal sediments or the soil. During its formation
on the fringes of mangrove swamps, the ombrogenous
peat in Indonesia has apparently pushed the mangrove
swamp forest to move more toward the coast. It was the
mangrove forest ecosystem that shifted in the direction
of the sea, but not the soil, which was, in fact, gradu-
ally covered by a blanket of peat. The sulfates from the
sea, originally adsorbed by the sediments underneath
the peat, are permeating upward to be mixed with the
O horizons above. They are used for bio-oxidation and
converted into H2S as shown by Equation 6.1. When this
hydrogen sulfide is allowed to accumulate, it is not only
69071.indb 271 4/25/08 10:42:47 AM

toxic to many soil organisms, but it also creates pollu-

tion problems. Fortunately, a group of bacteria is also
present in soils that are capable of oxidizing H2S into
sulfur and this sulfur into sulfuric acid. The reactions
can be written as follows:
2H2S + O2 → 2S + 2H2O (6.2)
2S + 2H2O + O2 → 2H2SO4 (6.3)
The sulfuric acid formed is then the reason for develop-

ment of the extremely acidic conditions. The soils with
these strongly acid reactions are sometimes called cat-
clays or acid sulfate soils.
Some of the peat soils in Indonesia are also known
to contain pyrite, especially those that have developed
over the mangrove soils, when these tidal swamp eco-
systems shifted toward the coast due to encroachment of
peat as explained above. The mineral sediments under-
neath the peat contain the pyrites, and many authors
have confused this by stating the presence of pyrites in
peat or by claiming that the ombrogenous peat in Indo-
nesia was also formed in mangrove swamps (Kyuma,
2003; Van den Eelaart, 2004). Hence, shallow (thin) peat
soils are expected to be contaminated more with pyrite
than the thick, deep, peat soils. The latter may perhaps
be virtually free of pyrite in their upper organic hori-
zons. Pyrite, Fe2S, is a mineral that upon bio-oxidation
can produce sulfuric acid, as can be noticed from the
reaction below:
Fe2S + 2H2O + O2 → 2Fe2+ + 4H+ + 4SO42– (6.4)
69071.indb 272 4/25/08 10:42:47 AM

Table 6.21 Exchangeable Bases, Base Saturation,

Cation-Exchange Capacity (CEC), HCl-Extractable
Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K), and Bray-P Contents
of Silaut Tanah Gambut
Exchangeable Bases HCl

Base Bray
CEC Extractable
Sat. P
Ca Mg K Na P2O5 K2O
Oa 2.1 1.2 0.11 0.2 9.0 40.5 13.0 8.0 56.0
Oe 2.3 1.3 0.07 0.1 8.0 55.8 3.0 5.0 13.0
C1 2.9 1.7 0.07 0.1 14.0 32.8 2.0 5.0 11.0
C2 2.4 2.0 0.07 0.1 12.0 38.1 2.0 8.0 11.0
C3 2.1 1.7 0.07 0.1 14.0 28.5 2.0 8.0 11.0
Notes: E xchange bases, base saturation, and CEC in cmol/kg; HCl

extractables in mg/100 g; Bray P in ppm.
Source: Chemical Analyses by Soils Laboratory, University of Anda-
las. (Data provided by Ir. Datuk Imbang.)
6.6.5.2 Nutrient status of peat

The low pH values of the Silaut peat correspond closely
with the low base saturation and the concentration of
exchangeable bases detected in the profile (Table 6.21).
However, the nitrogen content is relatively high. Percent-
ages of nitrogen, in the range of 3.0 to 4.0% (Table 6.20),
are within the range of 0.3 to 4.0% as reported for nitro-
gen content of peat soils worldwide. The content of 4.0%
N in the Oa horizon of the Silaut profile is twice as high
as the 1.98% N reported by Suhardjo and Widjaja-Adhi
(1977) for their tropical peat of Riau, East Sumatra. The
high nitrogen content of the Silaut peat soil is expected
to be more than adequate for crop production and the
69071.indb 273 4/25/08 10:42:48 AM

growth of most plants. Mollisols, the best soils in the

world for agriculture, exhibit nitrogen contents in the
range of only 0.07 to 0.30% (Brady, 1990). Andriesse
(1988) is of the opinion that such a high nitrogen content
is inconsistent with the oligotrophic nature of Indone-
sian peat soils and submitted the theory of Hardon and
Polak (1941) as an explanation. The latter authors sug-
gested that during the decomposition of cellulose and
lignin plus other nitrogen-containing substances, the
cellulose part is perhaps destroyed very rapidly, leaving
the other organics and their nitrogen to accumulate.
The phosphorus concentration, detected in the Oa
horizon of the Silaut peat, in the amount of 13 mg/100
g = 0.013% P2O5, compares favorably with the range
of phosphorus concentration reported for peat world-
wide. Total phosphorus levels of oligotrophic peats of
Sarawak were also in the range of 0.004 to 0.01%. The
available phosphorus content, extracted by the Bray-1
method, of 56 ppm detected in the Oa horizon, is very
high considering the fact that concentrations of ≥30
ppm are high by Bray-1 soil-P test ranking, whereas a
range of 16 to 30 ppm is ranked medium (Tan, 2005).
Though Andriesse (1988) claims that the high phospho-
rus levels can be explained again similarly as for the
high nitrogen contents above, this still does not explain
why the high nitrogen and phosphorus contents are at
odds with the oligotrophic concept. The high concentra-
tions can indeed be explained by the theory of Hardon
and Polak (1941), but they still suggest a more eutrophic
nature of these ombrogenic tropical peats. The reason
for a poor nutrient medium of this tropical peat should
be found somewhere else, perhaps in toxicity problems,
69071.indb 274 4/25/08 10:42:48 AM

due especially to high aluminum contents. This will be

the topic of the next section.
6.6.5.3 Aluminum contents in peat

The exchange acidity and aluminum concentrations,
extracted by 1 N KC1, are very high (data not shown).
The aluminum content in particular, determined in the
Oa horizon, of 448.2 ppm is extremely high. This con-
tent increases in Oe and C1 horizons to 494.1 and 666.9
ppm, respectively, to decrease again somewhat in the C2
and C3 horizons to 596.7 and 385.2 ppm, respectively.
However, the latter figures are still too high for grow-
ing crops and plants. Even with the presence of humic
acids in the peat, the extremely high concentrations of
aluminum are expected to be deadly for normal plant
growth. Aluminum toxicity has been reported to occur
at concentrations as low as 50 ppm Al (Foy et al., 1978;
Tan and Binger, 1986).
6.6.5.4 Carbon contents and Corg

sequestration by peat
The organic carbon contents of the Silaut peat are very
high (Table 6.20) and confirm the importance of peat
deposits in sequestration of organic carbon. Seques-
tration of organic carbon is a very important issue in
light of mitigating global warming by controlling the
emission of CO2 into the atmosphere. Peat bogs of the
Canadian Wetland Classification Center (CWS, 2006),
fitting the definition of oligotrophic peat like the Silaut
peat, are considered to contain more carbon than all the
other peat lands of the world.
69071.indb 275 4/25/08 10:42:48 AM

Andriesse (1988) believes that Corg is perhaps the

most important property, due to the consideration in
many countries of the use of peat as a source of fuel and
because of problems arising due to cultivation. Fibrist
was reported by Andriesse to contain 48 to 50% Corg,
mesic peat (which corresponds to hemist) 53 to 54%,
and saprist 58 to 60% organic carbon. The Corg content
of the saprist of Silaut is 59.6%, which is in agreement
with Andriesse’s data.
6.6.5.4.1 Redox potential of peat For organic carbon

to be able to accumulate as peat in the humid tropics,
where oxidation is generally the rule, the production
of biomass must be greater than the decomposition of
this organic matter, as indicated by Andriesse (1988). In
anaerobic systems, this balance between accumulation
and decomposition is influenced by a complex system
of redox reactions. Such a redox system is usually sim-
plified in the following equation below (Tan, 1998):
Eh = E0 + (RT/zF) ln (oxidation/reduction) (6.5)
in which Eh is the redox potential, E0 is the electrochem-

ical potential at standard state, R is the gas constant, T
is the temperature in Kelvin, z is valence, and F is the
Faraday constant.
The value of the redox potential, Eh, determines the
accumulation or destruction of organic matter and the
formation of peat. When Eh increases in value, it is clear
from the equation that oxidation processes are greater
than reduction, and peat will be destroyed by the oxida-
tion of the organic matter. This generally happens when
69071.indb 276 4/25/08 10:42:49 AM

aeration is improved upon cultivation of peat lands, and

the enhanced loss of organic matter will result in what
is called “subsidence.” The redox potential also con-
trols the solubility of many nutrients. At low Eh values,
reduction processes prevail, and as a rule metal cations,
such as the micronutrient elements, are then present
in their reduced state in which they are more soluble
than in their oxidized state. For example, Fe(II) or Fe2+ is
more soluble than Fe(III) or Fe3+ ions. Nitrogen will also
be present in the ammonium form, NH4+, rather than in
the nitrate form, NO3–. However, Andriesse (1988) indi-
cates that next to organic-N, the nitrogen is present as
nitrate-N. Because NO3– is the oxidized form of N, this
may raise many questions due to the anaerobic (reduc-
tion) environment and strongly acid conditions prevail-
ing in the peat soils. The author above added that with
increasing age in development, the nitrogen content
increased in amounts, but his explanations failed to jus-
tify his contention, and his explanations seem to raise
more questions.
6.6.5.5 Physical properties

The most important physical properties related to issues
of water conditions in anaerobic systems of tropical peat
soils in Indonesia will be discussed below, for example,
bulk density, water-holding capacity or moisture reten-
tion, and available water content. The others, texture,
structure, pore spaces, and swelling–shrinking, are also
important parameters but are rather difficult to associ-
ate with peat soils. For example, soil texture, of signif-
icance in mineral soils (oxisols and ultisols), is based
on the presence or relative concentrations of sand, silt,
69071.indb 277 4/25/08 10:42:49 AM

and clay, mineral particles that should not be present

in substantial amounts in true peat soils. It seems that
most of the peat scientists confuse this with plasticity,
which is also exhibited to some degree by peat soils.
The concepts and definitions of the physical properties
above have been developed for mineral soils, which
are generally aerobic soil systems. Therefore, the use
of physical properties for aerobic soil systems should
be used with caution in anaerobic soils and have to be
interpreted very differently.
6.6.5.5.1 Bulk density In Basic Soil Science, a

bulk density value of ≤0.5 g/cc characterizes in gen-
eral organic soils (Brady, 1990). The official unit for
bulk density in the United States is Mg/m3, which is
an awful unit, because in laboratory determinations,
the samples are measured in grams and cc, and not in
Mg or tons and cubic meters (Tan, 2005). Fortunately
Mg/m3 = g/cc, and hence the latter will be used in this
book. Bulk density values of tropical peat are reported
to be considerably smaller than the above and are gen-
erally in the range of 0.12 to 0.09 g/cc (Andriesse, 1974).
The available data also suggest that these values tend
to be higher for the surface and somewhat lower in the
sublayers of the peat profile. This may well indicate that
bulk density increases with increased decomposition,
because the organic matter in the peat surface is usually
in a more advanced stage of decomposition than that
located in the deeper layers. This observation is sup-
ported by results of bulk density analyses of Kaliman-
tan tropical peat by Driessen and Rochimah (1976), who
reported a Kalimantan fibrist to exhibit a bulk density
69071.indb 278 4/25/08 10:42:49 AM

of ≤0.1 g/cc, as opposed to 0.2 g/cc for a Kalimantan

saprist. In addition to the above, cultivation has been
noted to increase the bulk density of peat soils, provid-
ing more support to the contention of decomposition
raising the bulk density of peat soils. A bulk density
value of 0.35 g/cc was reported by Andriesse (1988) for
the 0- to 15-cm layer of cultivated peat soil at the Agri-
cultural Research and Education Center, University of
Florida, Belle Glade, whereas this value was 0.18 g/cc at
45 to 60 cm depth. However, higher bulk density val-
ues in surface layers are in sharp contrast with those
noted in mineral soils, where compaction of the sub-
soil always produced higher bulk density values in the
deeper layers. This raises many questions, because the
deeper peat layers are also subjected to greater compac-
tion than those on the surface.
The extremely low bulk density values are not com-
parable with those exhibited by mineral soils, and they
must be interpreted in a different way. Bulk density
values of mineral soils in the range of 1 to 1.5 g/cc are
indicative of the presence of favorable, if not excellent,
physical conditions, with lots of pore space, for plant
growth. Higher bulk density values, 1.8 to 2 g/cc, indi-
cate poor physical conditions and lower amounts of
pore spaces. Generally, sandy soils exhibit higher bulk
densities than finer-textured soils. The coarse-textured
soils are comparatively lower in total pore spaces than
the fine-textured soils. Bulk density generally increases
with depth in the soil profile because of lower organic
matter content, less aggregation, and more compaction.
Compaction destroys pore spaces, forcing solid parti-
cles into the pores. Plowing and tillage operations are
69071.indb 279 4/25/08 10:42:49 AM

usually designed to restore and increase pore spaces

and decrease bulk density. However, the tractor tracks
produce compaction and increase bulk density. Because
this concept of bulk density and its analysis have been
developed for mineral soils, perhaps new definitions
and new methods are needed for organic soils and, in
particular, for peat soils.
6.6.5.5.2 Water retention The concept in mineral

soils is that water is held in the pore spaces by different
forces of attraction exerted by the soil matrix, the electri-
cal charges of ions, and surface tension in the capillar-
ies. For specific details, reference is made to Tan (2000).
This water held in soils constitutes the reserve water
supply for plant use between additions of water by rain
or irrigation. The forces, expressed in terms of energy
levels, such as matric (ψm), osmotic (ψo), and pressure
(ψp) potentials, are collectively called the water potential
(ψw), which is usually defined as follows:
ψw = ψm + ψo + ψp (6.6)
The water potential (ψw) has a negative value because

the matric and osmotic forces reduce the free energy
level soil water. In simple terms, soil water held by the
soil matrix and solutes cannot move freely. Also, the
larger the negative value of ψw, the smaller the amount
of water present in soils. However, this water potential
can also be expressed in terms of positive values. The
latter then represent the opposite force, or suction force,
which is referred to as soil moisture tension. The ten-
sion force can be expressed in various ways, in terms
69071.indb 280 4/25/08 10:42:49 AM

of pounds/square inch, centimeters (cm) of water, cen-

timeters (cm) of mercury (Hg), atmospheres, bars, or
pF. The units cm of water, bars, and pF are the most
common units used in soil science. For details, see Tan
(2000). Based on the relative degree of soil moisture
tension, soil moisture can be classified physically into
free water, water held between pF 0 and 2.64; capil-
lary water, water held at pF 2.45 to 4.5 (or between field
capacity and hygroscopic coefficient); and hygroscopic
water, water held at pF ≥4.5.
Andriesse (1988) distinguishes three types of water
to be present in peat soils: physically and chemically
bound water, capillary and film water, and immobi-
lized water. From his descriptions, chemically bound,
capillary, and film water are approximately water held
by matric and osmotic forces, whereas his physically
bound and immobilized water are more likely the free
water held at pF 0 to 2.64. Andriesse claims that raw
peat may contain 200 to 500% of immobilized water
and perhaps 250 to 400% of capillary water.
According to the biological classification, that part
of water available to plants, called traditionally avail-
able water, is defined as water held between the field
capacity and wilting point or between pF 2.45 and pF
4.2. Unfortunately, the definition and limits of pF val-
ues above have been developed for mineral soils and
appear not to apply for peat soils. The concept of avail-
able water must be interpreted or need to be redefined
differently for tropical peats, because the amount of
water at field capacity (pF = 2.45) is often too low for
growing plants in peat soils. Peat soils are often con-
sidered as giant sponges, capable of soaking up water
69071.indb 281 4/25/08 10:42:50 AM

in amounts far greater than oxisols, ultisols, and other

mineral soils (Driessen and Rochimah, 1976). They are
practically still dry for growing plants at water levels,
held by the soil moisture tensions designed above for
mineral soils.

From the discussions above, it appears that the tropical
peat soils of Indonesia are more than adequately sup-
plied with nitrogen and phosphorus for crop produc-
tion. As explained earlier, the nitrogen contents, in the
range of 3 to 4%, are very high and compare more than
favorably with those in mollisols and andosols, mineral
soils often considered the most fertile soils in the world.
The phosphorus concentration, as extracted by the Bray
method, also compares favorably with that of mollisols
and andosols. A value of ≥50 ppm is well above the
highest limit for soil-P content, as determined by soil-P
test ranking for plant growth.
The soil reaction, aluminum content, water retention,
and several other physical properties make cultiva-
tion of the tropical peats of Indonesia very difficult, if
not a “nightmare.” Due to the fact that these soils are
anaerobic systems, large amounts of H2S and pyrite can
be produced, which upon oxidation are converted into
sulfuric acid yielding the very low pH levels, almost
prohibitive for growing crops. The aluminum contents,
extractable by KCL, are so high that they will most
likely prevent adequate crop production by creating
severe aluminum toxicity problems. The water content
69071.indb 282 4/25/08 10:42:50 AM

and problems of water retention compound the issues

above by making the conditions far worse for grow-
ing crops. The soils contain water in amounts more
than mineral soils can retain, but at field capacity (pF
= 2.45), the amount of water that by definition is pres-
ent in maximum amounts for plant growth is too low.
Andriesse (1988) has reported that sprinkle irrigation
is often required to supply enough additional water for
vegetable gardening on peat soils in Brazil, though the
groundwater level is only at a depth of 30 cm. This is
also the case in the Silaut peat soils. All of the above
suggests the presence of great differences in the con-
cepts of water retention, capillary actions, and available
water contents between mineral soils and peat soils. The
extremely low bulk density may also cause problems in
growing tree crops. Trees are top heavy, and because
the bulk density of peat soils is too low for providing
them with adequate support, they tend to lodge. The
trees will eventually try growing upward again, creat-
ing the crooked trees often seen growing in cultivated
peat soils.
6.6.6.2 Significance of basic properties

To control the strongly acid reactions and the high alu-
minum contents, liming is one way, and perhaps the
only way, to create a suitable peat soil medium for
crop production. However, the amounts of lime to be
applied depend not only on the crops to be grown but
also on the type of peat land and on, especially, local
economic considerations. In Indonesia the latter is often
the determining, if not a limiting, factor, because liming
materials are expensive for most of the farmers. Local
69071.indb 283 4/25/08 10:42:50 AM

experimental trials are suggested to be conducted first

for the determination of the correct lime requirements
of each peat land before cultivation, as also pointed out
by Andriesse (1988). Andriesse believes that the lim-
ing of tropical peat to a pH of 5.2 is harmful due to a
decrease in phosphorus and calcium uptake. Results
from experiments on peat soils in Sarawak, which
neighbor or extend to the peat lands of Southwest Kali-
mantan, Indonesia, have shown that liming to pH 4.6
produced the best results in corn, peanut, and cassava
yields (Tie and Kueh, 1979). Tie and Kueh indicated that
with some crops (e.g., pineapples), no liming is neces-
sary if the peat soil has a pH = 4.0 or above. Only at soil
pH ≤3.5, a one-time application of 5 t/ha of dolomitic
limestone was suggested with an additional 1.3 t/ha
annually for the purpose of maintaining the soil pH at
the desired level. The choice for using dolomitic lime-
stone, CaMg(CO3)2, raises many questions, because this
liming material is known not to affect soil pH but will
instead supply calcium and magnesium. According to
Basic Soil Science, calcitic limestone, CaCO3, is the mate-
rial that generally will raise the pH of acid soils.
Excess water needs to be removed to a level suitable
for growing crops, requiring aerobic soil media. How-
ever, draining the soils by building drainage canals,
as is often done in most peat lands, may raise more
questions rather than solve the problem. In the United
States, the peat soils are drained at various depths,
and for some crops these soils are even drained to a
depth of 90 cm (Andriesse, 1988; Lucas, 1982). Drain-
ing peat soils too deep (for example, by lowering the
water table to a depth of 60 cm) is a disadvantage to
69071.indb 284 4/25/08 10:42:50 AM

Gambut
––35cm––
Figure 6.14 A well in the Silaut gambut or tropical peat soil,

West Sumatra, showing a groundwater level at 30 cm depth
below the surface.
crop yields, and a water table depth of 40 cm is noted to

produce the best results in the yields of corn, potatoes,
and onion crops (Lucas, 1982). Deep drainage, defined
as draining to a depth of 60 cm, may encourage rapid
decomposition of organic matter, initiating the process
of subsidence. Moreover, the top peat layer can become
too “dry” for most plants than would be expected even
with a groundwater level at a depth of 30 cm, as noted
in drained peat soils at Silaut (Figure 6.14). As indicated
69071.indb 285 4/25/08 10:42:53 AM

earlier, Andriesse (1988) reported that in such cases,

sprinkler irrigation was needed to keep the water sup-
ply sufficiently high for vegetable crops.
The low bulk density values raise a lot of problems in
lodging of tree crops, because a loose and fluffy physi-
cal condition fails to provide a sturdy and solid founda-
tion for roots to anchor the top-heavy tree. In nature, the
vegetation seems to cope with this physical condition
by growing into a “pole vegetation,” as explained ear-
lier. Perhaps this can be simulated in cultivation of tree
crops by decreasing the plant spacings. It is true that the
yield may be decreased, but a balance can be found by
experimentations between the lowest decrease in yields
and decreased plant spacings. To decrease the hazard of
lodging even further, the method above can perhaps be
combined with the “hole-in-hole” cultivation method
often done in the peat lands of Sarawak, Malaysia. A
large hole of 1 m depth and 40 cm wide is dug, and at
the bottom of this pit another smaller hole is dug for
planting the tree crop (e.g., coconut or oil palms).

In the United States, the major peat lands are located in
Florida and in the region of the Great Lakes. Due to dif-
ferent climatic conditions, different agricultural opera-
tions are noticed between the two regions. In Florida,
where it is warmer and humid, horticultural crops are
grown, such as tomatoes, beans, and cucumbers, mostly
during the winter for supplying the northern states
with needed vegetables during the cold months. In the
northern region, near the Great Lakes, peat soils are cul-
tivated in the summer mainly for cut flowers and bulbs
69071.indb 286 4/25/08 10:42:53 AM

(for example, tulips and narcissus or daffodils) and for

growing Irish potatoes. The strongly acid conditions of
the peat soils seem to be very beneficial in controlling
the potato scab disease.
In Indonesia, the cultivation of peat soils is quite dif-
ferent and contrasting than that in the United States. The
peat forest has to be cleared and most of the valuable
timber removed for local use or for sale. The remain-
ing vegetative residues are usually burned to clear the
soils for cultivation. When carelessly conducted, this
often results in forest wildfires, as experienced in Indo-
nesia in 1997 until the present day, exploding often into
real infernos with thick black toxic smoke, hovering
dangerously over Indonesia to neighboring Malaysia
and which can be felt as far as Thailand. When grow-
ing aerobic crops, excess water has to be drained, a
process that also spells disaster. As discussed earlier,
peat soil acts like a sponge, soaking up huge amounts
of water from rain and rivers. As a sponge, one just
needs to squeeze one point of the sponge to force all the
adsorbed water out, meaning that a single canal has the
potential to drain a large area of the peat land. Once the
peat soil is dried, oxidation of organic matter starts at
a rapid rate, causing subsidence or even destruction of
the peat lands. However, due to the stress caused by the
increasing population density and the need for increas-
ing food production, the peat lands in Indonesia will
be cultivated. As pointed out by Van den Eelaart (2004),
today it is not a question for arguing against reclama-
tion of peat soils, but it is now more an issue in provid-
ing the know-how for managing wisely these valuable
natural resources.
69071.indb 287 4/25/08 10:42:53 AM

Peat lands in Indonesia are used for planting oil palm

and rubber often in the form of huge plantation agri-
cultural operations. The local farmers, usually settlers
from the transmigration programs of the Indonesian
government, are growing rice, corn, cassava, pepper,
and other food crops. In Riau, East Sumatra, pineapples
are grown, whereas the peat soil in West Sumatra is
often cultivated with small bushy types of fern plants,
whose young shoots are edible and sold to local restau-
rants in the region. It appears that similar edible fern
shoots, from fern plants growing on Alaska peat, have
also been served by restaurants in Alaska as health and
delicatessen food.
6.6.6.3.1 Rice cultivation As usual, the farmers

in Indonesia prefer growing rice whenever possible.
Depending on the water supply, two types of rice cul-
tivation are conducted: lowland rice and upland rice.
Such a preference and types of cultivars available today
were addressed earlier in the sections of ultisols and
oxisols. However, in the case of growing rice on tropical
peat soils, the cultivation of lowland rice seems to be the
best, due to the inundation method, creating or perpet-
uating the anaerobic conditions needed in the paddy-
sawahs. According to basic soil chemistry, reclamation
of peat will be most successful when the balance can
be maintained between decomposition and accumula-
tion of organic matter under anaerobic conditions, and
by the use of crops tolerant to low redox potentials and
strongly acidic reactions. Lowland rice is expected to
disturb the balance in the redox reactions the least. How-
ever, remediation of high soil acidity and toxic levels of
69071.indb 288 4/25/08 10:42:53 AM

iron are necessary, which is often suggested by liming

and by leaching and draining methods using pump-
ing stations as applied in the Dutch polders systems.
All these are, of course, very costly. On the other hand,
growing upland rice will increase the redox potential,
which may accelerate decomposition of organic matter.
In addition, upland rice is more susceptible to the high
iron content of most peat soils in Indonesia. As can be
noticed in Figure 6.15, padi gogo or padi huma (upland
rice) in the University of Andalas experimental field of
Silaut peat soil failed to produce due to severe alumi-
num toxicity problems. Although sago plants (Metroxy-
lon spp.) are known to be very adaptable to growing at
low redox potentials, sago as a food crop seems not to
be accepted well by most people in Indonesia. As stated
above, a type of edible fern bush is planted extensively
in the peat soils of West Sumatra. Fern plants are very
adaptable for growing in reduced conditions and will
tolerate very low redox potentials, strongly acidic reac-
tions, and high iron contents. All other crops requiring
aerobic conditions for growth will increase the redox
potential and will affect the decomposition of organic
matter, resulting in increased subsidence and the grad-
ual degradation of the peat soil.
6.6.6.3.2 Estate crops Today we have to distin-

guish between large- and smallholders’ estates. The
large estates belong to large companies or to the Indone-
sian government, whereas the small estates are owned
by local farmers. The latter serves ordinarily as a sup-
plier by growing the crop with the purpose of selling
the raw yields to the large estates. The major estate
69071.indb 289 4/25/08 10:42:53 AM

Padi gogo (kering)

Gambut Silaut
Figure 6.15 Top: Upland rice (padi gogo), grown on Silaut

gamut or tropical peat soil in the experimental fields of the
University of Andalas, Padang, West Sumatra, showing signs
of iron toxicity. Bottom: Corn (Zea mays) is doing better.
crops, cultivated on tropical peat soils, are rubber and oil

palms. With the decline in the world rubber demand, oil
palm cultivation is today on the rise, an issue discussed
69071.indb 290 4/25/08 10:42:54 AM

in more detail in the section on agricultural operations

of ultisols (Section 6.3.6.3.3). However, growing trees in
soils with extremely low bulk density values, such as
in tropical peats, has created a lot of problems. As indi-
cated above, the hazards of lodging and formation of
crooked trees is greatly increased. To deal with these
problems, dwarf varieties of oil palm trees have been
developed, which were discussed in more detail in Sec-
tion 6.3. The young plants are to be planted in shallow
peat soils whenever available, where the surface O hori-
zon is less than 1 m thick. The hole-in-hole method of
planting may be an advantage, because the mineral soil,
close to the surface, may provide opportunities for root
development in a medium of higher bulk density, and
hence can sturdily anchor the tree above.
69071.indb 291 4/25/08 10:42:55 AM

69071.indb 292 4/25/08 10:42:55 AM
chapter seven
Soils in the uplands

of Indonesia
7.1 Introduction
The uplands are the regions where rapid and drastic
weathering processes are no longer the dominant pro-
cesses in soil formation. Due to a cooler climate, humi-
fication instead of mineralization of soil organic matter
becomes of importance. These are the regions, earlier
called the tension zones, defined in Chapter 6 as the areas
where the climate facilitates both laterization and pod-
zolization processes, such as are likely to occur in the
southern region of the United States and perhaps also in
the lowlands of New Zealand. As such they can be con-
sidered transition zones between the lowlands, where
mineralization is a prominent soil-forming factor, and
the mountains where humification is more important
than mineralization processes of soil organic matter.
This issue has been addressed in detail in Chapter 3. The
soils formed may then also be considered transitional
between the lowland soils formed by laterization and
the mountain soils formed by podzolization processes.
293
69071.indb 293 4/25/08 10:42:55 AM

Several major groups of soils were recognized in the

upland by Van Schuylenborgh (1958), viz. podzolic lato-
sols, usually occupying the lowest parts of the upland
region, and next to this group a region of brown for-
est soils, currently classified as inceptisols. The latter
soils are usually found at the highest elevations of the
upland areas bordering the mountain regions. For rea-
sons explained below, the podzolic latosols will not
be discussed in detail, though they will be addressed
appropriately for completeness so that duplications in
discussions can be avoided. The brown forest soils are
a recognized group of soils, and in Europe were well-
known under the name of braunerde.
7.2 Podzolic latosols

The name podzolic latosols is used here due to the influ-
ence of podzolization in the formation of these latosols
in the uplands. It is customary in many other countries
to apply the term podzolic as a prefix to names of soils
showing some characteristics of podzols but have not
developed yet into true podzols. Detailed discussions
on the validity or significance for using the terms pod-
zolic, podzolized, podzolization, and lessivage are provided
by Dudal (1965) and Petersen (1976).
The podzolic latosols are rarely mentioned in the
soils of the United States, Western Europe, and Russia,
because they do not occur in many temperate-region
countries. In Indonesia, the podzolic latosols are a dis-
tinctly zonal group of soils, located transitory between
the latosols (oxisols) of the lowlands and the brown
forest soils (inceptisols) of the uplands. They are often
69071.indb 294 4/25/08 10:42:55 AM

Chapter seven: Soils in the Uplands of Indonesia 295
found in close association more with acid brown forest

soils than with other members of the brown forest soil
group. Van der Voort (1950) considered the soils to be
degraded lateritic soils, but the present author believes
that these podzolic latosols are perhaps related to the
lateritic soils of the temperate regions. The soils occur
mostly in the cool tropical rain forest climate of the Af
type but can also be found in the cooler limits of an Afa
climate. Because of this cooler climate, the soils show
characteristics due to laterization processes with a dis-
tinct shade of podzolization. In this respect, they may
perhaps be comparable to soils called the Davidson soil
(Thermic Rhodic Kandiudults) of the southern regions
of the United States, which at one time was classified
as reddish-brown lateritic soil (England and Perkins,
1959). In view of the above, the podzolic latosols may
well be a tropical version of rhodic kandiudults. The
area of the upland, in which podzolic latosols develop,
lies between the principal regions of laterization of
the lowlands and podzolization of the highlands or
mountains. It is a true zonal region, where the forma-
tion of this group of soils is dictated by similar climatic
factors as those of the southern regions in the United
States. Therefore, these podzolic latosols are presum-
ably the true red-yellow podzolic soils, formed by lat-
erization and podzolization from weathering products
of acidic, intermediate as well as basic volcanic tuffs.
Van Schuylenborgh (1957) and Dames (1955) earlier sus-
pected that the podzolic latosols of the upland may be
related to the red-yellow podzolic soils of the lowland.
However, the climatic conditions and other genetic fac-
tors for the upland soils are somewhat different from
69071.indb 295 4/25/08 10:42:55 AM

those of the red-yellow podzolic soils of the lowland,

where acidic parent materials and quartz contents have
been used as determining factors in their formation, as
discussed in Chapter 6, Section 6.3. For the sake of dif-
ferentiating them from the more or less lithologic group
of lowland ultisols, the author proposes herewith to call
the zonal upland variety upland ultisols. They do not
contain quartz in appreciable amounts as the lowland
ultisols, but their other diagnostic properties, however,
as defined in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy, are not different
from those of the lowland ultisols (Van Schuylenborgh,
1958). Therefore, because ultisols have been addressed
in Chapter 6, Section 6.3, it is deemed redundant to dis-
cuss again these upland ultisols.
7.3 Inceptisols
These are the brown-colored soils in Indonesia, simi-
lar to soils formerly known as brown forest soils in the
United States and today called cambisols by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB)
systems. They are the sols bruns in France. In the tem-
perate regions, this group of soils is mostly formed
under a broad-leaf deciduous forest in a humid climate,
characterized by an annual rainfall of ≤750 mm and a
temperature range of 4°C in winter to 18°C during the
summer months. These conditions can occur in Indone-
sia only in the upland and mountain regions. However,
the amount of rainfall is here substantially higher than
that stated above for the temperate regions.
69071.indb 296 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM

The brown forest soils are perhaps the most inves-

tigated but also the most debated soils in Europe and
other countries of the world. The history of these soils
started when Ramann introduced it in 1905 under the
name of Braunerde, for brown earth or brown-colored
soils, developed under the influence of a temperate
climate, with a moderate amount of leaching in the
profile. Worldwide, such conditions usually occur in
regions between 30° and 55° north of the equator, but
in Indonesia they are found in the uplands. Ramann’s
concept is based on the geographical distribution and
on the presumed soil-forming processes that might
have taken place (Tavernier and Smith, 1957). Since its
introduction, the name braunerde or brown forest soil
became more popular than any other name (e.g., brown
earth, brown soils, brunizem, phaeozems, and castano-
zems) and was soon used widely for the group of soils
with brown colors, developed under the influence of a
deciduous forest in a temperate climate.
The Russian idea at that time showed only little dif-
ferences with regard to the soil-forming processes.
Glinka stated that brown earths of Western Europe rep-
resented the first stages of a podzol type of weathering
(Joffe, 1949). The soils were considered to be transitory
between the podzol in the north to the yellow and red
earths in southern Russia. This idea was suggested ear-
lier by Stebutt (1930), who believed that the brown forest
soils have been influenced by both podzolization and
red earth formation processes. The brown forest soils
were noted to be more adapted to the warmer climate
of the red earths than to the colder humid climate of
the podzols. It seems that the old concept has remained
69071.indb 297 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM

unchanged today, because the brown forest soils are

still considered as their southern variants of podzols of
the taiga or boreal forest (Karpachevskiy et al., 2006).
This relationship between brown forest and pod-
zolic soils is also distinguished in Western Europe and
America. The soils are believed to exist more in close
association with podzolic soils and are classified in the
podzolic soil group (Joffe, 1949; Robinson, 1951). Brown
forest soils are even reported to have been recognized
as far north as Sweden. This may be one of the reasons
why gray-brown podzolic and brown podzolic soils
were previously included under the name braunerde.
However, the concept above was later changed some-
what into one with a more sharper delineation of brown
forest soils, in which the other two soils are excluded.
According to the newer ideas of Western Europe, the
definition mostly followed is that brown forest soils are
developed from calcareous or basic parent materials in
a temperate climate under the influence of a deciduous
forest (Tavernier and Smith, 1957). The soil usually pos-
sesses a high degree of base saturation. The topsoil is
generally dark brown due to a high content in mull-
humus. The soil becomes gradually lighter in color with
depth in the profile and grades in the parent material
without passing over into an illuvial B horizon. The B
horizon has changed just enough to liberate iron oxides,
whose brown to reddish colors were part of the reasons
for naming the soil brown forest soil. This idea of a B
horizon is the origin for the development of a concept
of color-B horizon by Laatsch, which in 1960 was used
for the definition of a cambic horizon of the U.S. Soil
Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 2006a).
69071.indb 298 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM

The brown forest soils can be found in Indonesia,

mostly in Java and on the other islands of the archipel-
ago, where basic parent materials are located. To meet
the climatic requirements for formation, the soils usually
occur in the uplands, or their occurrence may extend to
places ≥600 m above sea level. At these levels and higher,
the climate resembles a humid temperate climate.

In the United States, brown forest soils occur only on
basic and strongly calcareous materials. From acidic or
more siliceous parent materials, gray-brown podzolic
soils, or alfisols, tend to be formed under similar cli-
matic conditions (Cline, 1949). This is also true in Indo-
nesia. As indicated above, the soils develop only on the
comparatively more basic to intermediate parent mate-
rials—that is, basalto-andesitic to andesitic tuffs (Tan
and Van Schuylenborgh, 1959; Van Schuylenborgh, 1957;
Van Schuylenborgh and Van Rummelen, 1955).
The mineralogical data (Table 7.1) confirm that brown
forest soils of Indonesia originate from intermediate to
basic volcanic material. The parent material of the soil in
East Java is comparatively the most basic and is classified
as basalto-andesitic tuff from eruptions of the Arjuna Vol-
cano. The soil is located at approximately 1200 m above
sea level, and its sand fraction does not contain quartz,
a mineral often marking the presence of acidic materi-
als, such as rhyolites, liparites, and granites. The min-
eral counts indicate the presence of moderate amounts
of volcanic glass and a lot of andesine-oligoclase miner-
als. The latter are plagioclase feldspars, often present in
69071.indb 299 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM

69071.indb 300
Table 7.1 Mineralogical Composition of Brown Forest Soils
Composition in Total Sand Fraction Heavy Fraction
300
Oligo-. Green. Rock. Green. Brown.

clase. Horn-. Hyper-. Volcanic. Iron. Hydr-. Frag-. Horn-. Horn-. Hyper-.
Horizon Quartz Sanidine blende sthene Augite Glass Concretions argillite ments Misc. blende blende sthene Augite
Brown Forest Soil, Arjuno Volcano, East Java
A1 — 33 — 7 6 19 — — 25 — 5 tr 66 29
A2 — 36 — 6 5 20 — — 24 — 3 tr 64 31
B — 35 — 9 5 12 — — 23 — 2 tr 65 32
Brown Forest Soil, Lawu Volcano, Central Java

A1 — 36 1 6 3 25 tr — 20 4 9 — 49 42
A2 — 37 tr 6 6 24 1 — 17 5 6 — 50 43
B1 — 27 tr 5 5 25 tr — 24 12 9 — 49 41
B2 — 33 1 6 6 26 tr — 22 7 20 — 42 38
B3 — 17 1 8 8 33 1 — 21 12 3 — 42 55
C — 16 1 6 6 37 tr — 30 4 5 — 51 44
Brown Forest Soil, Salak Volcano, West Java

A1 1 46 tr 12 2 6 5 2 tr 18 1 — 87 12
A2 1 38 tr 12 1 4 6 3 tr 27 tr — 92 7
B1 tr 44 1 11 1 5 3 6 — 27 1 — 95 3
B2 1 41 tr 6 tr 4 5 6 — 33 3 — 96 1
C 1 46 tr 8 — 10 2 14 1 16 1 – 97 2
4/25/08 10:42:57 AM
intermediate to basic volcanic tuffs. Based on the heavy

mineral counts, the mineral suite appears to be of a
hypersthene-augite association. As discussed earlier in
Section 6.2.1 on parent materials of oxisols, hypersthene
minerals are often used as markers for identification of
intermediate and augite of intermediate to basic volca-
nic materials (e.g., andesite and basalt) (Mohr and Van
Baren, 1960). Hence, to differentiate the Arjuna parent
material from the other two parent materials, it is given
the name basalto-andesitic tuff, which indicates its more
basic nature. The brown forest soil in Central Java, also
located at approximately 1200 m above sea level, origi-
nates from andesitic tuff of the Lawu volcano. This type
of volcanic material is less basic than the basalto-andesitic
tuff above. It does not contain quartz and has substantial
amounts of andesine-oligoclase, but significantly more
volcanic glass than the Arjuna tuff. Its heavy mineral
fraction exhibits a hypersthene-augite association. The
brown forest soil of West Java is found at 600 m above
sea level and has been formed from andesitic tuff of the
Salak volcano, which is comparatively the least basic of
the three, as indicated by the presence of small amounts
of quartz. It exhibits a slightly higher sanidine-oligolase
concentration but is the lowest in volcanic glass content,
whereas the heavy mineral fraction is characterized by
a hypersthene association. The low augite concentration
provides additional support for the less basic nature of
the Salak volcano andesitic tuff. Therefore, the name
dacito-andesitic tuff is given to indicate its more siliceous
nature.
69071.indb 301 4/25/08 10:42:57 AM

7.3.2 Climate
The original concept of the brown forest soils considers
the soils as being developed under the influence of a
temperate region climate, characterized by alternating
rainy and dry seasons during the year (Blanck, 1930).
The soils are thus subjected to severe leaching in one
season and no or little leaching in the other season. In
Indonesia, such a climate is present in the uplands and
highlands or mountain regions, as shown in Table 7.2.
The data indicate that the areas of brown forest soils
are located mostly in Köppen’s Af to Am climatic types.
However, the soils have also been often found at eleva-
tions of ≥1000 m, where the climate is classified as a cool
mountain Cfi climate. Ordinarily, this type of climate
favors podzolization, ideal for formation of gray-brown
podzolic soils and podzols. Brown forest soils have not
been located in lowland climates, such as the Afa or
Ama climatic types. The data in Table 7.2 indicate that
these are the typical types of climate for formation of
latosols or oxisols and such conditions are too hot for
the development of brown forest soils. The soils have
also not been found in Indonesia in regions with Awa
climates, due to the desert or savannah type of climate
being too dry and too hot.
The climatic variations present in the brown forest
soil regions seem to have some influence on the type of
brown forest soils formed. Under the influence of a more
humid climate, such as the Af climate in the mountains
of West Java, leaching of the soil is comparatively more
pronounced than for that of the soils located in Am cli-
mates. The latter are the monsoon climates prevalent in
69071.indb 302 4/25/08 10:42:57 AM

Table 7.2 The Climate of Brown Forest Soils in Indonesia

Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
West Java
Bogor 266 0.3 11.5 4230 Afa A Latosol
Ciapus 540 0.1 11.8 4880 Afa A
Pondok Gedeh 900 0.4 10.1 3644 Af A Brown Forest
Mandalawangi 1800 0.6 10.6 4201 Cfi A Brown Forest
Salak Volcano 2211 0.0 11.1 5467 Cfi A Gray-Brown

Podzolic
East–Central Java
Tasikmadu 100 3.5 7.5 2265 Ama C Latosol
Karangpandan 600 3.7 7.6 2776 Ama C Brown Forest
Tawangmanggu 950 3.1 8.0 3194 Am C Gray-Brown
Sarangan 1290 3.4 7.7 2533 Cfhi C Podzolic

month >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; i = hot sum-
mer; m = monsoon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest month
between 18°C and −3°C.
the mountains of Central and East Java. Consequently,

brown forest soils with acidic reactions tend to be
formed in West Java, which are called acid brown forest
soils (Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1959; Van Schuylen-
borgh, 1957). On the other hand, the more traditional
brown forest soils, as defined in the United States, have
been developed more in the monsoonal Am climate of
the mountains in Central and East Java. The issue of
forming different soils due to variation in climate is
69071.indb 303 4/25/08 10:42:58 AM

perhaps related to the climatic concept in Sweden of

Tamm (1930), who proposed a division in climatic and
aclimatic brown forest soils. The climatic types of brown
forest soils are formed on parent materials poor in cal-
cium, under a beech and oak forest. They are readily
podzolized whenever the vegetation changes into a
heath or coniferous forest. The aclimatic type of brown
forest soil is formed on calcareous parent material or
on parent material enriched with calcium from seepage
water. This kind of brown forest soil is more stable and
allegedly will not be influenced by a heavy stand of a
conifer forest.

According to the original concept as proposed by Blanck
(1930), the braunerde or brown forest soil is character-
ized by a dark-colored topsoil, rich in mull-type humus
and possessing a crumb structure. Underneath the
topsoil lies a brown horizon, considered the “proper”
braunerde, and one or more other B-types of horizons.
They may have varying degrees of rusty mottlings and
varying amounts of sesquioxides or clays. The structure
of the B horizons is mostly angular blocky to granular,
whereas the structural units are often porous. To this
description the following was recently added by the
U.S. Seventh Approximation (Soil Survey Staff, 1960)
and the more recent U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 2006a). The soils should not have a bleached (albic)
E horizon and an illuvial Bt horizon.
Following the definitions above, two types of modal
profiles can be recognized in Indonesia. Based on color
69071.indb 304 4/25/08 10:42:58 AM

differences, a light-colored and a dark-colored variety

have been noticed in Indonesia. As an example, one of
a lighter-colored profiles is presented below (Tan and
Van Schuylenborgh, 1959):
Brown Forest soil at Tawang Manggu

(East–Central Java). The profile is
located in an area at an elevation of
1250 m above sea level. The vegetation
is a tropical rain forest. Color notation
refers to air-dry and field-wet samples,
respectively.

0 1–0 Litter layer.
Al 0–15 10YR 5/2 to 10YR 3/2, brown to
very dark gray-brown, strong
medium granular, silt loam, friable,
composed of predominantly earth-
worm cast.
A2 15–34 10YR 4/1 to 10YR 2/2, dark gray to
very dark brown, strong fine crumb,
silt loam, very friable, many roots.
B1 34–45 10YR 5/3 to 7.5YR 3/2, brown to
dark brown, weak fine crumb, silt
loam, friable, many roots.
B2 45–75 10YR 6/3 to 7.5YR 4/4, pale brown
to brown, strong fine subangular
blocky, silt loam, friable, few roots.
69071.indb 305 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM

B3 75–114 10YR 6/6 to 10YR 5/4, brownish-

yellow to yellowish-brown, weak
medium subangular blocky, silt
loam, friable, few roots.
C +114 10YR 7/3 to 10YR 5/3, very pale
brown to brown, massive, silt loam,
no roots.
As can be noticed, the color is brown throughout

the profile and especially in the deeper horizons. No
mechanical illuviation of clay is noticed, whereas bleach-
ing in the subsurface horizon is absent. Due to the very
dark grayish-brown (10YR 3/2) color of the topsoil, this
soil is often mistaken for andosols.

The soils were classified in the USDA system as intrazonal
soils (Thorp and Smith, 1949), but they are grouped as
zonal soils in Western Europe and still are today in East-
ern Europe (Karpachevsky et al., 2006). They are called
brown forest soils by the Macaulay Land Use Research
Institute, Kelso, England, braunerde in Germany, sol
brun in France, and by other names in Hungary and
Russia, such as brown earth, luvisols, planosols, areno-
sols, and alisols (Karpachevskiy et al., 2006). In the past,
the name brown earth was often used in parts of Western
Europe, whereas at one time, the soils were classified
as phaeozems and castanozems by the older FAO-
UN system. In the WRB, brown earths are mapped as
luvisols, whereas several British and French scientists
call the latter sol brun lessivé, due to the presence of a
69071.indb 306 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM

weakly argillic horizon. The latter is often not apparent

to a casual soil surveyor. With the introduction of the
U.S. Soil Taxonomy, several of the soil scientists in the
United States tried earlier to place brown forest soils
in the alfisols and mollisols orders. But today they are
recognized as inceptisols.
The brown forest soils are considered in general the
early stages in development of podzolic soils. This is
perhaps one reason why a group of soil scientists tried
to classify them as brown podzolic soils, which according
to several other scientists may be related to the sol brun
acides of France. Though some grouped them into the
alfisols, most soil scientists, however, consider them to
be soils in a transitory state of formation from a young to
a mature soil. Therefore, the names cambisols (from the
Latin cambiare = to change) and inceptisols (from Latin
inceptum = beginning) are given by the FAO, WRB, and
U.S. Soil Taxonomy, respectively. Classifying brown
forest soils as cambisols or inceptisols may raise a lot of
arguments, because many soil scientists believe that the
soils are not in the beginning phase of formation as the
key terms “cambiare” and “inceptum” want to convey.
Brown forest soils have well-defined A, B, and C hori-
zons, whereas the B horizons, though lacking argillic
features, are as mature as any other B horizons. In the
German literature, the term podzol‑braunerde has been
used frequently, which was believed to be similar to a
brown podzolic soil. The description presented by Alte-
müller (1962) for a podzol-braunerde approaches the
concept of the brown podzolic soils in the United States.
Krebs and Tedrow (1957) have reported the occurrence
of acid brown forest soils in northern New Jersey and
69071.indb 307 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM

northern New York, which at the time were officially

classified as brown podzolic soils. The opinion that the
soils are in a transformation stage of becoming brown
podzolic soils remains a speculation. None of this
group of soils has been noticed to convert into brown
podzolic soils. The Canadian soil taxonomy used at one
time the name brunisols, replacing the name brunizems,
which would have placed brown forest soils as a subor-
der of mollisols. This has been phased out and is now
no longer in use.
In Indonesia, little attention is given to brown for-
est soils, and their classification is therefore often
neglected. In the Dutch colonial time, the soils were
grouped together under the name of mountain soils.
However, during the post-World War II period, the few
remaining Dutch soil scientists reported that some of
these mountain soils should, in fact, be classified as
brown forest soils. Van Schuylenborgh (1958) and Van
Schuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955) described
the occurrence of brown forest soils in the uplands and
especially in the mountains of Indonesia. Based on soil
pH and soil genetic processes, they believe that the soils
can be classified into three different kinds of brown for-
est soils:
1. Brown forest soils, characterized by moderately

acid reactions, and formed by a combination of
podzolization and calcification processes. Such
soil-formation processes are possible only at
higher elevations with a cooler and monsoon, Am,
climate.
69071.indb 308 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM

2. Acid brown forest soils, characterized by strongly

acidic reactions, and formed by podzolization pro-
cesses. The latter occur mainly in the cooler and
humid conditions of an Af climate. These are the
soils that have been argued to be brown podzolic
soils.
3. Latosolic brown forest soils, characterized by neu-
tral to slightly acidic reactions, and formed by a
combination of podzolization and laterization pro-
cesses. These are the upland soils believed by the
author to border the zones of the latosols.
During the same period above, the Soil Research

Institute of Indonesia began to classify all soils in the
mountains as andosols, although no mention is made of
andosols in their current exploratory soil map (Figure
1.2, page 16, Chapter 1). Since the Institute has adapted
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy, the brown forest soils are per-
haps placed today in the inceptisols order.

The data in Table 7.3 indicate that brown forest soils are
medium- to heavy-textured soils. The texture is mostly
silt loam, and the example of silty clays is from an acid
brown forest soil. The latter is located at lower eleva-
tions of West Java in regions, formerly called tension
zones, defined earlier as regions where lateritic weath-
ering and podzolization are both important processes
in formation of the soils. The laterization process and
resulting higher clay content are the reasons for Van
69071.indb 309 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM


Brown Forest Soils
C
Horizon N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Brown Forest Soil, Arjuna Volcano, East Java

A1 28.3 60.4 11.3 5.69 10.0 — —
A2 34.7 55.5 9.8 5.74 7.5 — —
B 38.3 53.4 8.3 5.77 2.8 — —
Brown Forest Soil, Lawu Volcano, Central Java

A1 12.0 79.1 8.9 7.08 20.0 0.86 23
A2 16.1 71.5 12.4 7.15 15.8 0.62 25
B1 18.5 69.0 12.5 6.94 9.9 0.55 18
B2 17.3 71.7 11.0 6.66 8.3 0.48 17
B3 15.9 74.6 9.5 6.53 5.7 0.33 17
C 29.9 51.1 19.0 6.18 3.1 0.13 23
Acid Brown Forest Soil, Salak Volcano, West Java

A1 — — 40.3 4.52 3.0 0.25 12
A2 — — 42.1 4.62 2.3 0.19 12
B1 — — 39.2 4.24 0.9 0.08 11
B2 — — 28.3 4.72 0.7 0.08 8
C — — 8.3 4.82 0.3 0.04 8
Schuylenborgh (1957) to call this particular soil Latosolic

Brown Forest Soil. The two other soils are located at higher
elevations, where the rate of laterization is less than that
69071.indb 310 4/25/08 10:43:00 AM

of podzolization. The trend in clay contents with depth

in the two profiles is always in decreasing order, which
is in support of the concept of brown forest soils. As
indicated earlier, one of the general requirements for
brown forest soils is a lack of mechanical illuviation of
clays. The decrease in clay contents with depth in the
soil suggests that the clay fraction of brown forest soils
is in an immobile state. This will be discussed in more
detail in the next section.

The pH of the brown forest soils is in the range of 4.5
to 7.2 (Table 7.3). On the basis of variation in soil pH,
the soils can be divided into two groups: brown forest
soils with slightly acidic to moderately acidic reactions
(pH 7 to 5) and brown forest soils with strongly acidic
reactions (pH 5 to 4). The strongly acidic condition is
the reason for calling the latter acid brown forest soil,
though Van Schuylenborgh (1957) prefers to name it lat-
osolic brown forest soils. This soil is perhaps equivalent
to the acid brown earths or sol brun acids as defined by
Cline (1955).
A pH range of 4.5 to 7.2 suggests generally the pres-
ence of a moderately to high base status—in other
words, the clay fraction is more likely saturated with
bases, promoting flocculation of clay particles. In a floc-
culated state, the clays are prevented from migration
from A to B horizons. Most of the clays are then accu-
mulated in the A horizons, which is the reason for the
decreasing clay content with depth in the profile. This
is directly opposite to the trend found in latosols and
in podzolic soils. Especially in the latter, podzolization
69071.indb 311 4/25/08 10:43:01 AM

facilitates mobilization of clays from A to B horizons,

giving rise to formation of argillic or Bt horizons.
The high organic matter contents, especially in the A
horizons of the soils of the Arjuna and Lawu volcanoes,
give the soil the dark colors, usually seen in andosols.
This is then the reason, as stated before, why the soils
are often confused for andosols.

According to Van Schuylenborgh (1958), the clay frac-
tions of brown forest soils are composed of amorphous
minerals, today called paracrystalline clays (for example,
allophane), with admixtures of kaolinite, some smec-
tite, hydrargillite, and α-crystoballite. Hydrargillite
is the European name for gibbsite, and its occurrence
is usually used to indicate the presence of highly oxi-
dized soils or pedogenetically older soils. On the other
hand, the presence of α-crystoballite is used to indicate
the presence of soils of relatively young age and volca-
nic of origin. Van Schuylenborgh also reported that the
hydrargillite content increased with depth in the soils
at higher altitudes as compared with the soils located
at lower elevations. However, the mineralogical data of
the soil sand fractions, as presented in Table 7.1, show
a different trend in the hydrargillite concentrations. It
is true that the presence of clay minerals (particles <2
mm) does not necessarily need to correlate with their
occurrence in the sand fractions (particles >50 mm), but
it is interesting to note the contrasting differences. The
mineral counts of the sand fractions indicate that the
brown forest soils in East and Central Java, both located
at 1200 m above sea level, do not contain hydrargillite.
69071.indb 312 4/25/08 10:43:01 AM

The hydrargillite concentrations of the sand fractions

are zero from A to C horizons. This is in contrast with
the acid brown forest soil located at 600 m above sea
level, which exhibits fair amounts of hydrargillite. Its
concentration appears to increase with depth in the
profile. Results of differential thermal analysis (DTA)
of a brown forest soil at Pasir Madang (West Java), also
located at approximately 600 m above sea level, seem
to support the above. The DTA thermogram (Figure 7.1)
exhibits a strong endothermic peak at 300°C, indica-
tive of the presence of large amounts of gibbsite or
hydrargillite. The very strong endothermic peaks at
200 and 550°C are presumably caused by the presence
of halloysite, a “relative” of kaolinite (MacKenzie, 1956).
All the above confirm the idea that oxidation, and hence
laterization, is more prevalent in brown forest soils at
lower (Pasir Madang) than at higher altitudes.

The slightly acid to neutral reactions exhibited by most
of the brown forest soils are well within suitable limits
for growing a variety of crops. Judging from the immo-
bility of the clay fractions, the base saturation of the soils
is expected to be high, as explained earlier. In view of
the pH range from 5.7 to 7.2, the bases are more likely to
be calcium and magnesium. Only the acid brown for-
est soil variety is characterized by strongly acid con-
ditions, which may suggest the presence of substantial
amounts of aluminum ions, saturating the clay com-
plex. The soils are extremely high in organic matter,
69071.indb 313 4/25/08 10:43:01 AM

(1)
(2)
°C
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Figure 7.1 Differential thermal analyses (DTA) curves of

clay fractions from (1) B1 horizon of an acid brown forest soil,
Pasir Madang, and A1 horizon of a gray-brown podzolic soil,
Tangkuban Prahu Volcano, West Java.
which is expected to affect favorably the physical and

chemical conditions for plant growth. The vegetation,
which is the tropical broad-leaf rain forest, composed
of trees, such as the Quercus sp. (oak) and Castanea sp.
(chestnut), is the main source for the bases. As is the
case with a broad-leaf deciduous forest of temperate
69071.indb 314 4/25/08 10:43:01 AM

regions, the litter accumulated under this tropical for-

est is not as acidic as that under a conifer forest. It is
rich in bases that will be released into the soil by the
constant decomposition processes. As long as a forest
cover is present, the trees will maintain the thickness
of the litter covering the ground. This litter is also an
important factor for nutrient cycling that can maintain
the fertility level of these soils for years to come.

The analytical properties show the soils to exhibit a
wide range of fertility levels. They are generally fertile
soils, but in some instances they can be very poor soils,
as is the case with the acid brown forest soils. Due to
their location in the uplands, characterized often by a
strong relief and climatic conditions favorable for creat-
ing heavy showers, the poorer soils are more suscep-
tible to erosion than are the more fertile soils. For good
crop production, the acid brown forest soils need to be
limed heavily in addition to treatments with fertilizers
(Massey et al., 1963). However, the strongly acidic reac-
tion may prove to be beneficial for growing potato crops,
because acid conditions are known to control potato-
scab disease, increasing the quality of the crops. When
liming is necessary, dolomitic limestone, CaMg(CO3)2, or
gypsum, CaSO4, should be used, which are neutral lim-
ing materials and expected not to raise soil pH. Judging
from the pH levels, the other brown forest soils with
slightly acid to neutral reactions may not need liming
at all, but in case lime is needed, similar neutral liming
materials should also be applied, as suggested for the
acid brown forest soils. The pH of these more fertile
69071.indb 315 4/25/08 10:43:02 AM

soils is already in the proper range for growing most

crops. The high organic matter contents favor develop-
ment of bulk density, soil consistence, and permeabil-
ity of water and air suitable for plant growth. The soil
is generally porous and very friable, factors ensuring
excellent conditions for good root growth.
The climate in which the soils occur is also cooler than
in the lowlands. Such a condition enables the cultivation of
tropical as well as temperate region crops, hence provid-
ing farmers with a larger choice in the variety of crops.

Whenever possible and where water is available for
irrigation, farmers in Indonesia prefer using the land
for cultivation of lowland rice in inundated fields,
called sawahs. Because this has been discussed in pre-
vious sections on oxisols, ultisols, red Mediterranean
soils, and vertisols, paddy-rice cultivation will not be
addressed here, rather attention will be given below
on other equally important crops, such as horticultural
crops and fruit trees, though the latter are often planted
in backyard orchards. Tea (Thea sinensis) also starts to
grow in upland conditions, though the larger and best
tea plantations are usually located at higher elevations
in the mountain regions of Indonesia. Another impor-
tant crop doing well on these upland soils is the nut-
meg tree, producing the important nutmeg and mace,
spices sought after since 1500 and before by Portuguese
and Dutch merchants. These regions with brown for-
est soils also support many stands of forest, exploited
by civil and governmental enterprises for timber and
firewood production. In West Java, attention has been
69071.indb 316 4/25/08 10:43:02 AM

given to growing Albizia trees, a fast-growing legume

tree with rather soft wood for lumber and as a fuel crop.
The trees are proven to be very valuable for soil conser-
vation practices of upland soils with their strong relief
(Agus, 2001). Finally, conditions in the uplands can be
favorable for dairy farming; however, the best dairy
farms are still located in the more cooler highlands or
mountain regions.
7.3.6.3.1 Horticultural crops. The upland is the

region for the start of growing temperate region veg-
etables. Because of a cooler climate, mountain crops,
such as cabbages (Brassica oleracea), potatoes (Solanum
tuberosum), lettuce (Lactuca sativa), green onions (Allium
fistulosum), carrots (Daucus carota), tomatoes (Solanum
lycopersicum), and other cool region crops start to flour-
ish. Because they bring in top prices, the crops are
favored next to growing rice.
7.3.6.3.1.1 Cabbages In the past, most cabbages

were grown in mountain regions, often at a distance too
far from big towns where the major marketplaces were
located. Today, new improved hybrid varieties have
been developed that will produce at lower altitudes,
such as in the uplands of Indonesia, which are closer to
available markets. Pests and diseases that may increase
at lower elevations are controlled by the Indonesian
program called integrated pest control. This method has
allegedly reduced the use of insecticides by 30 to 50%,
which means a substantial savings for the farmers
considering the high cost of these chemicals. At lower
altitudes, cabbages seem to be prone to the club-root
69071.indb 317 4/25/08 10:43:02 AM

disease by Plasmodiaphora brassicae that can decrease

cabbage yields allegedly by 80% or almost totally. For-
tunately, the disease can be controlled effectively by
treating the soil with the fungicide benomyle-50% and
by sterilizing the nursery soil.
The cabbage yields in West Java vary from 23 to 20 tons/
ha per year, as reported by the Badan Pusat Statistik or
Bureau of Statistics of Indonesia for the period of 2000 to
2004. Selling at 1000 to 1500 rupiahs/kg (= $0.10 to $0.15
per kg), the wholesale price offered by the middleman, it
is providing farmers with a handsome income by Indo-
nesian standards. The retail price housewives have to
pay at a Jakarta marketplace is, however, Rp. 6000/kg.
For long-distance transport of the cabbages to market-
places, proper postharvest handling, such as applying
silica-gel paste or a 30% alum solution to the cabbage
base, has proven to cut substantially the amount of
damages and losses due to base-rot and leaf-trimmings
during storage and shipping (AARD, 1986). Such post-
harvest treatment is often applied for the export of cab-
bages overseas, when shipping by air freight is required
to reach, for example, marketplaces in Singapore. This
happens when cabbages, grown in Brastagi on the slope
of Mount Sibayak, are transported to Medan, North
Sumatra, to catch the plane for Singapore. However, in
local transportation from the mountainside to major
population centers on the foot of the mountains, farm-
ers seldom pay attention to these treatments. The pro-
duce is transported in the wee hours of the morning by
small trucks, often dangerously overloaded, to a relay
station close to the borders of towns, where a second
tier of middlemen and vendors are vying at 5:00 a.m.
69071.indb 318 4/25/08 10:43:02 AM

to bring the fresh produce to their final destinations at

several marketplaces in town.
7.3.6.3.1.2 Potatoes The cultivation of pota-

toes is traditionally conducted only higher up in the
mountain regions. However, with the cooperation of
the Southeast Asian Program for Potato Research and
Development (SAPPRAD) and the Centro Internacional
de la Papa (CIP), potato-growing areas are moved from
the highlands to the upland regions. Proper selection of
potatoes has produced varieties that are well adapted
for growing readily at lower elevations and producing
good yields. Due to the extremely high organic mat-
ter content, the ensuing friable soil condition, low bulk
density, and other favorable soil physical properties
lend themselves very well to proper tuber growth and
development. By growing the potatoes at lower eleva-
tions, intercropping with sugarcane was made possi-
ble (AARD, 1986). At higher elevations, the weather is
too cold for sugarcane. Such an intercropping method
proves to be a great success by providing a welcome
additional benefit to the farmer’s income. The potato
yield is reported to be 22 tons/ha, in addition to a yield
increase of 13 tons/ha of sugarcane when grown as
intercrops (AARD, 1986). Apparently, the fertilizer appli-
cations to the potato plants also benefit the sugarcane
crops. The potato yield above is on the high side when
compared to yields of 16 to 20 tons/ha, as recorded in
West Java by the Indonesian Bureau of Statistics for the
period of 2000 to 2004. Nevertheless, judging from the
yield and the middleman wholesale price of Rp. 4000
to 5000/kg, these potatoes are bringing in a respectable
69071.indb 319 4/25/08 10:43:02 AM

income for many farmers. The retail price at local mar-

ketplaces in Jakarta is 7000 rupiahs/kg (or $0.70/kg),
which differs slightly from prices at U.S. supermarkets,
where Idaho Russet potatoes are selling at present for
$1.00 to $2.00/kg.
7.3.6.3.1.3 Tomatoes The climate of the upland

is apparently just right for the cultivation of tomato
plants, though the amounts of rain are reportedly cre-
ating problems. The weather is not too cold, but cool
and still warm enough for growing tomatoes. Culti-
vation by direct seeding of local varieties (e.g., berlian)
in the field results in plants producing 15 tons/ha of
tomato fruits (AARD, 1986). By germinating seeds in
nurseries and transplanting 20-day-old seedlings, the
yield of tomatoes was reported to increase to 20 tons/
ha. Apparently, yields of tomatoes have been improved
since then, because the Indonesian Bureau of Statistics
recorded tomato yields of 21 to 28 tons/ha in West Java
for the period of 2000 to 2004.
When tomatoes are planted during the rainy season,
most of the plants seem to be affected by failure in set-
ting fruits and by prematurely aborting their fruits. In
addition to breeding new resistant varieties for control-
ling the harmful effect of heavy rains, plants are now
suggested to be grown in DIY (Do-It-Yourself) plas-
tic greenhouses, the size of small tents. Not only are
the tomato yields increased, but the DIY greenhouse
method has practically controlled all fruit damage
(AARD, 1986). By reusing the plastic greenhouses the
following seasons, which relates to a substantial sav-
ings in production cost, farmers are reportedly able to
69071.indb 320 4/25/08 10:43:03 AM

sell their products at relatively profitable prices. The

tomatoes are currently selling at Rp. 1700 to 3500/kg, as
accepted by middlemen in the field. At the markets in
Jakarta, consumers are paying around 8000 rupiahs/kg
or approximately $0.80/kg. Compared to prices at U.S.
supermarkets, where tomatoes are selling now for $4.00
to $6.00/kg, tomatoes are inexpensive in Indonesia.
7.3.6.3.1.4 Fruit crops Among the fruits grown,

usually as backyard gardening, only those that can
adapt to the cooler climate will thrive in the uplands. For
example, coconut trees are doing poorly at higher eleva-
tions as do other lowland fruit crops, such as mangoes
and guavas. However, different types of bananas can
be grown in the uplands. The lowland bananas, called
pisang ambon, and another variety called pisang raja, tend
to struggle growing in the cooler climate of the uplands
but may eventually become adapted to the cooler con-
ditions. Nevertheless, they find strong competition
from a mountain variety, known locally as pisang ambon
lumut. This variety is most adapted for the upland and
mountain regions and will not do well in the lowlands.
The pisang ambon (pisang means “banana”) is the slen-
der yellow type of banana, similar to that found in U.S.
supermarkets. It is not known by the author whether
the name ambon has any relationship with the island
Ambon in the Moluccas. The pisang raja (raja means
“king”) is more of a “chubby”-type banana with orange
flesh, presumably rich in carotine. On the other hand,
the pisang ambon lumut (lumut means “mold, algae”)
has a green skin that, when ripe, is dotted by brown-
ish-black spots. The spots are apparently a genetically
69071.indb 321 4/25/08 10:43:03 AM

inherited characteristic of the banana and are not a sign

of being overripe. They give the illusion of molds or
algae growing on the skin, and hence the name lumut
is given by the local people. The spots could perhaps
be molds growing on the skin surface, but no investi-
gations have been conducted to confirm this, because
they are harmless and the pisang tastes as good as any
banana.
7.3.6.3.1.5 Estate crops The estate crops culti-

vated on the brown forest soils of the upland are those
adapted for growing well in cool, humid region climates.
Tea (Thea sinensis), traditionally a mountain crop, is one
of the crops that starts to become of importance at the
elevation of the upland. It is cultivated here in relatively
small plantations, whereas among the industrial crops,
albizia trees (Albizia chinensis or falcata) are planted for
firewood and cheap timber or for soil conservation on
steep terrain. Rubber and oil palm will not grow and
produce poorly in upland climates. They are the crops
adapted to the warm humid lowlands. Another crop
stated earlier as being ideal for cultivation in upland
conditions is the nutmeg.
7.3.6.3.1.6 Tea crops Most of the large and better

tea plantations are still found higher up in the moun-
tain regions (Figure 7.2). In the uplands, the estates are
relatively smaller and are frequently found in the form
of locally owned small tea farms. These smallholder tea
estates were called bevolkingsthee (for Dutch: tea grown
by the people) in the Dutch colonial time. It started in
1880 in the regions of Cicurug and Cibadak, on the
69071.indb 322 4/25/08 10:43:03 AM

Figure 7.2 One of the better tea estates in the Pengalengan

Highlands, often used to showcase a well-maintained tea
plantation.
hills of the Gedeh-Pangrango volcanoes in West Java,

where the few large tea plantations present, owned by
Dutch companies, were providing free tea seeds to sur-
rounding local farmers. The conditions were that the
tea shoots produced by the local folks must be sold to
the Dutch estates that gave them the seeds. It appeared
to be a great success, because these small tea enter-
prises have since then spread out over the whole Prian-
gan tea region in West Java, and the method seems to
be copied by other enterprises, such as in the produc-
tion of oil palm, coffee, and other estate crops. Most of
the tea grown on the small estates is Assam-tea, or tea
that originated from Assam, India. Many of the older
tea plantations owned today by smallholders originate
69071.indb 323 4/25/08 10:43:04 AM

from these old stock and are, therefore, composed of

very old tea bushes. Though cross-breeding at the Gam-
bung Tea Research Institute near Bandung in West Java
has produced new clones with higher yield potentials,
replanting is generally a very big chore for local farm-
ers. It also means a decreased or loss of income for the
small farmers for at least a couple of years. The yields
of replanted tea farms remain small for a year or two
and will reach maximum production only after 6 to 8
years. One locally owned tea farm in Sukanegara, south
of Cianjur, West Java, visited in 2005 and 2007 by the
present author, still registered satisfactory yields of tea
shoots from his more than 25-year-old tea bushes. The
total monthly yield of fresh tea leaves amounting to 937
kg/ha, as reported at the tea farm at Sukanegara, gives
an annual average yield of fresh shoots of 11,250 kg/ha.
At a selling price of 900 rupiahs per kg, the above yield
provides the owner with a cool annual income of 10.125
million rupiahs, which translates only to $1,012.50 (at a
rate of $1.00 to Rp. 10,000). Though it seems like a whole
lot of money, a middle-income family of four (with two
children) needs approximately 40 to 50 million rupiahs
for living comfortably in Indonesia.
The harvest of fresh young shoots is either sold to
larger estates for processing in the factory into mainly
black tea, or used by the farmers for the production of
green tea. In either case, the fresh leaves will yield on
the average 22 to 25% factory-processed dry tea. Black
tea was and today still is produced for export only in
the large tea estates, such as the famous orange pekoe tea.
Some of this high-quality tea has today found its way
for sale at local stores for use in domestic consumption.
69071.indb 324 4/25/08 10:43:04 AM

On the other hand, green tea is produced mostly for

local trade and consumption. The method of processing
into green tea has been carried over, allegedly, from the
Chinese people (Van Hall, 1950), since in the Dutch pre-
World War II period, no relationship was established yet
with Japan, where green tea is a very important prod-
uct. The Japanese influence started with the Japanese
occupation of Indonesia during the start of World War
II. Green tea is traditionally mixed with culan flowers
(Aglaia odorata) or jasmine (Jasminum sambac or Garde-
nia augusta) to give the final product the characteristic
aroma when mixed with boiling water. It is sold under
the name of jasmine tea at nearby marketplaces.
7.3.6.3.1.7 Albizia crops This is a tree crop of

the legume or Mimosaceae family, known scientifically
as Albizia falcata or A. falcataria. The term falcata (mean-
ing “sickle-like”) refers to the curved leaflets. The tree
is a native of the Moluccas and is often also called
Albizia moluccana. Locally, it is called jeungjing, albesia,
kayu sengon, or jati putih. The latter means white teak,
though it does not carry the strong hardwood features
of teak, rather albizia wood is more a type of soft wood.
The plant is grown more on smallholders’ estates and
only sporadically on estates owned by the government
or industries. In a move to stimulate the Indonesian
government’s Regreening and Reforestation progam, the
Bogor Soil Research Institute tried to encourage small
farmers to grow albizia. The trees are suggested to be
planted on farms with steep terrain, where slopes are
>40% (Agus, 2001).
69071.indb 325 4/25/08 10:43:04 AM

Albizia is at first perhaps transplanted from its native

environment in the Moluccas and Papua for use as shade
trees and for several other soil conservation features
in the Dutch tea, coffee, and cacao plantations in Java
and Sumatra. Because it is a legume, the Dutch planters
believe that as nitrogen fixers, albizia trees may enrich
the soils with nitrogen to the benefit of the tea or cof-
fee bushes. They consider the trees not to compete for
this and other nutrients with the tea or coffee plants,
because of their ability to develop deeper root systems.
The roots are nodulated by Rhizobia and Bradhirizobia
bacteria and reported to host a type of vasicular-arbus-
cular mycorrhizae (VAM). The rate of nitrogen fixed per
year is estimated to amount to 65 to 140 kg/ha (Resh et
al., 2002).
Albizia trees are planted from seeds, harvested from
seedpods growing on the trees. Due to the hard shell,
germination of the seed is often rather difficult. How-
ever, once germinated, the plants are well known for
their very rapid growth, reaching heights of 6 m (18.3
ft) and a trunk diameter of ±5 to 10 cm at the base in
just 1 year. Left undisturbed, they can grow to 25 to 30
m tall and up to 1 m in diameter at the base trunk. The
plants have the capacity to coppice, and sporadically,
they can be harvested in 4- to 5-year cycles from the
regrowth of suckers or new shoots. As indicated above,
cultivation of albizia trees is conducted more on pri-
vately owned lands by small farmers and occasionally
in industry-owned tree estates. Government-owned
estates, on the other hand, are more interested in grow-
ing valuable high-priced hardwood trees, such as teak,
whose growth is limited to the monsoon regions of the
69071.indb 326 4/25/08 10:43:04 AM

lowlands. In the local smallholder plantations, albizia

is also popular as an intercrop. The albizia farms are
considered by many Indonesians as well as Japanese
scientists to be eco-friendly or environmentally friendly,
because trees are harvested from planted farms and
not cut from natural forest stands (Akihito, 2003). If this
is the definition of eco-friendly, then plantations culti-
vated with pine trees by the pulp and paper companies
in the United States and Europe must also fall into the
category of being environmental friendly.
The albizia wood is white and soft and became popu-
lar because of providing cheap, affordable lumber for
building huts in the villages, and all kinds of cheap
furniture, boxes, and light constructions. However, the
wood deteriorates rapidly and is very sensitive to infes-
tation by termites. In Hawaii, it is used for the produc-
tion of matches and matchboxes (Duke, 1983). Albizia
has also attracted worldwide attention as a fuel crop.
It is a renewable resource for the production of cheap
charcoal, though the latter is only of low caloric value.
When burned, it only provides energy to the amount
of 5000 to 7000 kcal/kg. Today, the wood is also con-
sidered useful for the paper and pulp industry and has
the potential of replacing pinewood as the source for
pulp (Duke, 1983). The Department of Forestry in Indo-
nesia tried recently to promote planting albizia on the
east coast of Sumatra in connection with its Pamusiran
project (Van den Eelaart, 2004). In an effort to integrate
this project with the government reclamation programs
of peat areas, reforestation of abandoned peat areas
with albizia trees was suggested. A huge pulp factory
was established in Jambi, capable of using a lot of raw
69071.indb 327 4/25/08 10:43:05 AM

material from albizia trees, planted in the surrounding

areas of reclaimed peat lands that have deteriorated
and been abandoned by the transmigration settlers.
7.3.6.3.1.8 Nutmeg This is one of the crops that

has made Indonesia famous in the past as the Spice
Islands. The nutmeg (Myristica fragans) trees, locally
called pohon pala, are native of the Moluccas. Originally
found by Portuguese sailors and merchants in 1511 on
the Banda islands group, their cultivation later spread
during the time of the Dutch East Indian Company
in the 1600s to Menado, North Minehassa, Sangi, and
Talaud islands, and Bengkulu, Southwest Sumatra.
Many other nutmeg varieties have been reported to
grow wild in other parts of the Moluccas islands. For
example, the Myristica argentea is found in the Bird Head
of West Papua, where it is locally known as papua-nut,
the Myristica succedanea of Halmahera, called halmahera
nutmeg, the Myristica speciosa of Bacan Island, south of
Halmahera, locally called bacan nut, and several others.
Today the crop is also grown in Mauritius, East Africa,
and Grenada, in the Caribbean Islands.
The crop is cultivated mainly by smallholder estates,
owned by local farmers, which is conducted by plant-
ing seedlings. It is, therefore, not a true estate crop, and
Indonesian authorities consider it more as an industrial
crop. Though the trees will grow in the lowlands to
the uplands, they grow apparently best on soils rich in
humus at elevations between 400 and 700 m above sea
level, where the climate is somewhat cooler but still suf-
ficiently humid through the whole year. The tree will
mature and start to yield at 6 to 7 years of age, and will
69071.indb 328 4/25/08 10:43:05 AM

reach maximum production when it is 25 years old (Dei-

num, 1950a). With proper maintenance it may continue
to give high yields for at least 50 more years. In 1930 to
1940, yields of 300 nuts (= 2 to 3 kg dry) and an addi-
tional 600 g mace per tree were considered high, though
today yields of 20 to 30 times that much are called high.
With the new generation of pala trees, yields of 6000 to
7000 nuts/tree/year are perhaps more common today.
The plants are dioecious, requiring the cultivation of
male trees for proper fruit setting by the female plants.
In the past it was customary to also plant wind break-
ers for controlling premature fruit falls by the frequent
storms occurring during the change of wet to slightly
dry seasons, especially on the Banda islands. The
Dutch scientists suggested the use of the tall-growing
Canarium trees (Canarium commune or indicum), known
locally as pohon kenari, because albizia trees, used in
tea estates, provide too much shade, which should be
avoided in nutmeg farms. Some shade is still necessary,
which is provided by the kenari trees that can grow 40
to 50 m tall and produce, as a side benefit, edible, deli-
cious kenari nuts. Though the hulls of the nuts are stone
hard, the soft white nuts inside are consumed not only
by humans but allegedly also by lemurs in the Mada-
gascar rain forest.
The pala or nutmeg fruits are oval or oblong in shape,
like a small lemon. When ripe, they have a yellowish
color and will split open naturally, exposing a brown
nut inside, the nutmeg, covered (coated) by a red-colored
aril-like membrane, called mace (Figure 7.3). The nutmeg,
called locally biji pala, and the mace or fuli (in Dutch),
locally known as kembang pala, are the most valuable
69071.indb 329 4/25/08 10:43:05 AM

A B
Figure 7.3 (A) Ripe nutmeg fruit at almost actual size. (B)

Opened nutmeg fruit showing the seed (the nutmeg), covered
by red-colored mace.
parts as spices. The meat of the fruit (pericarp) is very

sour and tangy and consumed by local people in the
form of candy, called manisan pala (candied nutmeg).
The nutmeg farms are surprisingly less subject to
attack by plant pests and diseases than are the other
estate crops, perhaps due to a variety of natural chemi-
cals contained by the plants. Nutmeg oil is known to
have hallucinogenic properties and is also used even
today for the treatment of toothaches and rheumatic
pain. The only serious disease, known locally as the
clam disease or white-split disease, is the premature split-
ting of fruit pods that can ruin the yield by 50% or more,
because of serious damage to the nuts and mace.
7.3.6.3.1.9 Dairy farming This kind of operation

starts to become important in the upland, due to the
climate becoming favorable for dairy farming. Some
dairy farms can, however, be occasionally found in
69071.indb 330 4/25/08 10:43:06 AM

the lowlands. In this case, they are located close to the

proximity of large towns, where markets and consum-
ers are available for milk and dairy products. How-
ever, the better and more productive farms are located
at higher altitudes, especially in the mountains, where
conditions are the most suitable for this kind of opera-
tion. Milk production is generally lowest in lowland
farms, somewhat higher in upland farms, but highest
in highland farms. The cows, mostly imported from
the Netherlands, have been reported to yield 3098 kg of
milk (per lactation and per head of cattle) on mountain
farms, almost twice that produced on upland farms
(AARD, 1986). More details on dairy farming will be
given in the section on the soils of the mountains.
69071.indb 331 4/25/08 10:43:06 AM

69071.indb 332 4/25/08 10:43:06 AM
chapter eight
Soils in the
mountains of
Indonesia
8.1 Introduction
The discussion in this chapter focuses on the soils
located in the highlands or mountain regions of Indone-
sia at elevations of ≥1000 m above sea level. This region
extends to an altitude of approximately 2400 m or to
the summit of a volcano and includes a high-mountain
region (see Chapter 3, Table 3.3). They cover a substan-
tial part of the surface of the Indonesian archipelago.
In Java alone, they are estimated to cover 21,950 km2,
or 17% of the entire area of the island. The topography
in the mountain regions is steep and very rough and
will obviously promote erosion, whereas the cool cli-
mate may slow rapid weathering processes. The con-
ditions are very favorable for humification, and the
high amounts of humic substances accumulating in
the soils play a dominant role in soil formation. Hence,
podzolization is more prominent, bringing about the
characteristic pattern of mobilization of aluminum,
333
69071.indb 333 4/25/08 10:43:07 AM

iron, and clays due to chelation by humic and fulvic

acids. The processes are called cheluviation and chillu-
viation for mobilization of aluminum and iron in the
form of humometal chelates. Cheluviation replaces the
term eluviation, whereas chilluviation is used for the
process of illuviation or the subsequent accumulation
of humo-Al and humo-Fe chelates in spodic horizons.
The soils also exhibit characteristic structures formed
by mountain granulation, a term used by Mohr (1944), for
their peculiar attributes. It differs somewhat from the
granular structures of the soils in the lowlands (viz.,
oxisols), though some similarities with respect to the
effect of iron can also be noticed. The structural units
are very resistant to the impact of raindrops and have
been designated as pseudosand (Mohr and Van Baren,
1960). Most probably the high content of organic mat-
ter is suspected to play an important role as cementing
material in the formation of these stable structures, in
addition to peptized iron substances. The interaction of
organic matter in particular with paracrystalline clay
and other inorganic soil materials is the big difference
here from formation of soil structures exhibited by oxi-
sols. An example of mountain granulation is shown by
micropedological studies in Figure 8.1. The soil thin
section also indicates the presence of a braunlehm forma-
tion, similar to that defined by Kubiena (1962) in most
of these soils.
The regions covered by the mountain soils have very
important economic and social functions, because
most of the mountain estates or plantations are located
here. Tea, coffee, cinchona (quinine), and other crops
are grown with success, bringing in the desired cash.
69071.indb 334 4/25/08 10:43:07 AM

Chapter eight: Soils in the Mountains of Indonesia 335
Figure 8.1 Soil thin section of an A horizon of a tropical

gray-brown podzolic soil at the slope of the Pangrango-Gede
volcanoes complex (1100 m), showing a loose, friable, dark yel-
lowish-brown (10YR 4/4) matrix, due to the presence of amor-
phous iron oxides. Large amounts of primary minerals can
also be seen imbedded in the soil fabric as uncoated grains.
Despite this fact, relatively little is known about the

soils, and they were formerly grouped together only
under the very broad and meaningless name Mountain
Soils. In addition, several of these soils were in the 1960s
69071.indb 335 4/25/08 10:43:07 AM

mistakenly recognized as andosols by Dudal and Supra-

ptohardjo (1961).
The mountain soils were known and investigated in
pre-World War II time perhaps only by Senstius (1930).
The investigations by Senstius were limited to a few
soil profiles only, of the Lawu volcano, East Java, the
Malabar volcano, West Java, and that of the Banahao
mountain in Luzon, the Philippines. The soil profiles
were all located at elevations of more than 2000 m
above sea level, and Senstius arrived at a conclusion
that the soils were affected by a type of podzolic weath-
ering process; in other words, podzolization is involved
in the formation of these soils. However, in the post-
World War II period, several Dutch scientists started
reinvestigating the mountain soils in more detail,
and many different soil groups were recognized. Van
Schuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955), Tan and Van
Schuylenborgh (1961a), and Tan (1965) have been able
to distinguish andosols, gray-brown podzolic soils,
brown podzolic soils, and podzols. The andosols were
later noted to also occur in the uplands and lowlands
of Indonesia. The brown podzolic soils were considered
by the authors above as a transitional group, formed
just above the zones of gray-brown podzolic soils and
extending to the zones of podzols located at higher ele-
vations. As discussed in Chapter 7, their existence as a
distinct soil group has been questioned in some parts
of the world. The soils are not well known by many
scientists in Western Europe, or they are perhaps con-
sidered as a brown forest type of soil. This chapter will
discuss the gray-brown podzolic soils, brown podzolic
soils, and podzols, the soils affected by podzolization
69071.indb 336 4/25/08 10:43:08 AM

processes. The andosols will be addressed separately

in Chapter 9 because of their different type of forma-
tion and because they may occur in the uplands as well
as in the lowlands. Most of the andosols, however, are
located in the mountain regions of Indonesia.
8.2 Highland alfisols

Highland alfisols were widely recognized in the past as
the gray-brown podzolic soils of North America and Europe
(Cline, 1949; Tavernier and Mückenhausen, 1960), but
they are now called alfisols for reasons described below.
They are apparently important soils under deciduous
and mixed forests of cool humid regions and by U.S.
foresters still identified as gray-brown podzolic soils
(Stearns, 1997). The soils are rather weakly podzol-
ized and in the United States are generally found to
the south of the podzols and brown podzolic zones.
They are generally characterized by distinct A, B, and
C profiles, in which the A horizons show the distinct
effect of cheluviation, whereas the B horizons contain
more clay than either A or C horizons. These effects of
cheluviation and chilluviation seem to be the outstand-
ing characteristics of this group of soils. Based on these
processes, the soils are also known as gray luvisolic or
gray-brown luvisolic soil in Canada (Arocena et al., 2006)
and as soil brun lessivé in the French-speaking part of
Western Europe. In the U.S. Soil Taxonomy, the soils are
placed in the alfisols order, as indicated earlier, because
of the presence of argillic-B horizons and base satura-
tions of ≥35% in the control zones (Soil Survey Staff,
1960, 1975), features resulting from the soil-forming
69071.indb 337 4/25/08 10:43:08 AM

processes stated above. The base saturation of ≥35% was

a diagnostic criterion to distinguish alfisols from ulti-
sols, until this was changed in the current U.S. versions
(Soil Survey Staff, 1990, 2006a). In Indonesia, the gray-
brown podzolic soils are typical mountain or highland
soils. To distinguish this group of zonal soils from the
more lithologically lowland alfisols, discussed in Chap-
ter 6, the name highland alfisols is used in the title above.
A more detailed reasoning will be provided in the sec-
tions below.

In North America, gray-brown podzolic soils are derived
from calcareous parent materials (Cline, 1949). However,
in Indonesia they are found on intermediate volcanic
materials. The mineralogical data in Table 8.1 show the
parent materials to vary somewhat from andesitic to
basalto-andesitic volcanic tuff. The materials from the
Kendeng mountain, West Java, lack quartz and, hence,
are more basic than the other two and may qualify to be
called basalto-andesitic tuff with a hypersthene associa-
tion. It has moderate amounts of gibbsite indicating the
effect of oxidation processes in contrast to the other two
materials from the Wayang and Lawu volcanoes. This
relatively more intense weathering is to be expected in
view of its location at lower elevations than the other
two. The materials from the Wayang volcano possess
small amounts of quartz and can be considered andes-
itic with an olivine association. Large amounts of iron
concretions were detected, but no gibbsite was found in
A and B horizons. The parent material from the Lawu
69071.indb 338 4/25/08 10:43:08 AM

69071.indb 339
Table 8.1 Mineralogical Composition of Gray-Brown Podzolic Soils
Composition in Total Sand Fraction Heavy Fraction
Green. Iron. Rock. Green. Brown.
Andesine Horn-. Hyper-. Volcanic. Gibb-. Concre-. Fragments. Horn-. Horn-. Hyper-.
Horizon Quartz Labradorite blende sthene Augite Olivine Glass site tions Opaque blende blende sthene Augite
Kendeng Mountain, Leuwiliang, West Java, 1000 m

A1 — 31 — 14 1 — 14 5 — 52 5 3 82 10
A2 — 35 — 14 2 — 12 7 — 31 5 3 85 7
B1 — 38 — 16 1 — 15 5 — 35 2 — 91 7
B2 — 47 — 14 1 — 14 5 — 25 3 1 95 1
C — 48 — 12 – — 12 13 — 46 1 — 96 3
Wayang Volcano, Pengalengan, West Java, 1620 m

A — 20 tr tr 6 1 1 — 23 54 13 — 26 33
A2 2 18 2 1 5 2 tr — 29 55 8 — 34 34
B1 1 13 7 7 11 3 1 — 25 49 14 — 17 33
B2 tr 6 5 9 3 — 1 — 68 31 32 — 51 17
Lawu Volcano, East Java, 1600 m

A1 tr 27 3 6 2 — 32 — 8 21 14 — 59 27
Chapter eight: Soils in the Mountains of Indonesia
A2 — 23 3 3 1 — 43 — 5 21 13 — 62 25
B1 tr 26 3 3 2 — 22 — 19 23 23 — 49 27
B2 1 19 3 7 4 — 9 — 34 21- 20 — 56 24
Sources: Van Schuylenborgh, J. and Van Rummelen, F.F.F. (1955); Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1958); Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1960).
339
4/25/08 10:43:09 AM
volcano is also andesitic tuff with a hypersthene-augite

association. No gibbsite was detected, and the amounts
of iron concretions were substantially smaller than
those of the Wayang volcano.
8.2.2 Climate
Gray-brown podzolic soils are, in general, soils belong-
ing to the cool humid regions of the United States,
normally under a forest cover consisting of hemlock–
northern hardwoods association. They are major forest
soils and extend south to the forests of the Southern
Piedmont and Blue Ridge Mountains in Georgia. In
Maryland, the trees are oaks, maples, hickories, and
sometimes southern white pines mixed with beeches.
In Indonesia, the climatic regions of gray-brown pod-
zolic soils vary according to local conditions. The data
in Table 8.2 indicate that in West Java, characterized
by a continuously humid condition (f), gray-brown
podzolic soils are mainly developed in the temperate
to cool mountain climates (C), but in very few excep-
tions the soil’s occurrence may extend to the relatively
warmer Af climate types of Köppen’s system. On the
other hand, in the monsoon regions (m) of Central and
East Java, the soils are usually formed at higher alti-
tudes as compared to those found in West Java. In the
monsoon regions, the gray-brown podzolic soils occur
more in the cool mountain Cfi climates, and they have
not been detected in Köppen’s Af or Am types of
climates.
69071.indb 340 4/25/08 10:43:09 AM

Table 8.2 The Climate of Gray-Brown Podzolic Soils in

Indonesia
Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
West Java (Humid)
Cigombong 307 1.6 9.0 2417 Afa B Latosol
Podok Gedeh 900 0.4 10.1 3644 Afa A Podz. Latosol
Cipanas 1070 0.9 9.3 2817 Af A Gray Br. Podz.
Salak Volcano 2211 0.0 11.1 5467 Cfi A Gray Br. Podz.
East–Central Java (Monsoon)
Karangpandan 307 3.7 7.6 2776 Ama C Latosol
Tawangmanggu 900 3.1 8.0 3194 Am C Brown Forest
Sarangan 1290 3.4 7.7 2533 Cfhi C Gray Br. Podz.
Tamansari 2480 — — — Cs —

month >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; i = hot
summer; m = monsoon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest
month between 18°C and −3°C; h = coldest month >0°C; s = dry
summer.

Cline (1949) defines gray-brown podzolic soils of New
York as having thin A horizons overlying E horizons.
In almost all cases, this E horizon can be divided into
two sections: an upper part that is yellowish-brown in
color and an underlying part usually pale brown or
grayish-brown in color. The B horizons possess definite
higher clay contents than the A or C horizon, and are
called today argillic, textural, or Bt horizons. In regions
69071.indb 341 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM

farther to the south, Cline (1949) noticed that the second

E horizon is missing, very thin, or completely masked
by organic matter, which is supported by Krebs and
Tedrow (1957), who also reported the occurrence of
gray-brown podzolic soils in New Jersey with only one
brown E horizon.
In Indonesia, gray-brown podzolic soils have similar
morphological characteristics as indicated above. The
following soil profile is presented as an example:
Gray-brown podzolic soil, Lawu vol-

cano, Central–East Java, at an elevation
of 1600 m above sea level (Tan and Van
Schuylenborgh, 1959). The forest veg-
etation is composed of Acacia decurrens,
and the parent material is andesitic tuff.
Drainage is noticed to be perfect. Color
notations below refer to air-dry and
field-moist conditions, respectively.

O 3–0 Litter, mull type.
A1 3–16 2.5Y 4/2 to 10YR 2/1, dark grayish-
brown to black, strong fine suban-
gular blocky to granular, loam, very
friable, abundance of roots.
E 16–34 10YR 6/3 to 10YR 3/4, pale brown
to very dark gray-brown, irregular
platy, silt loam, friable, many roots.
69071.indb 342 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM

Bt1 34–50 10YR 5/4 to 7.5YR 3/2, yellowish-

dark brown to dark brown, weak,
fine subangular blocky, loam, fria-
ble, many roots.
Bt2 50–91 10YR 6/4 to 5YR 4/4, light yellow-
ish-brown to reddish-brown, weak,
medium subangular block to crumb,
silt loam, very friable, very few
roots.
C +91 10YR 5/8 to 6/8, brownish-yellow
andesitic tuff.
Due to local conditions in Indonesia, variations occur

from the soil profile above. The organic matter content
is very high in most gray-brown podzolic soils in Indo-
nesia, as can be noticed from the black color notation
above for the A horizon. The name humic gray-brown
podzolic soil is proposed for this mountain soil variety
to distinguish it from that located at lower elevations.
This is the soil that is also frequently confused for
andosols. The A horizons of gray-brown podzolic soils
located at lower altitudes are only dark brown to dark
grayish-brown in color, though its organic matter con-
tent remains relatively on the high side. The E horizons
are also noticed not to exhibit platy structures, whereas
their colors may vary from light to dark yellowish-
brown. Van Schuylenborgh (1959) suggests using the
name of tropical gray-brown podzolic soil for this variety
formed at lower elevations.
69071.indb 343 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM


As previously discussed, the soils were widely recog-
nized in the world as gray-brown podzolic soils and
mapped as such in the Food and Agriculture Orga-
nization–United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (FAO-UNESCO) soils map of
Western Europe (Tavernier and Mückenhausen, 1960).
In French-speaking countries, the soils are additionally
known under the name sol brun lessivé, whereas in the
German literature the terms parabraunerde and gebleichte
parabraunerde can be found (Altemüller, 1962; Manil,
1962). In Russia, the soils are recognized under quite
different names. Here they are classified as sod-podzolic
soils and derno-pale podzolic soils (Tiurin et al., 1960). It is
apparent from the various names above that the soils
are considered in Europe as weakly podzolized soils.
In the United States, the classification of soils on the
basis of soil-formation processes has unfortunately
been abandoned. With the introduction of a new U.S.
soil classification system (Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 1975),
soils are classified mainly on their morphological fea-
tures. Because of the presence of primarily argillic hori-
zons and a base saturation of ≥35% in the control zone,
gray-brown podzolic soils were grouped at that time
together with other soils (for example, gray wooded soils
and noncalcic brown soils) into one group and well into
the alfisols order. Gray wooded soils are the northern
equivalents of gray-brown podzolic soils, a name often
used in the Canadian soil classification systems. In their
more recent system, the names of gray luvisolic and
gray-brown luvisolic soils have apparently replaced the
69071.indb 344 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM

name gray wooded soils (Arocena et al., 2006). In the more

recent versions of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 1990, 2006a), the requirement for base saturation
of alfisols above has been deleted and makes one won-
der whether this was a misprint or whether one has to
read between the lines in using the criterion of base
saturation for ultisols in this respect? For example, all
other soils with argillic horizons that do not meet the
requirement of a base saturation of ≥35% are not ulti-
sols but alfisols? This is very confusing for scientists in
soil physics, soil microbiology, soil chemistry, and espe-
cially professionals in agricultural sciences, who are
in need of soil classification. They may not be as well-
versed as a soil taxonomist and will not see this kind of
reasoning in the wordy text with its many ifs, eithers,
and ors. It took even the author, as a pedologist, reread-
ing the text several times to realize the context of base
saturation between ultisols and alfisols above, though
he is still not sure yet whether it is right or not because
of the following issue. The provision of a requirement
for base saturation has apparently been moved for use
as a key at the kandic great group level (Soil Survey
Staff, 1990, 2006a). However, the text has been changed
and as it reads now, “have a CEC of 16 cmol (+) or less
per kg clay,” and similarly valid for both the ultisols
and alfisols orders, it is in sharp contrast to the origi-
nal version of a base saturation ≥35% for alfisols. It will
contribute to even more confusion because the kandic
great groups of both the ultisols and alfisols orders are
identified by an exactly similar diagnostic feature.
Judging from the exploratory soil map of Indone-
sia (Chapter 1, Section 1.2.8), alfisols are apparently
69071.indb 345 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM

unknown and hardly recognized in Indonesia. With an

estimated acreage of 52,134 km2 (2.77% of the total acre-
age), the soils rank very low in importance. The Bogor
Soil Research Institute may have included soils other
than gray-brown podzolic soils in the alfisols order.
From the distribution on the soil map, several of the low-
land soils may have been identified as alfisols, which is
apparently based merely on the merits of having argillic
horizons and base saturations ≥35%. The present author
has also made reference in this respect to the presence
of lowland alfisols in Chapter 6. However, the results of
the Dutch and author’s own research indicate the exten-
sive occurrence of alfisols at higher elevations, in acre-
ages far in excess from that outlined in the soil’s map.
These soils are major soils and are considered typical
highland or mountain soils, affected by cheluviation
and chilluviation. Therefore, gray-brown podzolic soils
or alfisols have been formed by distinct podzolization
processes, which is contrary to the lowland alfisols.
Therefore, the present author suggests naming them
mountain or highland alfisols to differentiate them from
the lowland alfisols. The mountain soils can perhaps be
correlated with the udalfs, with further placement pref-
erably as tropudalfs, because they still differ in some
aspects from their soils’ counterpart in the United States
and other temperate regions. The use of trop (for tropics)
prefixes was common in the older U.S. systems of soil
taxonomy, but has unfortunately been deleted in the
current versions. The soils may perhaps be fitted into
the kandiudalf great group. However, such a placement
is less likely to be correct because of the presence of
relatively high pH values and of their contents of more
69071.indb 346 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM

2:1 lattice than 1:1 lattice type of clay minerals, as will

be discussed below. The color of the argillic horizons is
not of the required hue of 2.5YR or redder, but instead
is more toward the yellower 5YR and 10YR; hence, the
soils will not qualify as rhodic great groups of alfisols
either.

The data in Table 8.3 indicate that the gray-brown pod-
zolic soils of Indonesia are medium-textured soils. The
A horizons of the tropical gray-brown podzolic as well
as the humic gray-brown podzolic soils are all charac-
terized by a silt loam texture. The clay content increases
from A to B horizons, which is ascribed to mobiliza-
tion of clay in the form of humo–clay complexes. The
subsequent formation of argillic or Bt horizons is in
conformity of prevailing concepts for placement of
these soils in the alfisols order.

The pH values suggest the soils to be moderately acid
to slightly acid in reaction. A slight tendency can be
noticed that the tropical gray-brown podzolic soils, the
mountain soils at lower elevations, are slightly more
acidic than the humic gray-brown podzolics, the soils
located at higher elevations in the mountains. The A
horizon of the tropical gray-brown podzolic soil has a
pH = 4.8, which places the soil in the category of strongly
acid soils (pH 4 to 5) (Tan, 2005). Cline (1949) made the
observations of the existence of a correlation between
69071.indb 347 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM

Table 8.3 Physicochemcial Characteristics of

Gray-Brown Podzolic Soils
C
Horizon N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Tropical Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, West Java

A 23.0 65.3 11.7 4.80 16.6 — —
E 24.4 63.6 12.0 5.26 10.1 — —
B1 25.6 67.5 16.9 5.48 5.4 — —
Bt 34.7 44.1 21.2 5.80 2.0 — —
C 62.0 25.3 12.7 6.24 0.7 — —
Humic Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, West Java

A1 — — 6.8 6.80 14.6 1.2 12.2
E — — 18.6 6.44 7.1 0.8 10.1
Bt1 — — 23.4 6.48 4.6 0.5 9.2
Bt2 — — 28.4 6.36 3.3 0.4 8.3
B3 — — 34.6 6.18 3.5 0.4 8.8
Humic Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, Central–East Java

A1 — — 11.3 5.69 9.5 0.8 12.0
E — — 11.4 5.99 7.2 0.7 10.2
Bt — — 15.1 6.23 5.5 0.7 7.9
B2 — — 13.1 6.36 2.7 0.4 6.8
Sources: Van Schuylenborgh, J. and Van Rummelen (1955);

Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1958); Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylen-
borgh, J. (1959, 1960).
69071.indb 348 4/25/08 10:43:12 AM

the thickness of E horizons and acidity of gray-brown

podzolic soils in upland New York. He stated that very
thin E horizons were noticed in gray-brown podzolics
with almost neutral reactions (pH = 7 to 6), whereas the
more strongly acidic members (pH < 6) were character-
ized with thick E horizons. Such an observation cannot
be supported presently in Indonesia, where on the con-
trary the reverse may be true. In this respect, the author
has noticed that thick E horizons were found in the
humic gray-brown podzolic soils, with almost neutral
reactions (pH = 6.8 to 6.1) as compared to thin E hori-
zons of the tropical gray-brown podzolic soils where
pH in the solum is in the range of 4.8 to 5.8. The facts
above tend to suggest that the soil pH is not actually
the reason for mobilization of clay particles, but that
humic acids are more likely to be the forces in the pod-
zolization process. As can be noticed from Table 8.3, the
organic matter content is quite high from A to B hori-
zons, and in particular in the A horizons where con-
tents between 9.5 and 17% Corg are detected. Often the
tropical gray-brown podzolic variety exhibits lighter
colors than the humic gray-brown podzolic soils, but
as shown in Table 8.3, the organic matter contents do
not differ much between the two varieties. In this par-
ticular example, the lighter-colored A horizon of the
tropical gray-brown podzolic soil has even the highest
organic matter content.

In the older literature, “mountain soils” were reported
to be characterized by halloysite clay minerals (Hardon,
69071.indb 349 4/25/08 10:43:12 AM

1936b), which finds some support in the more current

literature. Due to more advanced techniques and the
availability of more sophisticated instruments, more
details have been collected in the post-World War II
periods. The clay fractions of gray-brown podzolic
soils appear to also contain substantial amounts of free
iron oxides and amorphous or paracrystalline materi-
als mixed with varying amounts of gibbsite, 2:1 and 1:1
types of clays, and α-crystoballite. In some cases, hallo-
ysite may be absent and seems to be replaced by kaolin-
ite. An example of such a composition is provided in
Table 8.4 for a tropical gray brown podzolic soil of the
Kendeng mountain in West Java. As can be noticed,
the amount of gibbsite tends to dominate the clay frac-
tion. This is followed by nontronite, a 2:1 lattice type of
clay mineral, whereas kaolinite ranks third in amounts.
Alpha-crystoballite and labradorite are primary miner-
als. They are also detected in the clay fraction because
of their sizes at <2 mm, the size of clay minerals. The
occurrence of α-cristoballite is often used as an indica-
tion of the soil’s origin from volcanic material. The clay
mineralogy of the humic gray-brown podzolic soils
of West and Central–East Java (not shown) do not dif-
fer much from the above. In a few cases, the clay frac-
tions of gray-brown podzolic soils may be dominated
by halloysite, as is the case with a tropical gray-brown
podzolic soil of Pujon, East Java. Because of this unique
clay fraction, composed of 90% halloysites, the clay
mineral composition is provided in Table 8.4 for com-
parative purposes. Such a composition lends support
to Hardon’s (1936) findings of halloysite being the char-
acterizing mineral of mountain soils, as stated earlier.
69071.indb 350 4/25/08 10:43:12 AM

Table 8.4 Estimated Mineral Composition (in %) of the

Clay Fractions of Gray-Brown Podzolic Soils in Indonesia
Horizon Halloy- α-Crystob- Gibbsite Kaolin- Nontron- Labrador-
site allite ite ite ite
Kendeng Mountain, West Java

A1 — 10 25 25 30 10
E — 20 30 10 20 20
B — 15 45 5 15 20
Bt — 10 55 5 15 15
C — 1 35 1 25 40
Pujon, East Java

A1 95 5 — — — —
A2 90 10 — — — —
E 90 10 — — — —
Bt 90 10 — — — —
C 60 40 — — — —
Sources: Van Schuylenborgh, J. and Van Rummelen (1955); Tan, K.H.

and Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1959, 1960).
The present author determined by differential thermal

analysis (DTA) the presence of halloysite, mixed with
amorphous or paracrystalline materials and some 2:1
layer types of clays in a gray-brown podzolic soil of the
Tangkuban-Prahu volcano, West Java (see Chapter 7,
Figure 7.1).
69071.indb 351 4/25/08 10:43:13 AM


The pH values are within a suitable range of the growth
requirements of most crops. At the slightly to moderately
acidic conditions, the base saturations were expected to
be above the 35% limit, but results of analyses suggest
the exchange complex to be saturated with less than
10% calcium (Tan and Massey, 1964). The exchangeable
potassium contents (100 ppm K) are usually within the
range normally found in productive agricultural soils.
Available phosphorus (3 ppm P) is in the low range of
standards applied to the Bray test. However, this test
has been calibrated for temperate regions of the United
States and is suggested by the author to be recalibrated
if used for the mountain soils of Indonesia. The more
acidic variety may perhaps have some aluminum accu-
mulated in the Bt horizon, but judging from the soil pH
range of 5 to 6, the chances for subsoil acidity or alumi-
num toxicity are less likely to happen.

In general, this group of soils is fertile and may form
good agricultural and forest lands. Most of the soils are
young volcanic ash soils, and several of the plant nutri-
ents are still locked up in the primary minerals (see
Table 8.1). This perhaps explains the presence of rela-
tively low levels of calcium and other plant nutrients in
soluble forms. Most of them are expected to be supplied
by the decomposition of the litter covering the forest
floor. The mountain vegetation, responsible for produc-
tion of the litter, is composed mostly of hardwood trees
69071.indb 352 4/25/08 10:43:13 AM

(e.g., Quercus sp. or oak, Castanea sp., chestnut or locally

called saninten). The Acacia trees, mentioned in the soil
morphology section, are from reforestation efforts. The
association of broad-leaf trees above is known to pro-
duce base-rich litter. At higher altitudes, close to the
timberline, the hardwood forest may be mixed with
some indigenous coniferous trees, though the litter here
is still not as acidic as that known for coniferous forests
of temperate regions.
The litter layer is also responsible for nutrient cycling
and is also the source for the relatively high nitrogen
contents and extremely high organic matter contents in
the surface soil. In the cool mountain climate, decompo-
sition of the litter produces large amounts of humic and
fulvic acids, which make the A horizons notoriously
black to dark brown in color. This is then why, in the
past, the gray-brown podzolic soils were often confused
for andosols. Due to the high humus contents, bringing
about the mountain granulation, the soils exhibit stable
soil structures and other excellent physical properties for
agricultural and forest activities. They may need proper
fertilization to offset some of the low nutrient contents.
When liming is needed, the use of dolomitic lime
or gypsum is suggested in order not to raise soil pH,
because this is already in the suitable range for most of
the crops.

As indicated earlier, lowland rice cultivation is always of
primary concern all over Indonesia, and this also seems
to be true in the mountain regions. However, rice was
discussed earlier, and its cultivation practices using
69071.indb 353 4/25/08 10:43:14 AM

inundated fields, called sawahs, are the same from the

lowlands to the mountain regions. Hence, more atten-
tion will be given below to some of the vegetable, fruit,
and estate crops, which are very profitable for most of
the farmers and bring in the needed revenues for the
country.
The mountain climate, where the soils are located,
is favorable for growing a great variety of cool region
crops. This is the place where European vegetables are
best cultivated, whereas at limited locations apples,
pears, grapes, and wheat are also grown. The climate
at these elevations is usually too cool for tropical fruit
crops, such as papaya, citrus, and coconut palms. The
upper limits for their proper cultivation are the upland
climate. The citrus, grown on mountain soils, often
yields sour-tasting oranges. The lowland bananas,
called pisang ambon, are also outgrown by the moun-
tain variety that was called pisang ambon-lumut, as
discussed in the agricultural operations of brown forest
soils (Chapter 7, Section 7.3.6.3). Even fish culture, which
is extensively conducted in the lowlands and uplands
with a variety of carp, barbers, and tilapia, cannot be
practiced here as well as it can be in the lowlands. The
water is apparently too cold, but imported fish variet-
ies, such as trout, are seemingly doing well. The moun-
tain regions are also the places where dairy farming
is practiced mostly with imported dairy cows. This is
also the place where the best tea estates and cinchona
and arabica coffee plantations are located. The latter is
internationally known as the famous Java coffee.
69071.indb 354 4/25/08 10:43:14 AM

8.2.6.3.1 Horticultural crops The same types of

vegetables grown on upland soils are also grown here
(e.g., cabbages, potatoes, beans, carrots, and tomatoes).
However, because of a cooler climate, providing better
growing conditions, the yields may often be slightly
higher, whereas the quality of the produce from the
mountain soils tends to be better. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa
or Lactuca indica) and the locally called sawi (Brassica
rugosa), also a leafy green produce, are favored by many
restaurants and supermarkets in town because of their
mountain-grown quality. Stable manure was custom-
arily used in the past for stimulating and raising crop
yields, but today artificial NPK fertilizers seem to be
more common in combination with stable manure.
8.2.6.3.1.1 Apples and grapes These fruit trees

have been grown for a few decades with limited suc-
cess. Often the fruits are too small or their taste is too
tangy or sour. Through breeding and selection, suitable
apples and grapes are produced today in the highlands
of Malang, East Java, meeting market requirements.
Apple plants are normally grown by using buddings,
which is apparently a more rapid method of planting
than using seedlings. The latter usually require approx-
imately 6 months of staying in the nurseries before they
are ready for transplanting in the field. Spraying apple
flowers with growth stimulators to increase fruit yields
is often suggested by researchers of the Agency for
Agricultural Research and Development (AARD, 1986).
The yield increases of 10 to 17% are perhaps too small
to outweigh health hazards, and this method may per-
haps not meet U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
69071.indb 355 4/25/08 10:43:14 AM

(EPA) standards for consumption of the apples in the

United States.
Grapes, called angur in Indonesia, are the other fruit
crops that are gaining in importance. Today they are
mostly grown in Malang, East Java, as table grapes, using
varieties from homegrown efforts in breeding and selec-
tion. The quality of the grape fruits seems to depend
on the period of time allowed for growing and time of
harvest. According to AARD (1986) research reports,
to produce grapes at market standards, the grape vine
varieties, developed under Indonesian conditions, need
105 days for growth after pruning. However, the culti-
vation of grapes still meets a number of difficulties due
to the humid climate of Indonesia. This is also the main
reason for planting grapes in the mountains of East Java
where a dryer monsoon climate, Köppens Am climate,
is present rather than the continuously wet Afa or Af
climate in the West Java mountains. The grape vines
are very susceptible to attack by downy mildew fungus,
especially during the rainy season, which may result in
a total loss. Today, spraying with a fungicide, propineb,
has been suggested to reduce the damage. Postharvest
handling needs also increased attention due to the rapid
enzymatic fermentation of the fruits during long-dis-
tance hauling to reach marketplaces in Surabaya and
especially Jakarta or other distant towns.
8.2.6.3.1.2 Wheat crops Wheat, known locally

as gandum, is an agricultural crop that has been grown
in Indonesia with mixed results since the early days
of the pre-World War II period (Table 8.5). The drive
for wheat cultivation in Indonesia has been revived
69071.indb 356 4/25/08 10:43:14 AM

Table 8.5 Mountain Areas Where Wheat Cultivation in

Indonesia Has Been Reported
Year Location
1790 West Java
1828 Dieng Plateau, Central Java; Tengger, East Java
1849 Timor
1855 Merbabu Volcano Complex
1925 Pengalengan Highlands, West Java
1925 Karo Highlands, North Sumatra
1966 Pengalengan Highlands, West Java
Dieng Plateau, Central Java
Lawang, Malang, East Java
1982 Highlands of Kuningan and Tlekung, East Java
2000 Bogor, West Java;
Mojosari Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB)
Experimental Fields
Boyolali, Salatiga, University of Surakarta
Experimental Fields
Sources: AARD (1981–1986); Bogosari, Berita (2007).
today, presumably out of necessity, by businesspeople

and the wheat flour milling companies. In Indonesia,
as is the case in most other parts of Asia, wheat as a
food crop is not even second to rice. The estimate is
that only 5% of the total wheat flour consumption in
Indonesia is attributed to household use. The industry
uses 30% of all the wheat flour primarily for noodle,
bread, cake, some crackers, and pastry production. The
average Indonesian family needs it for the preparation
of fried food, as additives in cooking, and for making
cookies, some snacks, and cake. Because wheat flour
69071.indb 357 4/25/08 10:43:14 AM

consumption by an average household family was less

than 10 kg/capita, the need for wheat flour has in the
past been satisfied by imports from mostly Australia
and countries around the Pacific. This consumption
is believed to have increased to an estimated 15 kg or
more per capita in 2002, and seems to increase fur-
ther with the years. Due to the considerable rise in
consumption, wheat imports have increased, though
slowly at first, to 1.5 million tons in 1983, more than
twice the 600,000 tons imported in 1973. Wheat flour
import in 1997 was reported to have grown to a whop-
ping 5 million tons (Berita Bogasari, 2007). With these
huge amounts of imports, another issue is cropping up.
Due to the long shipping periods from overseas, most
of the imported wheat flour seems after arrival to be
infected by insects and also exhibits unwanted musty
odors, badly decreasing its quality. All the above were
reasons contributing to a new drive for growing wheat
in Indonesia and processing and milling it domestically
in the country. In this way, wheat flour of high quality
and nutritional value can be produced. In addition, it
may aid in improving and balancing the nation’s econ-
omy. The cool mountain climate is apparently suitable
for cultivation of wheat crops. The growth period for
wheat in Indonesia is 3 to 4 months from seeding to
harvest time, and hence, at least two crops are possible.
Solar radiation and amounts of rainfall are not limiting
factors, as is the case in temperate regions, and will be
around in Indonesia year-long. Several good-yielding
wheat varieties have been imported, such as R-164 from
CIMMYT, HI-784 from India, Lyallpur-73 from Paki-
stan, and UPLW from the Philippines. Test results at
69071.indb 358 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM

several locations in the uplands and mountain regions

show yields from 4.8 to 1.8 tons/ha (AARD, 1986).
8.2.6.3.2 Dairy farming Dairy farming started

in the early days of the pre-World War II period dur-
ing the Dutch colonial time to fill the need for dairy
products for the Dutch people settling in Indonesia. It
was primarily for milk for drinking, and only a minor
fraction is used for processing into cheese. In the old
days, there were only a few farms, which were located
mostly near centers of population where the demand
for dairy products is the highest. Some were estab-
lished at the borders of Jakarta and Surabaya, though
the climate is not compatible with the dairy cattle, com-
posed mostly of imported Holstein-Frisian cows, bred
and raised in the cool climate of the Netherlands. Few
others were more conveniently located in the mountain
regions, such as in Lembang on the slope of the Tang-
kuban Prahu volcano, West Java, or in the Malang high-
land, East Java, and Brastagi, at the slope of the Sibayak
mountain in North Sumatra. By European standards,
the herds were relatively small, and most of these Dutch
farms have been liquidated with the independence of
Indonesia. Very few remainders are still present, like a
locally well-known dairy farm, named De Friesche Terp
in Lembang, West Java, on the slope of the Tangku-
ban Prahu volcano. However, the old Dutch boerderijen
(meaning “dairy farms” in the Dutch language) have
since then been replaced by many new smaller dairy
farms. Owned by local people, these small farms, oper-
ating with only 30 to 40 cows, have been cropping up
within city borders as well as in the countryside. When
69071.indb 359 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM

the Indonesian government started launching its first

5-year development plan for the period of 1969 to 1974
and continued thereafter with second and third 5-year
plans, a system was created to allow participation of
even smaller farms than the ones described above. This
system involves only two to three cows, owned and
raised by an individual farmer not only for milk pro-
duction, but also for production of stable manure (Uotila
and Dhanapala, 2007). Dairy cooperatives were estab-
lished for collecting and processing the milk produced
by these very small farms. The National Union of Dairy
Cooperatives and several private-sector dairy-process-
ing factories later took on the responsibility of adsorb-
ing the gradually increased milk production. Though
both dairy farming systems exist today, the relatively
bigger farms with 30 to 40 cows are more effective
than the smaller individual farms owning 2 to 3 cows.
The latter is to be expected because it is very difficult
to maintain milk production, for example, with only
2 cows. In this respect, one can even hardly consider
them as real dairy farms. The lactation period is not
endless; hence, milk production by these small farms is
somewhat less reliable. The dairy cows are customar-
ily raised in confinement and fed with a daily ration
of rice bran and corn, supplemented generously with
fresh greenery, cut from the surrounding fields and for-
est. They are seldom allowed to roam and graze in the
field, except perhaps where the individual small farmer
has one or two cows. In the latter case, the farmer may
herd the cows daily, grazing the shrubbery and grasses
on empty lots. For an adequate daily supply of green
fodder, the bigger farms usually have a farmhand or
69071.indb 360 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM

two, whose responsibilities are to cut, early in the morn-

ings, fresh greeneries from surrounding forested lands.
The information related above is based mostly on the
current author’s personal experience from his past and
recent connections with dairy farms owned by friends
and relatives.
Milk production is reported always to be higher from
farms located in the mountains of Indonesia than those
in the lowlands. As indicated earlier, the climate in the
mountains is more compatible with the Frisian cows,
who were imported from the cool regions of Friesland,
Holland, or from the United States as done today. Milk
production at a farm in the Bogor uplands, at 250 m
above sea level, is reported to be 1811 kg/lactation/
head, as compared to 3098 kg at farms located at eleva-
tions of 1200 to 1400 m above sea level, in the Lembang
and Pengalengan highlands, West Java (AARD, 1986).
The milk is used by the industry primarily for process-
ing into powdered milk, skim milk, infant and children
formulas, and sweetened condensed milk. However,
some of the fresh milk from the local farms is also sold
for direct consumption, though quite a few people in
Indonesia are apparently not used to milk. Mild stom-
ach disorders often occur after drinking milk. For solv-
ing this problem, dairy goat farming is slowly on the
rise—there is one located in Banjar, West Java.
The domestic cow milk production by the small
farms and cooperatives above can only supply 30%
of the country’s total dairy consumption, whereas the
demand for dairy products in Indonesia has gradually
increased by 10%. This situation necessitates import-
ing dairy products from Australia and New Zealand.
69071.indb 361 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM

Their locations in closer proximity to Indonesia than

the Netherlands, Denmark, or the United States have
a distinct freight advantage. Most of the cheeses are
imported from these countries overseas and with the
availability of refrigeration in freight today, even a vari-
ety of imported cottage cheese and Dannon and Yoplait
yogurt are found currently filling the shelves of major
supermarkets in large cities, like Jakarta.
8.2.6.3.3 Estate crops Tea is one of the major estate

crops in Indonesia. In most of the Western literature,
it is known by the Latin name Thea sinensis. However,
in the Dutch literature and the Dutch estates it is also
called Camellia theifera or Camellia sinensis. The botanical
difference between the two families, Thea and Camelia,
is considered so small that for all practical purposes it is
of no use to divide the tea plant into two families (Van
Emden and Deijs, 1950). The tea plant is not indigenous
in Indonesia and has been imported mostly from India,
Japan, and China. Its cultivation in Indonesia has devel-
oped along two systems: plantation or estate cultivation
and smallholder tea farms systems. The large Dutch tea
estates were developed first and were followed later by
the smaller tea farms. The latter were established, in
fact, as support farms for supplying the larger “mother”
estates with more needed tea leaves. Another difference
is also that tea production at the large estates is gener-
ally for export in the form of black tea, whereas that
from the smallholder farms is more the green tea for
domestic consumption offered at local markets. This
cultivation of tea by the smallholder farms, called ear-
lier bevolkings thee in the Dutch literature, was discussed
69071.indb 362 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM

in Chapter 7, hence this chapter will relate tea cultiva-

tion by the large plantations.
Although early in the 1700s, tea seeds of the Bohea
variety had already been imported to Java from Japan,
the Dutch reports first mentioned germination trials
a few years later in 1728. The first real tea plantations
were developed almost a hundred years later, in 1826,
close to Bogor and in Garut, West Java, and a year later
tea plantations were spread all over the island of Java.
The tea plants were grown from seedlings, germinated
from seed presumably imported from China. At that
time, the plantations were not only very small, but their
tea production was also very small. The first shipment
of tea from Java to Amsterdam in 1835 was reported
to consist of only 200 cases of black tea (Van Emden
and Deijs, 1950). In the early 1900s, tea cultivation also
spread over Sumatra with plants from seed imported
from Assam, India. Most of the tea plants today in Java
and Sumatra originate either from the Indian Assam
variety or the older Chinese Bohea variety, and sponta-
neous natural crossing between the two over the years
has made the distinction at present between Bohea and
Assam tea very confusing.
By origin, tea plants came from humid temperate
regions. For example, Assam, one of the countries of
origin, is located on the hills of the Himalaya mountain
range in India. For this reason, tea plantations are lim-
ited in Indonesia to the cool humid mountain regions
of West Java and Sumatra and are seldom found in East
Java. The monsoon climate in the eastern part of Indo-
nesia, characterized by a long sharp dry season, is less
suitable for tea cultivation. Where rainfall pattern is
69071.indb 363 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM

suitable, tea will grow in the lowlands. However, the

plants require so much shade for protection against
sunburn that the production of tea leaves is drastically
reduced. On the other hand, regions too high above sea
level may also be risky for growing tea due to the sud-
den development of frost and often lower amounts of
sunlight. A sometimes intense radiation of heat into the
air during the day may cause the development of frost
during the night. Depending on the intensity of frost,
the damage to tea plants can be small to very severe.
Plants may recover fully due to damage by light frost,
but may totally be destroyed, requiring replanting,
with the occurrence of severe frost. At high elevations,
the mountain areas in West Java also tend to be covered
early during the day by rain clouds, which of course has
a deleterious effect on shoot growth. The production
and quality of tea are reported to decrease drastically
in plantations receiving less than 3 hours of sunlight
during the day. The best tea plantations are noticed to
be located between 1000 and 1200 m above sea level,
such as the Pengalengan highlands south of Bandung
in West Java.
Tea is grown in the Dutch estates by planting tea seed-
lings in predug pits or holes supplied usually with sul-
fur. Like azaleas, camelias, to which tea is related, tea
plants are acid-loving plants, and the sulfur is appar-
ently needed to ensure a very strong acid soil reaction
for proper growth and leaf production. During their
further growth, they receive adequate NPK fertiliza-
tion. Left alone, the seedlings tend to grow into 15-m-
tall trees, making the harvesting of leaves very difficult;
hence, pruning is necessary to transform them into the
69071.indb 364 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM

1.5-m-tall bushes with oval or flat-top crowns for ease

of harvesting. Tea bushes, shaped into flat-table tops,
are more common. The first pruning, called the mother-
prune, is conducted by cutting the seedlings to heights
of 20 to 30 cm. The plants are then allowed to grow
for 1.5 to 2.5 years, after which time they are pruned
again and allowed to grow further into the required
shape. This second pruning is, therefore, called by
the Dutch vorm–snoei (vorm means “shape,” and snoei
means “pruning”). Many other types of pruning sys-
tems are present, and for more detail, reference is made
to Van Emden and Deijs (1950). For protection of the
plants, control of shoot growth, and soil conservation
purposes, most of the estates have applied in the past a
system of shading by planting preferably legume trees
(e.g., Leucena glauca, locally called pete cina or lamtoro,
and Albizia falcata or jeungjing), spaced properly between
the rows of tea plants. These shade trees are known to
have deep root systems, so that they will not interfere
with the development of tea roots or compete with them
for nutrients. However, currently this practice of using
shade has been discontinued due to changes in culti-
vation concepts using an array of agrochemicals and
also because of many socioeconomic changes in the
last century. This issue, including the loss of ecological
advantages, will be discussed more in detail in the next
chapter on coffee cultivation.
The tea plants are today still harvested manually by
hand-plucking the young shoots, using mostly female
labor (Figure 8.2). For the production of high-quality
tea, young shoot tips are selected and collected by hand.
This is called imperial-pluck as opposed to rough pluck,
69071.indb 365 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM

Figure 8.2 Female workers in a cool 16°C morning, ready for

harvesting tea leaves. The young shoots are collected in the
baskets for transport to weighing stations in the field, where
they are transported farther by trucks to the tea factory.
by which older leaves are included in the harvest, yield-

ing, of course, lower-quality tea. Several other types of
picking, in between imperial and rough plucks, are
also practiced, yielding gradual differences in tea qual-
ity. However, when scissors are used, as often applied
today, both shoots and twigs, young or old, are being
harvested indiscriminately, which, of course, pro-
duces lower-quality tea and causes more stress to the
tea bushes. In the factory, the twigs are removed from
the final product by a combination of electromagnetic,
air-fan, and manual sorting. Depending on the method
of harvest, the degree of inflicted damage, and speed
69071.indb 366 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM

of regrowth, the bushes can be harvested one to three

times a month.
In the pre-World War II period, a yield of ≤1000 kg dry
black tea per hectare a year was considered very low,
whereas yields in the range of 2000 kg/ha/year were
very high. Tea yields have since then been improved
considerably, and new tea clones, developed through
selection and breeding programs at the Gambung Tea
Research Institute, near Bandung, West Java, have been
reported to yield an average of 3000 to 4000 kg/ha/year
(AARD, 1986). These high yields are apparently achieved
at the experiment stations, because in practice the norm
of production capacity today is around 2000 to 3000 kg/
ha in terms of processed factory tea. The plucking sys-
tem has also a definite effect on yields, with imperial
pluck resulting in lower yields, whereas rough pluck
will, of course, give higher yields. The highest yields
are obtained by harvesting tea leaves with the scissor.
8.3 Brown podzolic soils

The name brown podzolic soil is used here because there
are no other names present in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO-UN), or World Reference Base for Soil
Resources (WRB) systems to describe the soils ade-
quately. The term podzolic is used to indicate that the
soils show features due to podzolization, but they are
not the true podzols or spodosols. In Chapter 7, (Section
7.2), the significance of applying the term podzolic as a
prefix to names of soils was addressed.
69071.indb 367 4/25/08 10:43:17 AM

The brown podzolic soils are another group of soils

whose recognition as a distinct group of soils has raised
a lot of mixed feelings among many soil scientists. At
one time they were recognized to occur in the northeast-
ern part of the United States (Baldwin et al., 1938; Cline,
1949, 1953; Lyford, 1946; Tamura and Swanson, 1954),
and even recently the soils were considered important
soils and identified still as brown podzolic soils by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service
(Stearns, 1997). The soils have been noticed as a transi-
tory group of soils, between the zonal regions of gray-
brown podzolic soils and podzols in New England,
New Jersey, and New York. They were described by the
authors above to lack distinct E horizons, and there was
little evidence of clay movement and accumulation in
the B horizons. Krebs and Tedrow (1957) also indicated
that these soils, identified as brown podzolic soils,
could well be acid brown forest soils. To many other
soil scientists, the features as described above for the
soils in the northeastern United States are not reflect-
ing true podzolization, but show characteristics of a
pseudo-podzolization or lessivage process, a process sug-
gested for brown earth formation (Zonn, 1966, 1968).
In the West European literature, brown podzolic soils
are seldom mentioned. The soils are not included in the
FAO-UNESCO soil map of Western Europe, drafted by
Tavernier and Mückenhausen (1960), perhaps because
they are unknown in Western Europe. It is also pos-
sible that they are considered as brown forest soils and
mapped as such in Western Europe.
In Indonesia, brown podzolic soils occur from the
upland through the mountain areas. They are distinct
69071.indb 368 4/25/08 10:43:17 AM

zonal soils of the mountain regions affected by podzol-

ization processes and have been discovered in Java and
Sumatra at altitudes of 500 to 2000 m above sea level
(Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1959; Van Schuylenborgh
and Van Rummelen, 1955; ). Generally, they are typical
mountain soils, but depending on the nature of parent
materials and climate, their occurrence may move or
stretch to locations at lower altitudes. The climate in
which the soils are formed may range from the cool C
mountain climate to the relatively warmer humid trop-
ical rain forest or Afa climate. On intermediate parent
materials in Java, the soils are found at high elevations
with Cs climates, whereas on the more acidic liparitic
tuffs of Sumatra, the areas of brown podzolic soils may
stretch to within the limits of the uplands. However,
because these are the only available data, the author
is trying his best to convince other scientists of the
concrete presence of brown podzolic soils in the high-
lands of Indonesia.

In the United States, brown podzolic soils are confined
to acid parent materials or parent materials that do not
contain or are low in carbonates. When calcareous mate-
rials are present, Cline (1949) indicates that they must
lie at considerable depths in the profile and beyond the
reach of most plant roots (see also Krebs and Tedrow,
1957). In England, Robinson (1951) noted a brown pod-
zolic soil developed on porphyritic rhyolite. In Indone-
sia, this group of soils is also found limited to acidic
parent materials. In case of a less acid parent material,
69071.indb 369 4/25/08 10:43:17 AM

the location of the occurrence of brown podzolic soils is

shifted to higher altitudes (Table 8.6). The brown pod-
zolic soils are found in Tapanuli at 1300 m above sea
level. The mineralogical data of the parent materials of
the soils in Indonesia, as provided in Table 8.6, show the
liparitic volcanic tuff in Tapanuli, North Sumatra, to con-
tain substantial amounts of quartz, indicating its acidic
nature. On the other hand, the parent material derived
from the Lawu volcano in Central Java does not contain
quartz. It is identified as andesitic tuff, an intermediate
parent material, with a hypersthene-augite association
(Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1959). In the presence of
such less acidic parent materials, the brown podzolic
soils develop at locations of 3000 m above sea level.
8.3.2 Climate
In the temperate regions, brown podzolic soils are con-
sidered zonal soils of humid cool-temperate areas, inter-
mediate between the climatic region of podzols to the
north and that of the gray-brown podzolic soils to the
south. In Indonesia the climate in which the soils occur
may vary from the cool mountain climate to the warmer
humid tropical rain forest climate of the upland. The
data in Table 8.7 indicate that in Sumatra, where lipa-
ritic tuffs are found, the brown podzolic soils occur in
Afa and Am (Köppen) types of climates. However, in
Java where the parent material is less acidic (e.g., andes-
itic tuff), the soils are limited to locations at high eleva-
tions with Cs climate types.
69071.indb 370 4/25/08 10:43:17 AM

69071.indb 371
Table 8.6 Mineralogical Composition of Brown Podzolic Soils
Profile Primary Minerals in Percent (%) of Total Sand Fraction
Green.
Horn-. Hyper-. Volcanic. Iron. Rock.
Horizon Quartz blende sthene Augite Sanidine Andesine Glass Biotite Gibbsite Concretion Fragment Opaque Misc.
Liparitic Tuff, Tapanuli, North Sumatra at 1300 m above Sea Level

A1 37 — — — 23 — 3 3 tr — 12 46 —
E 34 — — — 24 — 2 8 tr — 6 52 —
B 33 — — — 19 — 2 7 tr — 13 49 —
C1 14 — — — 5 — 2 30 8 — 27 70 —
C2 13 — — — 7 — 14 14 6 — 44 89 —
Andesitic Tuff, Lawu Volcano, Central Java at 3000 m above Sea Level
A1 — tr 3 7 — 19 31 — — 2 33 29 4
B1 — tr 3 4 — 11 27 — — 3 40 30 9
B2 — tr 3 6 — 10 24 — tr 4 38 24 14
C — — 1 3 — 9 21 — tr tr 52 29 13
Chapter eight: Soils in the Mountains of Indonesia
371
4/25/08 10:43:18 AM
Table 8.7 The Climate of Brown Podzolic Soils in

Indonesia
Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
Location Climatea Soil
Sumatra
Pematang 400 0.2 11.0 3130 Afa A RY Podzolic
Siantar 898 2.4 7.8 1786 Am B Brown Podz.
Sipirok 920 2.2 8.4 1921 Afa B
Parapat 1160 1.0 11.0 2609 — —
Aek na Uli 1320 1.4 9.0 2088 Cshi B Podzols

Si-Borongborong
Java
Sarangan 1290 3.4 7.7 2533 Cfhi C Gray Brown
Taman Sari 2480 — — — Cs — Brown Podz.
Summit Lawu 3200 — — — Cs —

Volcano

month >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; m = mon-
soon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest month between
18°C and −3°C; h = coldest month >0°C; i = hot summer; s = dry
summer.

Brown podzolic soils were defined by Cline (1949, 1953)
to be podzols in the incipient stage. Morphologically
they are, therefore, more closely related to podzols
than to gray-brown podzolic soils. Generally, the pro-
file is characterized by a layer of humus, unmixed with
mineral soil, on the surface. This is underlain by a very
thin A horizon and no bleached E horizon occurs. Cline
69071.indb 372 4/25/08 10:43:19 AM

(1949) indicates having observed evidence of an incipi-

ent bleicherde in the brown podzolic soils of New York.
This can be noticed in the form of light gray specks or
mottles in the A horizon. Such a kind of A horizon is
allegedly conspicuously thick under hardwood forest.
The B horizon is strong brown to yellowish-brown,
and no evidence of the presence of clay accumulation is
present. The brown podzolic soils of Indonesia follow a
similar description. An example is provided below:
Brown podzolic soil, Tapanuli, Aek Na

Uli, North Sumatra, located at an eleva-
tion of 1300 m above sea level. The pro-
file was on the flat top of a mountain.
Vegetation was composed of pine trees,
whereas the parent material was lipa-
ritic volcanic tuff. Color notations refer
to air-dry and field-wet conditions.

O 5–0 Stratified pine needle liter.
A1 0–10 10YR 3/1 to 10YR 2/1, dark gray
to black, clay loam, granular, fria-
ble, many roots.
A2 10–20 10YR 5/3 to 5YR 3/4, brown to
dark reddish-brown, clay loam,
granular, friable, many roots.
B 20–75 7.5YR 8/6 to 5YR 6/8, reddish-
yellow, clay loam, subangular
blocky, friable, few roots.
69071.indb 373 4/25/08 10:43:19 AM

C1 75–90 10YR 8/3 to 10YR 6/4, pale brown

to light yellowish-brown, sandy
loam, granular, friable.
C2 +90 10YR 8/2 to 10YR 6/3, white to
pale brown, sandy loam, granular,
liparitic volcanic tuff.
The solum is thus composed of a thick A horizon,

divided into a dark gray/black surface (A1) horizon
and a subsurface (A2) horizon, underlain by a reddish-
yellow to dark yellowish-brown B horizon. Because no
indication of bleaching can be detected in the A2 hori-
zon, this horizon cannot qualify for an E (albic) horizon,
usually characterizing podzol profiles. The soil texture
does not differ downward in the profile. The composi-
tion of the clay fractions, however, shows evidence that
podzolization is involved here, which will be discussed
in more detail below.

Most prominent soil scientists in the United States
were of the opinion that the soils were weak podzols or
podzols in the incipient stage. However, a great many
other U.S. scientists were also skeptical about the soils
being podzols, young podzols, or acid brown forest
soils or whether they existed at all as a distinct group of
soils. Because of such confusion, the existence of brown
podzolic soils seems to have been recalled with the
introduction of a new U.S. soil classification system. In
the Seventh Approximation of the Comprehensive Sys-
tem of Soil Classification (Soil Survey Staff, 1960), the
69071.indb 374 4/25/08 10:43:19 AM

forerunner of the current U.S. Soil Taxonomy, brown

podzolic soils were grouped together with the podzols
in the spodosols order. This has remained unchanged
in the newest version of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff, 2006b).
In the German literature the name Podzol-braunerde
can be found, which can be interpreted as an inter-
grade between a podzol and brown forest soil. It can
also mean podzolized or podzolic brown forest soil,
which in essence is then a brown podzolic soil. The
description of this podzol-braunerde, as provided by
Altemüller (1962), fits the concept of a brown podzolic
soil. However, in Russia, podzol-braunerde soils are
considered to be dwarf-podzols (Tiurin et al., 1960). In
the WRB system, the soils are called umbrisols, which is
presumably based on Indonesian research findings.
In Indonesia, the brown podzolic soils were discov-
ered in 1955 by Van Schuylenborgh and Van Rummelen
(1955), and since then have been recognized as a dis-
tinct zonal group of mountain soils between the zones
of gray-brown podzolic soils and podzols. The Bogor
Soil Research Institute has also recognized a group of
soils called podzolik coklat (coklat means “brown”). The
name was meant for a brown variety of red-yellow pod-
zolic soils in the lowland (personal communication), and
hence should not be confused for brown podzolic soils.

The soils are all light in texture (Table 8.8). No marked
clay movement can be noticed, except perhaps for a
69071.indb 375 4/25/08 10:43:19 AM


Brown Podzolic Soils in Indonesia
C
Horizon N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Tapanuli, North Sumatra, 1300 m

A1 32.6 42.5 24.9 4.98 8.7 — —
A2 32.6 38.6 28.8 4.96 3.5 — —
B 33.5 35.6 30.9 4.82 0.9 — —
C1 62.3 25.8 11.9 5.04 0.3 — —
C2 74.0 16.7 9.3 4.42 0.2 — —
Lawu Volcano, Central Java, 3000 m

A1 29.4 64.1 6.5 5.84 10.5 0.53 19.8
B1 34.3 59.5 6.2 6.05 6.14 0.33 17.7
B2 38.1 56.5 5.4 6.08 5.20 0.26 20.7
C 67.0 27.8 5.2 5.83 3.05 0.09 33.9
very slight gradual increase in clay content with depth

in the Sumatran soil profile. This absence of a distinctly
clay increase in B horizons is considered earlier as the
big difference from podzols or other spodosols.

The soil pH is rather low in the Sumatran brown pod-
zolic soils, showing values in the range of strongly acid
soils (Table 8.8). The brown podzolic soils of Java, formed
on less acidic parent material, are less acidic. The pH
values around 6.0 show the soils to be moderately acid
69071.indb 376 4/25/08 10:43:20 AM

in reaction, which also suggests the presence of a mod-

erately high base status. Hence, the clay fraction is more
likely saturated with bases, resulting in flocculation of
clays. This is then one of the reasons for the immobili-
zation of clays, preventing the clay particles from mov-
ing from A to B horizons. The organic matter content is
perhaps the source for the high amount of bases in the
brown podzolic soils of Java.
Generally, organic matter content in all cases is excep-
tionally high in the surface horizons, exceeding contents
reported for mollisols (Brady, 1990). However, a big dif-
ference can be noticed in the nature and content down
the profile of the organic matter between the two soils
listed in Table 8.8. The brown forest soil in Sumatra is
located in a coniferous forest, and hence, the organic
matter is more acidic, due to its origin mostly from pine
needles. The amounts of Corg, ranging from 8.7 to 3.5%,
in A horizons are very high and decreased sharply in
B and C horizons. In contrast, the brown forest soil of
Java is found under a broad-leaf semideciduous forest.
Therefore, its organic matter is more rich in bases and
less acidic in nature than the litter of the soils in Suma-
tra. This is one reason the soils in Java are less acidic
in reaction. Though the amounts in terms of Corg also
decrease substantially from A to B and C horizons, val-
ues in the range of 6.14 to 3.05% Corg must still be con-
sidered very high.

The only published data in this respect are presented by
Van Schuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955) and Tan
and Van Schuylenborgh (1959). A summary of the data
69071.indb 377 4/25/08 10:43:20 AM

Table 8.9 Estimated Mineral Composition of Clay Fractions

in Brown Podzolic Soils of Sumatra (in %)
α
Horizon Kaolinite Gibbsite Crystoballite Quartz Biotite
A1 55 — 45 — —
A2 52 15 25 1 8
B 64 18 14 4 1
C1 66 16 13 5 1
C2 67 1 7 20 6
for the brown podzolic soil in Sumatra is presented in

Table 8.9 as a basis for discussions. It can be noticed that
the clay fraction of the brown podzolic soils in Suma-
tra is dominated by the presence of kaolinite. Substan-
tial amounts of α-crystoballite have also been detected,
indicating the volcanic origin of the soils. The presence
of quartz suggests the acidic nature of the parent mate-
rial, whereas gibbsite reflects a lateritic weathering pro-
cess in clay formation.
The kaolinitic nature of the clay fraction is supported
by elemental analyses, which expressed in terms of sil-
ica/sesquioxide ratios (or SiO2/R2O3 ratios; R2O3 = Al2O3
+ Fe2O3) are in the range of 1.86 to 1.81 for the Suma-
tran brown podzolic soils. A ratio between 1.0 and 2.0
is indicative for the presence of kaolinite or 1:1 type of
minerals, whereas a ratio of 3.0 to 4.0 suggests the pres-
ence of smectite or 2:1 lattice type of clays. The brown
forest soil of Java has clay fractions exhibiting silica/
sesquioxide ratios from A to B horizons in the range of
3.16 to 2.37. Therefore, they may contain, in addition to
kaolinite, smectites or other 2:1 types of clays (Tan and
69071.indb 378 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM

Van Schuylenborgh, 1959). The conditions in Java are

very different than those in Sumatra. In the regions of
the brown podzolic soils of Java, the parent material is
less acidic and the climate less humid but more mon-
soon-like. These conditions are believed to promote less
leaching, resulting in the development of a basic soil
medium essential for the formation of smectites.

The soils contain very high amounts of organic matter;
hence, soil nitrogen contents are expected to be high.
Though derived from liparitic tuff, an acid type of par-
ent material, the brown podzolic soils of Sumatra may
still be high in potassium and some of the other plant
nutrients in view of the presence of weatherable miner-
als in its sand fraction (e.g., biotite, sanidine, and feld-
spar). The soils in Java are even richer because of their
high contents of plagioclase and ferromagnesian miner-
als (e.g., sanidine, labradorite, hypersthene, and augite)
(Table 8.6). These primary minerals can be considered as
the mineral reserve of soils. In the course of weathering,
the primary minerals are subjected to decomposition,
resulting in a gradual release of the elements that then
can become available for plant growth. Perennial crops
and pine trees can take advantage of the soil’s mineral
reserve. Because mineral weathering is usually a very
slow process, annual crops or short-growing crops may
need some fertilizers when grown on the brown pod-
zolic soils.
Agricultural operations on brown podzolic soils
are in between those of the highland alfisols and the
69071.indb 379 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM

spodosols. At the borders of the zones of the highland

alfisols, an almost similar type of agricultural opera-
tion is practiced, but with emphasis more on cultivation
of the cooler temperate region crops. Closer to borders
of the spodosols, these areas at higher elevations are
mostly still under native mountain vegetations or in
Sumatra used for pine trees cultivated in large estates,
usually owned by the Indonesian Forest Service. Pinus
merkusii is an indigenous pine species frequently grown
for lumber, cheap fuel-wood, and today also for pulp-
wood. Some of the higher areas here are often too
rugged and the climate often too cold that for practi-
cal reasons most of the folks prefer farming the brown
podzolic soils at the lower elevations. Because most of
the crops for cultivation have already been presented
(see Section 8.1), they will not be discussed again here
to avoid repetition.
8.4 Spodosols
Spodosols were formerly called podzols in the United
States, and today the name podzol is still used and rec-
ognized by many other countries outside the United
States, in particular in Germany and Russia. According
to Joffe (1949) and Robinson (1951), also quoted recently
by FAO-UNESCO (2007b), the name podzol has its roots
from the Russian words pod (“beneath” or “under”)
and zola (“ash,” referring to the ash-gray or whitish
color of the E horizon). It is generally agreed that the
soils are formed by podzolization, a process resulting in
the depletion of alkali and alkaline earths from the A
horizon with a maximum expression in the E horizon.
69071.indb 380 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM

This difference is made possible by the higher organic

matter content of the surface A horizon, possessing a
higher cation-exchange capacity. With the depletion of
bases, clay particles and sesquioxides are readily pep-
tized and move downward to accumulate in the B hori-
zon. By more modern concepts, the mobilization of clay
and sesquioxides is ascribed to their interactions with
humic acids forming clay-humus and humo-sesquiox-
ide chelates. The process of mobilization and immobi-
lization of these chelates are today called cheluviation
and chilluviation, respectively, by FAO and WRB scien-
tists, as discussed in Chapter 5.
The podzol-B horizon has recently been considered as
more diagnostic in property for identification than the
bleached eluvial E or albic horizon by the U.S. soil clas-
sification system. It was defined by the U.S. Soil Tax-
onomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 2006) as a spodic horizon,
composed of an illuvial accumulation of free sesquiox-
ides, accompanied by appreciable amounts of organic
matter. Because of its dominant importance, the name
spodosols is coined from it and used for replacing the
name podzols in the United States. The spodic horizon,
or horizon of sesquioxides and humus accumulation,
may be found in all degrees of development.
Podzols are generally widely found in the forested
regions of the northern hemisphere under a humid
temperate to cool climate. They are probably the best-
known soils in Western Europe and in Russia and are
frequently found associated with forest vegetation
that produces acid humus of the mor type (for exam-
ple, coniferous forest or heath vegetation). Such type of
organic matter is considered essential for acid leaching
69071.indb 381 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM

of the pedons. In Indonesia, the soils are also found as

a zonal group, limited to high elevations in the moun-
tains of Sumatra (Kiel and Rachmat, 1948; Mohr, 1944;
Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1961a). The tropical rain
forest at these high altitudes is composed of broad-leaf
mountain trees mixed with indigenous conifers, pro-
viding the acid humus needed for acidic leaching. The
soils have also been located in the highlands of Papua
between the lakes of Angi Gita and Angi Gigi. The
Kubre mountain, which separates the two lakes, is 2400
m high, and its summit and surroundings below are
entirely covered by podzols (Hardon, 1936b). Excep-
tions to this zonal occurrence always exist in nature,
because podzols have also been discovered at low alti-
tudes in Indonesia. These lowland podzols have been
reported to occur under very specific conditions in
the lowlands of Kalimantan and the Bangka islands
group (Hardon, 1937), where they are known under
the local name of tanah padang (tanah means “soil,” and
padang means “plain, meadow”). A heath vegetation
was recently discovered on the islands of Bangka and
Belitung, considered to be associated with the Sunda-
land heather forest system (World Wild Life, 2004). Mohr
(1949) also reported the possibility of the occurrence
of podzols in the Palembang lowlands of South Suma-
tra, as a more or less drowned soil in connection with
the great post-Pliocene transgression of the sea. These
lowland podzols are perhaps the intrazonal tropical pod-
zols, as referred to by FAO and WRB scientists.
69071.indb 382 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM


The parent materials of the mountain podzols are lim-
ited to the acidic types of volcanic ejecta, and no reports
are available in Indonesia, where they have been
formed on intermediate, basic, or calcareous materials.
In Sumatra, the parent materials are liparitic volcanic
tuffs. Their mineralogical data, as shown in Table 8.10,
indicate the presence of a lot of quartz and sanidine in
the sand fraction, with green hornblende, hypersthene,
zircon, and orthite making up the heavy mineral frac-
tion. In general, liparitic tuffs are characterized by their
contents of a lot of quartz and orthite. The two minerals
are often used as indications of the acidic nature of the
materials and are absent in the intermediate and basic
volcanic ash. When present in the latter, they are only
detected in very small amounts, like for example the
minor amounts of quartz in some of the andesitic tuffs.
The presence of zircon and sanidine is sometimes also
used as an indicator of the acidic nature of the tuffs,
such as the liparites. However, these two minerals are
often also detected in intermediate and basic volcanic
ash, though in relatively smaller amounts (Mohr and
Van Baren, 1960). In contrast to Sumatra, the parent
materials on the other islands, where podzols occur,
are not volcanic ash, but are instead sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. For example, in the Kubre moun-
tain of West Papua, the soils originate from shales,
quartzites, and fine quartz sandstone, as reported by
Hardon (1936b). Shale and sandstone are known to be
sedimentary rocks, whereas quartzite is an acidic met-
amorphic rock. The lowland podzols of Kalimantan
69071.indb 383 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM

69071.indb 384
Table 8.10 Mineralogical Composition of Podzols
384
Horizon Composition in Total Sand Fraction Heavy Fraction

Green. Green. Brown.
Oligo-. Volcanic Horn-. Hyper-. Horn-. Horn-. Hyper-.
Quartz clase Sanidine Glass Biotite Misc. Opaque blende sthene Orthite blende blende sthene Zircon
Dairi Lands, Sumatra

A a — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
E 65 10 15 10 — — 62 — — 17 2 — 1 71
B1 44 17 13 6 — 20 55 — — 12 14 — 6 63
B2 30 17 11 16 — 25 1 1 — 1 76 — 20 3
C 19 26 7 22 13 13 3 — — 15 38 — 34 13
Mount Sibartong, Tapanuli, North Sumatra

O/A 33 3 22 23 1 5 – tr tr — — — — —
E 36 17 20 25 1 tr 33 tr tr 5 56 1 26 11
Bh 20 8 12 16 2 40 12 2 tr 1 74 tr 25 tr
Bir 9 15 6 45 18 5 6 tr tr 7 76 tr 14 2
C 7 8 4 52 23 3 44 1 tr — 75 — 15 8
aAll minerals are humus-like concretions.
Sources: Kiel, H. and Rachmat, H., (1948); Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1961); Mohr, E.C.J. and Van Baren, F.A. (1960).
4/25/08 10:43:22 AM
have also been formed from quartz-schists, sandstone,

and old slates, whereas the parent materials for podzols
in the Bangka islands are more varied in types. They
range allegedly from granite to sandstone, quartzites,
and clay schists (Mohr, 1944), which belong to the cat-
egories of plutonic, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks, respectively. Podzol formation on the Bangka
islands seems to be related to the presence of sandy
materials, which is substantiated by scientists in other
countries, who have noticed podzols to also occur in
lowland areas. In Brazil, these lowland podzols were
reported to develop in the Amazon basin only on the
more sandy materials of river terraces (Klinge, 1965).
The soils were found by Klinge to occur near Belém on
old coastal dunes, whereas in the regions of the upper
Rio Negro, fluviatic bleached quartz sands were identi-
fied as the materials for the origin of podzols. Similar
lithologic conditions in the formation of lowland pod-
zols have also been reported by Schulz (1960), who has
described podzol formation in central Suriname on
materials poor in bases and clays.
8.4.2 Climate
The climate in which mountain podzols usually develop
in Indonesia is limited to the cool humid mountain cli-
mate, ranging from Köppen’s Cfhi to Cshi climatic types
(Table 8.11). Depending on specific conditions, the soils
seem also to occur in Afa climates, as is the case with
the lowland podzols of Bangka and Kalimantan. How-
ever, these are the only exceptions, because nowhere
69071.indb 385 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM

Table 8.11 The Climate of Podzols in Indonesia

Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
Sumatra
Pematang 400 0.2 11.0 3130 Afa A RY Podzolic
Siantar 898 2.4 7.8 1786 Am B
Sipirok 1160 1.0 11.0 2609 — —
Aek na Uli 1320 1.4 9.0 2088 Cshi B Podzols

Si-Borongborong
Bangka
Pangkal Pinang 5 0.0 12.0 2496 Afa A

month >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; m = mon-
soon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest month between
18°C and −3°C; h = coldest month >0°C; i = hot summer; s = dry
summer.
else in Indonesia have podzols been reported to occur in

the lowlands. The climate in the Kubre mountain of West
Papua, where the mountain podzols occur, is believed to
be a Cfhi type. No weather stations are available in those
remote jungle areas to confirm this. Podzols have not been
found in the mountains of Java. At elevations between 400
and 900 m above sea level, red-yellow podzolic and brown
forest soils are the major zonal soils in the Afa and Am
climatic regions, as discussed in Chapter 7.
Based on the observations above, it seems possible
to distinguish in Indonesia two groups of podzols:
the highland or mountain podzols and lowland pod-
zols. The mountain podzols are zonal or climatic soils,
69071.indb 386 4/25/08 10:43:23 AM

whereas the lowland podzols can be considered as acli-

matic podzols, because lithologic and topographic fac-
tors are playing a decisive role in their formation.

The morphology of Indonesian mountain podzols does
not differ much from podzols of temperate regions. An
example of a soil profile description is given below:
Humus-iron podzol (Tan and Van

Schuylenborgh, 1961a). Profile located
in Laspondom, Tapanuli, Mount Sibar-
tong, North Sumatra, at an elevation
of 1600 m above sea level. The vegeta-
tion is a primeval tropical rain forest,
composed of hardwood mixed with
indigenous coniferous trees. The color
notations below refer to air-dry and
field-moist samples, respectively.

Oe/Oa 0–20 5YR 3/4–3/3, dark reddish-brown
raw humus, partly decomposed
hemic and rotten sapric organic
layer; when dry it can only be
moistened with great difficulties.
E 20–30 5YR 5/1–4/1, gray to dark gray,
weak fine crumb, sandy loam,
very friable, abundance of roots;
difficult to moisten.
69071.indb 387 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM

Bh 30–50 10YR 5/3–3/2, brown to very

dark grayish-brown, moderately
developed coarse platy, sandy
loam, firm, few roots; difficult to
moisten; few dark reddish-gray
(5YR 4/2) mottles.
Bir or Bs 50–55 10YR 7.5/6–7.5YR 6/8, yellow to
reddish-yellow, irregular platy,
loam, very firm; no roots.
C +55 10YR 8/1–2.5YR 7/4, white to
pale yellow, massive, sandy loam,
friable; yellowish-red (5YR 5/8)
and yellow (10YR) 7/8) mottles;
few pumice stones.
The A horizons in Indonesian podzols are often very

thin or absent, as shown in the above profile exam-
ple. This observation is substantiated by results of
other investigators. Kiel and Rachmat (1948) have also
described a humus iron podzol of the Dairi lands in
Tapanuli, located at 1600 m above sea level, with a 30-
cm-thick brown spongy raw-humus layer (O horizon)
lying directly on top of a light gray of the E horizon.
The podzols of the Kubre mountain in West Papua
are found under a shrub vegetation with scattered
coniferous trees and exhibit a somewhat different mor-
phology. According to Hardon (1936b), these soils have
under an undecomposed litter layer of twigs and roots
rather thick, fine sandy, firm, humic, gray to grayish-
brown A horizons, overlying grayish-white E horizons.
The morphological description given by Hardon indi-
cates that the soil is perhaps an iron-podzol, because no
69071.indb 388 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM

Bh horizon is present. Mohr and Van Baren (1960) argue

that soils with the above profile characteristics are per-
haps not genuine podzols. However, Wilde (1957) is of
the opinion that these are the typical podzols of tropi-
cal regions. The features of the Kubre mountain pod-
zols seem to show close resemblance to the soils in New
Zealand, identified as kauri podzols, or locally also called
egg-cup podzols.
During the international soil science conference in
New Zealand in November 1962, the present author
had the chance to study kauri podzols on the spot. The
soils may sometimes develop under the influence of a
single Kauri tree (Agathis australis). These trees, consid-
ered as primitive pine trees dating back from the era
of the dinosaurs, are found limited to New Zealand’s
northern tropical rain forest, where they are growing
into huge, giant, tall trees, rivaling the sizes of the giant
red oaks of California. The Kauri tree is believed to pro-
duce very acidic litter, which leads to strong local pod-
zolization underneath the tree (Bloomfield, 1954; Taylor
and Pohlen, 1962), with the subsequent development of
a bleached E horizon as wide as the tree crown and in
the form of an egg-cup. Some of the soil scientists in
New Zealand incline to relate the kauri podzol to red-
yellow podzolic soils.
The lowland podzol of Bangka differs in morphol-
ogy from the mountain podzol. It has a rather thick,
loose grayish-black humus rich, quartz-sandy A hori-
zon, overlying a bleached E layer, whereas the solum
beneath is similar to that of the mountain species (Har-
don, 1937). As mentioned before, the Bangka lowland
podzols are intrazonal soils.
69071.indb 389 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM


The classification of these soils, though well defined in
the literature, is somewhat intriguing due to a different
concept in identification developed by the USDA dur-
ing the 1960s. As pointed out before, internationally the
soils are distinguished by their ash-colored E horizon
and hence are called podzols, derived from the Russian
words pod and zola. However, in contrast to the above,
the U.S. Soil Taxonomy prefers the use of the podzol-B
horizon as the identifying feature, which is called spodic
horizon, and the name spodosol is coined from this.
In Indonesia, the name of spodosols is used. However,
the soils appear to be of minor importance, because
according to the Soil Research Institute (see Chapter 1,
Figure 1.2, page 16), they occupy only a mere 1.16% of
the total soil acreage in Indonesia. Most of the soils are
generally located in remote areas high in the mountains
and perhaps have escaped the attention of soil survey-
ors. Therefore, the author believes that more of these
kinds of soils will be discovered in time when inten-
sive soil surveys will be extended into the far corners
of the mountain regions. As discussed previously, the
soils can be classified into two kinds of podzols: the
highland or mountain podzols and the lowland pod-
zols. Of these two, the mountain podzols are the most
prevalent, because the lowland podzols have been dis-
covered only on the small islands of the Bangka-Beli-
tung group, located on the east coast of North Sumatra.
Locally, these lowland podzols are called padang soil
(Hardon, 1937), which some believe to be closely related
to red yellow podzolic soils or ultisols. The author has
69071.indb 390 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM

not had the opportunity to investigate and confirm such

a contention. Most of the lowland areas in Indonesia
are already densely populated and cultivated and sur-
veyed thoroughly, and the Soil Research Institute has not
reported the occurrence of these intrazonal lowland pod-
zols anywhere else in the lowlands area of Indonesia.
The highland or mountain podzol can be distin-
guished into a humus-iron podzol of Sumatra and the
iron-podzol of West Papua. These soils may possibly
be placed in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy as Humods and
Ferrods, respectively (Soil Survey Staff, 2006a, 2006b).
The humods are then the spodosols that have spodic
horizons enriched with humus or with humus and Al-
oxides. This definition fits the features of the Sumatran
mountain podzols, because not iron but aluminum
has accumulated in the Bhs horizon. The Fe2O3 con-
tents of the E and Bhs horizons are 2.35% and 2.30%,
respectively, as determined by the author in his soils
laboratory in Indonesia. On the other hand, the Al2O3
contents of the E and Bhs horizons are 18.1 and 33.85%,
respectively. The ferrods are defined as the mountain
spodosols with Bs horizons only, and without compa-
rable accumulation of humus. Such features pertain to
the spodosols of the Kubre Mountains in West Papua.
Perhaps the use of tropical as a prefix is warranted
to underline the difference in formation of Indonesian
spodosols under the influence of a tropical cool climate
from that of temperate region spodosols of the northern
hemisphere. It should be realized that the cool climate
of the temperate region podzols includes a winter cli-
mate with ice and snow. This is in sharp contrast with
the cool mountain climate of Indonesia, classified as a
69071.indb 391 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM

Köppen’s C climate, defined as having temperatures in

the coldest month of >0°C. The season is only alternated
by rainy and relatively less rainy periods, whereas tem-
peratures are usually getting lower during the wetter
months. Snow and ice are only present in the Snow
Mountain range (Nassau-Oranje range) of Papua, where
the Idenburg top (Puncak Trikora) and the Cartensz top
(Puncak Jaya) mountain summits reach 4900 and 5040
m, respectively (see Chapter 4).

The data in Table 8.12 indicate that, as a whole, the
podzols in Indonesia are coarse- to medium-textured
soils. The clay contents, ranging from 1 to 15%, are very
low and show a trend of eluviation from the E to accu-
mulate in the B horizons. This is a typical feature in a
podzolization process. In true podzols of the temperate
regions, it is a well-established fact that clay contents
decrease sharply in E horizons to increase again sub-
stantially in the B horizons. In this respect, the Bangka
podzol shows this genuine characteristic for podzol-
ization. Perhaps it can be added that in New Zealand,
the clay fraction of E horizons of the kauri podzols are
reported to contain large amounts of secondary silica
(Taylor and Pohlen, 1962).

The soils exhibit invariably very strongly acidic (pH
= 4 to 3) to strongly acidic (pH = 5 to 4) reactions in
especially their top soils. Soil pH values of 3 to 4 are
69071.indb 392 4/25/08 10:43:25 AM


Tropical Podzols
C
Horizon N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Mountain Podzols, Sumatra

O — — — 3.42 47.8 2.1 22.7
E — — 8.3 4.95 7.4 0.3 24.6
Bh — — 10.6 5.30 11.6 0.3 38.6
Bs — — 10.3 5.73 1.9 0.04 47.5
C — — 10.9 5.81 0.2 — —
Mountain Podzols, West Papua

A 64.0 32.0 4.0 4.3 6.2 0.2 31.0
E 29.0 61.0 10.0 3.9 0.6 0.1 6.0
Bs 26.0 59.0 15.0 4.3 1.7 0.1 17.0
BC 39.0 48.0 13.0 5.0 0.6 0.1 6.0
Lowland Podzols, Banka

A 97.8 1.0 1.2 3.9 1.2 — —
E 98.4 1.3 0.3 6.1 0.1 — —
Bh 91.5 2.0 6.5 3.9 5.2 0.1 52.0
Bs 93.9 1.1 5.0 4.6 — — —
Sources: Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylenborgh, J. (1960, 1961);

Hardon (1936); Kiel, H. and Rachmat, H. (1948).
mostly common in the A horizons. In the true podzols

of the temperate regions, a sharp decrease in soil pH is
noticed from A to E horizons, to increase again in the B
69071.indb 393 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM

horizons. Such a trend in soil reaction is observed only

in the Kubre mountain podzols of West Papua. In the
Sumatran mountain podzol and the Bangka lowland
podzol, soil pH tends to increase gradually with depth
in the soil profile.
Soil organic matter contents are commonly very high
in the surface soils of the mountain podzols, except
in the Bangka podzols. The latter is to be expected
because oxidation and mineralization processes are
high and rapid in lowland areas of Indonesia. The data
in Table 8.12 also show that the humus of these pod-
zols is characterized by wide values in C/N ratios. In
no other soils studied by the author so far in Indone-
sia, have such wide C/N ratios been observed. This is
an outstanding feature that can perhaps be used as a
diagnostic property for differentiating the type of soil
organic matter in the podzol pedon. As indicated from
the data of the Sumatran podzol, the composition of
the organic matter, as expressed in terms of C/N ratios,
differs in the eluvial from that in the illuvial horizon.
The Bh and Bs horizons contain organic matter exhibit-
ing the widest C/N ratios of 37.3 and 42.9, respectively,
suggesting that this type of humus is low in molecu-
lar weight or in the early phases of humification (Tan,
2003a).

Unfortunately, not much is known about the exact
nature and composition of the clay minerals in podzols
of Indonesia. However, from the low silica/sesquiox-
ide ratios, indications are that the clay fraction is prob-
ably composed of 1:1 lattice type of clays. The data in
69071.indb 394 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM

Table 8.13 show the SiO2/R2O3 and SiO2/Al2O3 ratios to

range from 2.45 to 1.07 and from 2.6 to 1.2, respectively,
indicating the siallitic nature. This is in contrast to pod-
zols of temperate regions or even the kauri podzols of
New Zealand. The latter have a clay fraction dominated
by 2:1 lattice type of clay minerals, generally reflected
by SiO2/R2O3 and SiO2/Al2O3 ratio values of ≥3 (Taylor
and Pohlen, 1962).
The normal trend in temperate region podzols is also
for SiO2/R2O3 and SiO2/Al2O3 ratios to increase sharply
from A to E horizons because of the accumulation of
secondary silica in the E horizon. The values of these
ratios then decrease again sharply in the Bh and Bs hori-
zons, due to illuviation and accumulation of sesquiox-
ides. Such a trend can only be noticed in the Sumatran
Table 8.13 Silica/Sesquioxide Ratios of the Clay

Fractions of Podzols in Indonesia
Horizon SiO2/R2O3 SiO2/Al2O3 SiO2/Fe2O3 Al2O3/Fe2O3
Mountain Podzol, Sumatra
O — — — —
E 2.45 2.66 32.3 12.2
Bh 0.45 0.56 14.8 26.5
Bs 1.07 1.21 8.84 7.32
C 1.21 1.30 17.9 13.8
Mountain Podzol, West Papua
A 2.28 2.40 — —
E 1.96 2.05 — —
B 1.35 1.97 — —
BC 1.27 2.43 — —
69071.indb 395 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM

podzol. The West Papua podzol exhibits a gradual

decrease in silica/sesquioxide ratios with depth in the
profile, a characteristic commonly detected in red-yel-
low podzolic soils.

8.4.6.1 Soil properties and agricultural
operations
Not much is known about the use of podzols in Indone-
sia for agricultural operations. Their remote locations
high in the mountain areas with rough terrain and cool
climate have apparently discouraged many people from
inhabiting these regions permanently. The uplands and
especially the lowlands are the most densely populated
areas of Indonesia.
The soil texture favors the development of rapid air
movement. However, the very strongly acidic reactions
may impose drastic measures for cultivation of the
soils. Accumulation of aluminum in the B horizon will
perhaps cause problems by creating subsoil acidity and
phosphate fixation. The organic matter content is very
high, but because it is of the mor type, it may contrib-
ute to acid leaching. Nevertheless, the litter layer seems
to contribute to nutrient cycling, because the vegetation
cover shows signs of a lush and healthy cool tropical
region forest. At the summit of the mountains, podzols
are generally still under the original vegetation. From
environmental or ecological standpoints, it is perhaps
better to leave this montane or highland region of pod-
zols under forest. At the lower limits, where the climatic
69071.indb 396 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM

conditions are more reasonable for the people of Indo-

nesia, the soils can possibly be used for dairy farming,
whereas goat farming is another possibility. Indonesia
also seems not to be used yet in sheep farming, like in
New Zealand.
8.4.6.2 Tree farming

Occasionally, limited areas of the podzol regions have
been used for shifting cultivation, or used by for-
estry and industry for planting tree crops for timber,
firewood, and today for pulpwood production. One of
the tree crops especially suitable for growing in these
poor and acidic conditions is the indigenous pine tree,
called Pinus merkusii. Known also by the name of Pinus
sumatrana and the local names of damar batu and tusam
tapanuli, it was in the past a dominant species of the
Sumatran Tropical Pine forest, an ecoregion stretching
originally from Aceh in the north to the Bukit Barisan
mountain range in the south near Lake Toba, North
Sumatra. Repeated burning for shifting cultivation at
especially the lower limits of the mountain areas has
endangered the existence of this pine species, the only
pine allegedly growing south of the equator. It can grow
to 70 m tall and is considered the tallest pine tree in the
Old World. Its wood is classified as soft wood and can
be used for light construction, matches, and today for
the much needed pulp in the paper and rayon industry.
The trees can also be cultivated for production of res-
ins, at a rate of 3 to 5 kg/year. This resin appears to be
very useful as raw material in the perfume industry, for
making paints and medicines, and in printing and the
paint industry.
69071.indb 397 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM

69071.indb 398 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM
chapter nine
Andosols of Indonesia
9.1 Introduction
For reasons explained below, this group of soils is dis-
cussed as a separate chapter. Compared to the other
soils addressed in the preceding chapters, andosols have
been recognized only very recently as a major group of
soils. They were first believed to occur mainly in Japan,
but were later also discovered in New Zealand (Taylor
and Cox, 1956). Since then, research attention on this
group of soils increased rapidly in many other coun-
tries. The soils appear to occur more widespread in the
world than expected and of the estimated 50 million
ha available, more than half are located in the tropical
regions. Many different concepts have been created on
this group of soils, using a variety of soil names. This
was then one of the reasons for the Food and Agricul-
tural Organization (FAO) to call for a special conference
in 1964 held in Tokyo, attended by representatives of
most nations possessing volcanic ash soils, and in par-
ticular those around the Pacific basin. As reported by
Dudal (1964), the Tokyo meeting above tried to correlate
the concepts of this group of soils in the various coun-
tries and bring some order in the soil’s nomenclature.
The name Andosol was selected as the official name at
399
69071.indb 399 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM

that time for use in identification, because it recalls the

country of origin. Even today the FAO and World Ref-
erence Base for Soil Resources (WRB) systems identify
this group of soils as andosols.
Though the soils appear to be found in a wide range
of climatic conditions, from subalpine regions to the
humid tropics, they seem to constitute a group of soils
with similar morphological, physical, and mineralogi-
cal characteristics (Shoji et al., 1994; Tan, 1964). Conspic-
uous among these is the common thick black surface
horizon, rich in humus and dominated by amorphous,
noncrystalline, or paracrystalline clays. The latter are
considered to be allophane and imogolite, weathering
products of volcanic glass. The soil colloidal fractions
may also contain hydrated silica and alumina, which
together with allophane reflect the soil’s highly reactive
surfaces. The black color was the reason why U.S. soil
scientists previously called the soils ando soils (Simon-
son, 1979; Thorp and Smith, 1949). In Japanese an means
“dark” or “black” and do means “soil.” Many Japanese
scientists are also referring to them as kuroboku (kuro
means “black” and boku means “friable”) soils, whereas
others use the name humic allophane soils (Kanno, 1962;
Wright, 1964).
However, with the introduction of a new soil classifi-
cation system in the United States, the soils were placed
as an obscure suborder of the inceptisols, the andepts
(Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 1975). Since then, they were for
a long time not considered an important or major group
of soils, and the soils were still referred to as andepts
by Flach et al. (1980) at the 1980 International Society of
Soil Science, Commissions IV–V–VI–VII, meetings, held
69071.indb 400 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM

Chapter nine: Andosols of Indonesia 401
at Lower Hutt, New Zealand, to discuss soils with vari-

able charges and, in particular, andosols. Because of the
worldwide recognition gained by the soils in the mean-
time, the U.S. concept was apparently amended in the
1990s by placing the soils at the orders level, but under
the name of andisols (Soil Survey Staff, 1990, 2006). The
latter is based on the alleged assumption that the vowel
“i” is more appropriate in the English language than
“o” as in andosol, and for reasons of being consistent
in nomenclature with the other orders (e.g., alfisols, ari-
disols, inceptisols, mollisols, oxisols, ultisols, and verti-
sols). If it is based on uniformity of nomenclature, the
question arises why it is then not warranted to change
the names spodosols and histosols also into spodisols and
histisols, respectively? The identifying features are also
spodic horizons and histic epipedons anyway.
In Indonesia, andosols are spread over the archi-
pelago, from Sumatra in the west (Druif, 1939a; Mohr
and Van Baren, 1960; Tan and Van Schuylenborgh,
1961a) over Java (Tan, 1963; Tan and Massey, 1964) to the
Lesser Sunda Islands in the east (Mohr and Van Baren,
1960). They are associated with intermediate to basic
volcanic parent materials and are mostly found in the
mountains of the humid tropics and monsoon regions.
Recently, andosols were discovered in the lowlands of
Sumatra. However, their occurrence in lowland areas
is rather limited and also appears to be conditioned by
specific factors (for example, topography and parent
materials). The soils seem to develop only on the andes-
itic volcanic material, flowing down in a fan-like form
from the Sibayak volcano in the coastal plain area of
North Sumatra (Tan, 1963; Tan and Van Schuylenborgh,
69071.indb 401 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM

1961a). The acidic materials (for example, liparitic tuffs)

surrounding the andesitic fan above have given rise to
the development of ultisols. For reasons not known by
the author, andosols are not listed in the Soils Map of
Indonesia, as shown in Chapter 1, Figure 1.2. They are
very important volcanic ash soils and are bound to be
present in the mountain regions of Indonesia when con-
ditions are favorable for their formation. Brown forest
soils and gray-brown podzolic soils may be found com-
peting in occurrence, but these soils are formed by dif-
ferent soil-forming processes as discussed in Chapters
7 and 8, respectively. The latter is then the reason why
the current author believes that processes of soil for-
mation and morphology should be considered of equal
importance. Based on soil morphology alone, andosols
in the mountains of Indonesia are often confused for
brown forest or gray-brown podzolic soils, as pointed
out earlier.
9.2 Parent materials

The andosols in Indonesia are developed from slightly
acidic, intermediate to slightly basic volcanic ash. All
these materials are young in age and originate from
recent Pleistocene eruptions. The soils have not been
noted to form from other kinds of parent materials, like
liparitic and rhyolitic ash, as reported in Japan, New
Zealand, and Chile. They have also not been found on
plutonic, metamorphic, or sedimentary rocks.
In North Sumatra, the andosols have been formed pri-
marily on dacito-andesitic materials, with a hornblende
association (Table 9.1). The materials originated from
69071.indb 402 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM

69071.indb 403
Table 9.1 Mineralogical Composition of Andosols
Profile Composition in Total Sand Fraction Heavy Fraction
Green. Brown. Rock. Green. Brown.
Oligoclase Horn-. Horn-. Hyper-. Volcanic. Plagio-. Opaque. Horn-. Horn-. Hyper-.
Horizon Quartz Andesine blende blende sthene Glass clase Biotite Fragments Misc. blende blende sthene Augite
Dacito-Andesitic Tuff, Deli-Medan, North Sumatra

A1 5 22 13 4 3 14 — 4 8 10 64 17 16 —
A2 3 33 19 3 5 9 — 3 1 11 74 13 12 —
B 1 21 8 2 1 11 — 3 7 13 78 7 15 —
C 1 30 10 2 1 3 — 2 7 2 72 13 13 —
Andesitic Tuff, Ciapus-Bogor, West Java

A — — 2 — 12 3 11 — 39 14 — — 56 40
B — — 1 — 14 2 15 — 36 12 1 tr 53 37
Chapter nine: Andosols of Indonesia
Basalto-Andesitic Tuff, Lembang, West Java

A — — 14 1 4 1 38 — 17 14 78 — 9 11
B tr — 20 tr 3 1 41 — 10 4 56 — 13 27
Andesitic Tuff, Pengalengan Highlands, West Java

A tr — 2 — 2 1 15 — 67 2 17 — 23 48
B tr — 3 — 3 4 14 — 65 1 27 1 17 48
Andesitic Tuff, Deng Plateau, Central Java

Ap tr — tr — 1 35 11 — 37 7 14 — 21 53
B 1 — tr — 1 1 5 — 19 70 7 — 44 41
Basalto-Andesitic Tuff, Malang Highlands, East Java

Ap — — 4 — — 8 6 33 — 20 10 12 — 35
403
A2 — — 4 — 9 9 22 — 20 14 9 — 44 41
4/25/08 10:43:28 AM
eruptions of the Sibayak volcano, which were deposited

on the mountain slopes and at the foot of the mountain.
In the latter case, the lahar flows were deposited in a
fan-like shape, covering the lowest parts in the coastal
plain area of Deli, in the vicinity of Medan. Andosols
are also located in the surroundings of Padang, in West
Sumatra, on the slope of the Ophir volcano, and in the
regions of Lake Maninjau. The parent material here is
believed to be almost similar to that of North Sumatra,
though the material of the Ophir volcano is noted to be
more andesitic in nature.
In West Java, the parent materials vary from basalto-
andesitic tuff in the Lembang area to andesitic tuff at
Ciapus and the Pengalengan highlands. The materials
at Lembang came from the Tangkuban-Prahu volcano,
located north of Bandung, and are characterized by a
hornblende association, whereas that of the Ciapus area
was from the Salak volcano, west of Bogor. The latter
has a hypersthene-augite association. The parent mate-
rials of the Pengalengan highlands were ejecta from the
Wayang-Papandayan volcano complex, located south of
Bandung, exhibiting an augite association.
In Central and East Java, the materials belong to the cat-
egory of andesitic or basalto-andesitic tuffs, with either a
hypersthene-augite or augite-hypersthene association.
The facts above supported the opinion of the author
that the parent materials for formation of andosols are
mostly intermediate to slightly basic volcanic ash. The
soils have not been found on liparitic tuffs or rhyolitic
materials, as indicated earlier. But, they may possibly
develop from basaltic ash, the most basic material of
volcanic ejectas. Basaltic materials are expected to yield
69071.indb 404 4/25/08 10:43:28 AM

a base-rich soil solution, which favors carbonization of

organic matter. This process is believed to immobilize the
organic fraction, inducing its accumulation in soils and
formation of intense black colors, as noted in the ando-
sols of the Dieng plateau and the Malang Highlands.
9.3 Climate
Andosols are noticed to have been formed worldwide in
a wide variety of climate types. They have been found
in the temperate maritime climate of Japan, in the cool
Andean climate of Chile, in the warm temperate regions
of New Zealand, in the subarctic climate of Iceland, in
sub-Mediterranean climates of the Azores, Spain, Italy,
and Greece, and also in the warm tropical climates of
Indonesia and South America. In the temperate zones
of South America, the soils may develop in superhumid
climates as well as in dry subhumid environments with
accentuated dry seasons. For more details, reference is
made to Wright (1964).
In Indonesia, the andosols occur mostly in a tropi-
cal cool humid mountain climate with or without pro-
nounced dry seasons. However, the soils have also
been found to a limited extent in the hot humid climate
of lowland areas (Table 9.2). The lowland andosols in
North Sumatra are restricted to the lahar and tuff fans
in the plains at the foot of the Sibayak volcano. As can
be noticed from the data in Table 9.2, the climate here is
classified as a humid tropical rain forest climate (Köp-
pen’s Afa) typical for lowland areas of Indonesia. In Java,
the soils are mostly located at higher elevations above
sea level. In West Java, they are found at Ciapus, east of
69071.indb 405 4/25/08 10:43:29 AM

Table 9.2 The Climate of Andosols in Indonesia

Rainfall Mean
Type of
Altitude Annual
North Sumatra
Timbanglangkat 29 0.7 9.7 2522 Afa A Andosol
Padangbrahrang 49 0.4 10.9 2847 Afa A Andosol

West Java
Ciapus/Bogor 540 0.1 11.8 4880 Afa A Andosol
Pasir Sarongge 1230 1.0 9.4 3125 Af A Andosol
Lembang 1247 2.6 8.0 2915 Cfhi B Andosol
Malabar-Pengal. 1550 2.7 8.1 2564 Cf C Andosol

Central Java
Dieng Plateau 2093 4.0 8.0 2290 Cf C Andosol
East Java
Malang 1250 5.0 7.0 2117 Cs D Andosol
a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldest months

>18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; i = hot summer; m = mon-
soon; s = summer dry; C = coldest month between 18°C and –3°C.
Bogor, on the slope of the Salak Volcano, at 540 to 600

m altitudes and higher. Here in the Bogor area, the soils
are also present at the upper slopes of the Gedeh Vol-
cano in the surroundings of Pasir Sarongge at approxi-
mately 1200 m or higher. North of Bandung, andosols
occur on the upper slopes of the Tangkuban Prahu Vol-
cano in the area of Lembang at 1250 m and higher. The
soils are also major soils, occupying the Malabar-Pen-
galengan montane plateau, south of Bandung, at 1500
m and higher. The climate in the above regions ranges
from the upland Afa (Köppen) to the mountain Af and
Cfhi or Cf (Köppen) types of climate.
69071.indb 406 4/25/08 10:43:30 AM

Andosols also occur in the monsoon areas of Central

and East Java, where they are mostly situated in the
mountains at ≥1000 m altitude. For instance, the soils
exist at 2093 m altitude in the Dieng plateau, close to the
areas of Wonosobo. Large areas of andosols have also
been noticed in the surroundings of the Malang-Pujon
highlands at 1250 m above sea level. The climate of these
areas is classified as the tropical mountain Cf and Csi
types of climates. A Csi climate is a typical monsoon
climate for the mountain regions in East Java (s = sum-
mer dry). It is usually characterized by a pronounced
dry season from the months of May to October, but the
total annual rainfall is still quite high (see Table 9.2).
As mentioned earlier, Wright (1964) also reported the
occurrence of andosols in South America in subhumid
climates with a dry season.
9.4 Soil morphology

Andosols are commonly distinguished by their charac-
teristic morphological features. In Japan, Kanno (1961,
1962) and Ohmasa (1964) reported the soils to possess
thick pitch-black surface layers rich in humus; hence,
the name kuroboku was assigned. This A horizon varies
usually in thickness from 30 to 50 cm and is very loose,
soft, and mellow. But when the soils are developed in
depressions, this A horizon may often be more than 1
m thick. In this case, differentiation into two or more
layers is possible. In some cases, the presence of buried
A horizons, resulting from deposition of new ash lay-
ers, is also possible.
69071.indb 407 4/25/08 10:43:30 AM

The horizon differentiation in andosol profiles may

vary from place to place. Wright (1964) noticed in South
America the occurrence of andosols with AC, A(B)C,
or ABC profiles, ranging from 50 cm to more than 100
cm in depth. The very dark A horizon is sharply dif-
ferentiated from the yellowish-brown B or C horizons.
The layer immediately below the A horizon is reported
to be the most friable part of the profile, whereas the
whole profile exhibits low bulk density values. Segrega-
tion of aluminum in the form of soft, waxy nodules of
gibbsite was noticed by Wright (1964) in B and C hori-
zons. One or more hardpans may also be present, but
they are usually inherited depositional features, whose
intrinsic properties can become reduced or accentuated
by soil-forming processes.
In Indonesia, andosols have similar morphological
properties as discussed above. Notwithstanding the
humid tropical climate, the soils still possess a black
surface layer, rich in humus. An example is provided
below as sampled by the author (Tan and Van Schuylen-
borgh, 1961a):
Andosol at Glugur (Medan, North

Sumatra), at an elevation of 50 m above
sea level. The topography is undulat-
ing, and the vegetation is a secondary
forest with Eupatorium sp. and grass
as underbrush. The parent material is
dacito-andesitic tuff (see Table 9.1). It is
a well-drained profile. Color notations
refer to air-dry and field-moist samples,
respectively.
69071.indb 408 4/25/08 10:43:30 AM


A1 0–18 10YR 4/2-10YR2/1, dark gray-
brown to black, weak fine crumb,
silt loam, loose, friable and soft,
many fine roots.
A2 18–20 10YR 4.5/2–10YR2/2, gray-brown
to very dark brown, moderate fine
crumb, silt loam, friable and soft,
many fine roots.
B 20–31 10YR 5/3–10YR3/4, brown to dark
yellowish-brown, weak fine granu-
lar, loam, friable.
BC 31–76 10YR7/4–10YR4/4, very pale
brown to dark yellowish-brown,
weak medium granular to blocky,
loam slightly sticky, few small stone
fragments.
The color of the A horizon may vary from black to

dark brown and, consequently, one may tend to dif-
ferentiate the soils into a brown and a black variety. The
black variety of andosols tends to be limited more
to the higher slopes of the Sibayak volcano, whereas
the brown variety is associated more with the low-
land areas. In Java, both varieties of andosols have
also been observed, but there are no indications that
the lighter-colored (brown) soils are limited to lower
elevations. On the contrary, the black variety is found
at Ciapus-Bogor at approximately 600 m altitude as
well as in Central and East Java at elevations of ≥1000
m. The brown andosols are very specific for the areas
of Lembang and the Malabar-Pengalengan montane
69071.indb 409 4/25/08 10:43:30 AM

plateau. In these areas, the soil has in addition a bur-

ied profile underneath. The buried soil is usually
characterized by an intense black A horizon (Tan and
Massey, 1964). It is possible that the black color of the
buried A horizon has been accentuated after deposi-
tion of new ash layers on top, due to subsequent devel-
opment of poor aeration and drainage conditions
below. This may be substantiated by results of thin-
section studies. Whereas usually the A horizons of
mountain andosols exhibit a crumb to granular struc-
ture, similar to the structure shown in Figure 8.1, the
buried A horizon seems to exhibit a relatively massive
structure with little or no micropores, built up mostly
by peptized black colloidal organic matter (Figure 9.1).
Little inorganic material has taken part in its struc-
tural formation, and whatever aluminum and iron are
present, they are probably also in peptized forms. The
thin sections fail to show any changes in refraction or
colors when viewed in ordinary light as well as under
crossed nicols. It is believed that perhaps some kind of
internal peat formation may have taken place.
The soil in the surroundings of Lake Maninjau,
Padang, West Sumatra, has an AC profile and a buried
A horizon below. This andosol is of the brown variety
and has a pronounced waxy appearance, comparable
to several of the Latin American andosols, as discussed
by Wright (1964). The buried A is especially extremely
waxy and possesses a very high water content. When
squeezed, water is flowing through the fingers. A soil
profile description is given below for comparison.
69071.indb 410 4/25/08 10:43:30 AM


A 0–30 10YR 3/3, (field-moist) dark brown,
strong fine granular to weak crumb,
silt loam, friable, waxy, fine roots.
C 30–50 10YR 5/6, yellowish-brown, weak
fine granular, sandy loam, mixed
with abundant fine grains of brown-
ish-yellow (10YR 6/6) volcanic tuff.
Ab +50 7.5YR 4/4, brown, strong fine sub-
angular blocky to blocky, silty clay
loam, friable, very waxy.
The photographs in Figure 9.2 and Figure 9.3 provide

additional examples, showing black and brown andosols
in Sumatra and an andosol with a buried A horizon
in West Java. A thin section of this buried horizon is
shown in Figure 9.1.
9.5 Soil classification

As stated before, a variety of names were used worldwide
for this group of soils. In Japan, they were also formerly
known under different names, and at one time, they
were called kuroboku soils, whereas Seki (1934) was of
the opinion that it seemed more reasonable to call them
allitic soils because of their high aluminum contents. But
the soils are affected by neither laterization nor pod-
zolization processes (Kanno, 1961). The classification
as humic allophane soils, as proposed by Kanno (1961),
appears to have received provisional acceptance only,
because many scientists in Japan disagree on the basis
69071.indb 411 4/25/08 10:43:31 AM

Figure 9.1 Thin section of a buried A horizon of an ando-

sol at the slope (1300 m altitude) of the Tangkuban-Prahu vol-
cano, West Java. The very dark gray (10YR 3/1) dense fabric is
dotted with reddish-yellow (7.5YR 6/6) iron oxides. A large
plagioclase mineral is embedded near the center of the col-
loidal mass. (Original magnification ×100.)
that other clay minerals can be found in large amounts

in addition to allophane (Egawa and Watanabe, 1964;
Ohmasa, 1964).
Efforts to place the importance of the type of clay
mineral in the classification of these soils have been
apparent from the beginning. It is especially noted in
the older New Zealand system of soil classification.
The clays in question are known in New Zealand as
69071.indb 412 4/25/08 10:43:31 AM

A B
Figure 9.2 (A) Black andosol and (B) brown andosol, Talang

volcano, West Sumatra.
amorphic clays, clays that are amorphous to x-ray diffrac-

tion. Today these types of clays are called noncrystalline,
paracrystalline, variable-charged clays, or short-range-order
clays, depending on the preference of the authors (Tan,
2003b). It is believed that not only will these types of
clays impart to the soils some of the highly distinctive
physical and chemical properties, but they will also
endow the soils with unusual farming properties and
problems (Birrell and Fieldes, 1952; Taylor, 1964). The
soils are, therefore, classified at that time as amorphic
soils (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962) and today as allophanic
soils in New Zealand (Hewitt, 2003). In Latin America,
a similar tendency can be noticed with regards to the
importance of the clay minerals in the classification of
the soils. Wright (1964) and Besoain (1964) use the name
69071.indb 413 4/25/08 10:43:32 AM

Figure 9.3 Andosol with a buried A horizon, Tangkuban-

Prahu volcano, West Java.
allophanic soils. In Chile and Argentina, they are locally

called trumao soils, whereas in Nicaragua the soils are
known as talpetate soils. The distinctive status of allo-
phane in the classification of this group of soils can also
be noticed in the early version of the U.S. soil classifi-
cation system, called the Seventh Approximation (Soil
Survey Staff, 1960). It listed as one the requirements of
andepts the presence of an x-ray amorphous exchange
complex or one dominated by allophane. In the new
current version of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 2006), this emphasis on allophanic clays has been
69071.indb 414 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM

deleted in favor of acid-oxalate extractable aluminum

contents, a major requirement for the newly created
diagnostic andic horizon. However, amorphous materi-
als are still maintained today as an important feature in
classification of andosols by the Food and Agriculture
Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization (FAO-UNESCO) system and
especially by the system of the internationally accepted
WRB (FAO-UNESCO, 2007b; Shoji et al., 1996). As indi-
cated earlier, the name andosol, selected at the 1964 FAO
conference on correlation of volcanic ash soils, remains
recognized today as the official name by the FAO and
WRB systems. According to their original definition,
andosols are soils with mollic, umbric, or ochric A hori-
zons overlying cambic B horizons and at a depth of ≥35
cm have one or both of the following:
1. Bulk densities of ≤0.85 g/cm3 (at one-third bar

water retention) in the ≤2-mm soil fraction and
an exchange complex dominated by amorphous
materials.
2. Vitric volcanic ash, cinders, or other vitric pyroclas-
tic materials of ≥60% in the silt, sand, and gravel
fractions.
Based on the properties above, the andosols are clas-

sified into the following:
I. Mollic andosols. Andosols with mollic A horizons.

These soils then correlate with the black andosol
variety of Indonesia.
69071.indb 415 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM

II. Humic andosols. Andosols with umbric A

horizons.
III. Ochric andosols. Andosols with ochric A horizons,
are silt loam in texture and smeary in consistence.
These can perhaps be correlated with the brown
andosol varieties of Indonesia.
IV. Vitric andosols. Andosols with lots of vitric volca-
nic ash.
The above concept of classification was later amended

somewhat to underline the importance of vitric and
andic as the major diagnostic criteria for andosols and
to include in addition to mollic, umbric, and ochric,
also histic, fulvic, melanic, and duric horizons (FAO-
UNESCO, 2007b).
As explained earlier, in the United States, the soils
were first classified as ando soils (Simonson, 1979; Thorp
and Smith, 1949), but were later placed as a subgroup
of the inceptisols (for example, andepts), with the intro-
duction of a new system of soil classification, known at
first as the Seventh Approximation (Soil Survey Staff,
1960, 1975). This was later amended in the newest U.S.
system, called Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006),
by upgrading its classification to the orders’ level under
the name of andisols. Though several Japanese scien-
tists seem to agree in adopting the name andisols (Shoji
et al., 1994), the name andosol is by far preferred. The
latter is noticed in a subsequent paper by Shoji et al.
(1996), where he and his American coworkers refer to
andosols while trying to bring to the attention the new-
est WRB suggestions in subdividing the andic horizon
into a vitric-andic, aluminum-andic, and silica-andic
69071.indb 416 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM

horizon. They also want to underline the importance of

formation of noncrystalline materials and organic mat-
ter accumulation as dominant pedogenetic processes in
formation of andosols.
In Indonesia, these soils were known since the early
days of the Dutch colonial time. They were called in the
past black dust soils by Dutch soil scientists because of
the huge black dust bowls stirred up by the wind when
the soils were dry (Druif, 1939a, 1939b; Mohr, 1922, 1938,
1944). In the post-World War II period, the soils were
renamed andosols (Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1961;
Tan, 1964). However, at a later date after its indepen-
dence, Indonesia apparently adopted the use of the
name andisols, though the soils have not been listed in
the official Soil Map of Indonesia, as stated earlier.
9.6 Physicochemical characteristics

9.6.1 Physical properties
The analysis of particle size distribution is fraught with
many difficulties, and even at the present, some of these
have not been solved satisfactorily. According to Birrell
(1964), these difficulties are caused by the presence of
amorphous colloids with isoelectric points higher than
those of the usual crystalline clay minerals and hydrous
oxides, which induce mutual coprecipitation.
In Indonesia, it was observed by Van Schuylenborgh
and Van Rummelen (1955) that air drying soil samples
before analysis would result in very pronounced changes
in their physical conditions. Whenever possible, the soil
69071.indb 417 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM

samples are analyzed in field-moist conditions. Drying

manifests itself in the so-called mountain granulation.
The soil then has a dusty appearance and is very dif-
ficult to moisten again. Because of these effects, the soil
is usually easily disturbed by wind action which tends
to stir up big black dust bowls; hence, the name black
dust soil was given by Dutch soil scientists to the soils.
In such a dry state, the soil is generally very sensitive
to erosion. In the analysis for particle size distribution,
peptization or dispersion of the clay fraction is not as
simple in dry (oxidized) samples of andosols as com-
pared to, for example, latosols. Samples of oxisols are
usually dispersed satisfactorily with sodium pyrophos-
phate solutions, but this is not the case with andosol
samples. It is even necessary to find a different agent,
suitable for peptizing the samples, for almost each indi-
vidual horizon. Van Schuylenborgh and Van Rummelen
(1955) have found that in most cases a solution of 0.005
N HCl was sufficient in achieving complete peptization
of andosols samples. Today dispersion or peptization
can be achieved by ultrasonic means.
Another problem is the fact that volcanic ash soils
contain a mixture of particles which are very unsta-
ble in particle sizes. It is perhaps common knowledge
that pumice, though it still has the appearance of being
in its original form, will be very easily broken down
into smaller particles by weak pressure or impact dur-
ing particle size analysis. This is due to its weakened
cohesion as a result of weathering. When weathering
processes are allowed to continue further, pumice will
eventually lose its own characteristic shape and form a
layer of mixed colored materials, called imogo layers in
69071.indb 418 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM


Andosols
Distribution (%) pH C
Horizon C
(H2O) N
% %
>50 µ 50–2 <2 µ
Black Andosol, Deli, North Sumatra, 50 m

A1 20.55 58.65 20.80 5.80 6.93 0.66 10.5
A2 18.47 59.33 22.20 5.70 6.08 0.57 10.7
B 18.49 41.41 40.10 5.85 2.77 0.37 7.5
BC 29.59 30.41 40.00 6.20 1.38 0.21 6.6
Black Andosol, Ciapus-Bogor, West Java, 600 m

A 15.56 62.59 21.85 4.93 15.19 1.25 12.2
A2 13.03 68.44 18.53 4.86 13.56 1.24 10.9
B 14.78 66.22 19.00 4.82 9.01 0.78 11.6
BC 11.97 72.82 15.21 5.04 4.07 0.41 9.9
Brown Andosol, Lembang, West Java, 1300 m

Ap 26.34 60.11 13.55 5.04 6.08 0.76 8.0
B 21.23 70.36 8.41 5.69 2.39 0.37 6.5
Ab 11.09 78.68 10.23 5.85 6.00 0.45 13.3
Japan, from which the term imogolite is coined (Yoshi-

naga and Aomine, 1962a).
Therefore, the results of particle size analysis
(Table 9.3), carried out by the pipette method, should be
read in light of the issues above. The andosols analyzed
so far are all medium-textured soils. The clay content is
generally low, and mechanical clay eluviation is seldom
noticed. An exception is noticed in the case of the black
69071.indb 419 4/25/08 10:43:34 AM

andosols of Deli, located in the lowlands of North Suma-

tra at 50 m above sea level. Here, not only are the soils
comparatively heavier in texture, but a sharp increase
in clay content can also be noticed in the B horizon.
9.6.1.2 Soil reaction

The data indicate that the soils are generally moder-
ately acid in reaction (in the pH range of 6 to 5) and
only the black andosol at Ciapus exhibits a strongly
acid soil reaction, registering a pH range of 5 to 4. The
latter may suggest the presence of umbric properties
and perhaps can be correlated to the FAO-WRB umbric
andosols. Yatno (2006) reported volcanic ash soils from
the Tangkuban-Prahu, West Java, to exhibit pH values
~3.0, which is unbelievably strongly acidic and may be
harmful to soils and plants.
9.6.1.3 Bulk density and porosity

Other outstanding properties of andosols are the low
bulk density, the very high moisture content through-
out the profile, the high uniform total porosity, and
aggregate stability. Unfortunately, only general data
and not much research information are available about
these physical features. The FAO-UNESCO (2007b) lists
as a requirement a bulk density of ≤0.85 Mg/m3 (= g/cc),
which conforms with results of the few research analy-
ses of andosols, reporting bulk densities ranging from
0.78 to 0.85 Mg/m3 (Leamy et al., 1980). In Indonesia,
bulk density values ranging from 0.38 to 0.79 Mg/m3
have also been reported from analyses of volcanic ash
soils sampled at the slope of the Tangkuban-Prahu vol-
cano, West Java (Yatno, 2006).
69071.indb 420 4/25/08 10:43:35 AM

The moisture contents are also exceptionally high, but

they are not causing the development of reduced condi-
tions, because andosols are known to be well aerated.
Birrell (1964) reported that the subsoils of andosols in
New Zealand may have moisture contents comparable
to those of peat soils. This is also true for Indonesian
andosols, where H2O contents of ≥50% have frequently
been noticed.
9.6.2 Chemical characteristics

9.6.2.1 Humus content and composition
Andosols are characterized by very high organic mat-
ter contents. The organic carbon contents may even
be as high as 15% in the surface horizons (Table 9.3),
exceeding values reported by Brady (1990) for mollisols
in the United States. However, the general trend of Corg
content is in the range of 5 to 6%, with the lower values
noted in cultivated andosols. The data in Table 9.3 also
show a sharp decrease in Corg contents from A to B or C
horizons. The general opinion in Japan is that grasses,
especially Miscanthus sp., a solfatara plant, and bam-
boo grass, are the sources for accumulation of humus.
Forest trees are not considered important for the accu-
mulation of organic matter in A horizons of andosols
(Kanno, 1961). The latter is in contrast with Indonesia,
where andosols are located under a tropical mountain
rain forest.
Judging from the values of C/N ratios (Table 9.3), the
nature of the organic fraction seems to be somewhat
different from that reported in the literature. The aver-
age C/N ratio in A horizons of andosols in Japan is 13.8
69071.indb 421 4/25/08 10:43:35 AM

Table 9.4 Humic Composition of Andosols of

Indonesia
Composition (%) Humic

Horizon
Fulvic Acid Humic Acid Fulvic
Lowland Andosol, Deli, North Sumatra

A 81.4 18.6 0.2
A2 100.0 0.0 0.0

Highland or Mountain Andosols, West Java
Ciapus/Bogor
A 65.9 34.1 0.5
A2 55.9 44.1 0.8
Lembang
A 42.9 57.1 1.3
B 52.5 47.5 0.9
Pengalengan
A 67.7 32.3 0.5
B 69.9 30.1 0.4
(Shoji et al., 1994), whereas in Indonesian andosols values

of C/N ratios equal to 8 to 13 have been noticed. It also
appears that the humic fractions of andosols are gener-
ally high in fulvic acids. The humic fractions of lowland
andosols tend to be dominated by high amounts of ful-
vic acids. As shown by the data in Table 9.4, the humic
fractions of lowland andosols of Deli, North Sumatra,
are composed of 80 to 100% fulvic acids, yielding humic
acid/fulvic acid ratios equal to 0.2 to 0.0. This is in con-
trast to those of the mountain andosols of West Java,
69071.indb 422 4/25/08 10:43:36 AM

where the humic fractions are characterized by humic

acid/fulvic acid ratios ranging from 0.4 to 1.3. A ratio
of 0.4 means a humic fraction composed of four parts
of humic acids and ten parts of fulvic acid, as noted for
example in the Pengalengan andosol (Table 9.4). On the
other hand a ratio equal to 1.3 indicates that the humic
fraction is composed of slightly more humic acids than
fulvic acids, as can be noticed in the Lembang andosol.
The differences above in fulvic acid and humic acid con-
tents between lowland and mountain andosols are to be
expected. In the lowlands, the climatic conditions favor
rapid decomposition and mineralization of soil organic
matter. Under such conditions, fulvic acids are the most
possible humic compound to be formed. Humic acids,
when formed, tend to decompose into smaller fractions,
the fulvic acids. However, as discussed in preceding
sections, the climate in the mountains of Indonesia is
cooler and more conducive to humification processes,
resulting in formation of both humic and fulvic acids,
but with a tendency to yield more humic acids. Because
fulvic acids are the most soluble humic fractions, their
higher contents suggest their bigger role in mobilization
of clays and cations through the processes of chelation.
From the data above, a tentative conclusion can be
drawn for a division of the andosols in Indonesia based
on the composition of their humic and fulvic acids con-
tents into the following (Tan, 1964, 1965):
1. Lowland andosols with humic/fulvic acids ratios

equal to 0.2 or lower.
2. Highland andosols with humic/fulvic acids ratios
equal to 0.5 or higher.
69071.indb 423 4/25/08 10:43:36 AM

9.6.2.2 Nitrogen content

The andosols of Indonesia are all invariably very high
in nitrogen content. The data in Table 9.3 show the per-
cent of nitrogen (% N) ranging from 0.2 to 1.3%, values
far exceeding those reported for mollisols of the United
States (Brady, 1990). The exceptionally high nitrogen con-
tents of 1% or higher, noticed for the A horizons, are com-
parable with those of some of the organic manures.
9.6.3 Clay mineralogy

As previously discussed, emphasis has been placed on
the clay mineralogy for identification of andosols. The
most important are allophane and imogolite. In addi-
tion to these, 1:1 lattice-type minerals, gibbsite, amor-
phous silica, and alumina, and some 14 Å minerals
have also been detected in the clay fractions of andosols
(Kanno, 1961, 1962, 1964). The 1:1 lattice types of clay
minerals are mainly kaolinite mixed with halloysite as
an undetermined random mixture. They are believed
to be formed by enrichment with silica of aging allo-
phane. In the process of crystallization, the amorphous
allophane changes first into globular particles, which
eventually may grow into an onion-like mass that
finally will burst into tubular kaolin-like particles. Evi-
dence for the hypothesis above was presented by Yoshi-
naga and Aomine (1962a, 1962b), who showed electron
micrographs of crystalline clay minerals in a metastable
state resulting from the weathering of allophane. This
kind of allophane, exhibiting thread-like particles, per-
ceived to be the first step in development of crystalline
structures, is called imogolite. Since then, imogolite has
69071.indb 424 4/25/08 10:43:36 AM

also been found in andosols in Chile and other coun-

tries in the world (Besoain, 1968; Eswaran, 1972). Based
on clay mineralogical features, Kanno (1964) suggests a
division of andosols as follows:
1. Soils, characterized by a dominant content of allo-

phane. These are the young andosols.
2. Soils, characterized by a mixture of allophane and
halloysite. These are the relatively older andosols.
3. Soils, rich in allophane, kaolinite, and gibbsite.
These andosols are considered to be comparatively
the oldest age.
In Indonesia, the current author has found by differ-

ential thermal analysis (DTA) that most of the andosols
in Sumatra and West Java contain large amounts of allo-
phane with comparatively minor amounts of gibbsite
(Figure 9.4). The endothermal peaks around 300°C are
too small to account for the presence of substantial
amounts of gibbsite. Kaolinite has been detected only in
the clay fractions of andosols of East Java. The andosols
of the Dieng Plateau, Central Java, possess rather differ-
ent thermograms. Here, no exothermal peaks are pres-
ent at temperatures of 800 to 900°C or higher. One of
the thermograms is provided as evidence in Figure 9.4.
Such a DTA thermogram suggests the presence of allo-
phane-B or β-allophane, as proposed by Fieldes (1955).
However, Aomine and coworkers in Japan (Yoshinaga
and Aomine, 1962b) are skeptical about the theory in
New Zealand on the division into allophane-B and allo-
phane-A. Large amounts of imogolite have also been
detected in the Ciapus andosol by transmission electron
69071.indb 425 4/25/08 10:43:36 AM

300 500 700 900 °C
Figure 9.4 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) curves of clay

fractions of andosols in Indonesia: (1) Lake Maninjau, West
Sumatra; (2) Ciapus-Bogor, West Java; (3) Lembang, West Java;
(4) Deli, North Sumatra; and (5) Dieng Plateau, Central Java.
microscopy. As can be noticed from the electron micro-

graph (Figure 9.5), the hairlike or cylinder-like struc-
tures clearly dominate the picture. The accompanying
x-ray image by electron microbeam analysis or EDAX
(Energy Dispersive Analysis by X-rays) supports the
presence of imogolite.
69071.indb 426 4/25/08 10:43:37 AM

Al Cl
EDAX
Si Liat Ciapus
Figure 9.5 Transmission electron micrographs of the clay

fraction of the Ciapus Andosol, showing the characteristic
hairlike or cylinder-like structures of imogolite. The Energy
Dispersive Analysis by X-rays (EDAX) image supports the
presence of clay, composed of silicon and aluminum.
69071.indb 427 4/25/08 10:43:38 AM

9.6.4 Charge characteristics

Andosols are considered to be variable-charged soils.
Without addressing the issue on variable charges, a dis-
cussion on andosols is incomplete. As explained before,
the electrical charges, stimulated by inorganic and
organic colloidal materials, are responsible for the soils’
chemical activities and can be permanent or variable in
nature. The permanent charges originate usually from
permanent-charged clays and are mostly developed by
isomorphous substitutions in the clay structures. For
example, the negative charges of expanding 2:1 layer
types of silicate clays originate from isomorphous sub-
stitution. On the other hand, variable charges are created
by dissociation of exposed OH groups. Because the rate
of such dissociation depends on soil pH, the charges
will go up and down with corresponding fluctuation
in soil pH. The charges of organic substances and some
of the clays (e.g., humic acids, amino acids, hematite,
gibbsite) are pH dependent. This group of soil mate-
rials is then called variable-charge clays (or organics).
Kaolinite has a small permanent charge but has a high
variable charge, causing the cation-exchange capacity
(CEC) also to fluctuate with soil pH (Tan, 2003b). These
charges of andosols, expressed in terms of CECv, are
summarized in Table 9.5. The data show that most of
the soils are characterized by high CECv values, indi-
cating the presence of high variable charges. The ando-
sols at Ciapus and Lembang, West Java, are very high in
these pH-dependent charges. On the basis of the CECv
values, three groups of andosols can be recognized:
69071.indb 428 4/25/08 10:43:39 AM

Table 9.5 Charge Characteristics and KCl-

Extractable Al Concentrations of Andosols of
Indonesia (in me/100 g)
Horizon Al3+ CECp CECv CEC8.2 AEC
N. Sumatra
Padang Bulan
A 0.22 5.7 29.9 35.6 14.0
A2 0.10 1.2 21.1 22.3 20.2
W. Sumatra
Lake Maninjau
A 0.11 11.1 15.4 26.5 11.5
C 0.14 6.9 34.3 41.2 22.8
Ophir Volcano
A 0.36 5.3 23.6 28.9 18.0
A2 0.17 3.3 22.1 25.4 21.6
West Java
Ciapus-Bogor
A 4.7 8.1 62.3 70.4 23.9
A2 1.5 8.4 64.3 72.7 29.1
Lembang
A 0.78 4.8 39.0 43.8 24.5
B 0.78 5.5 36.2 41.7 24.5
Pengalengan
A 0.21 5.0 19.4 24.4 14.9
B 0.13 2.8 20.6 23.4 18.2
Central Java
Dieng Plateau
Ap 17.3 9.0 13.2 22.2 5.0
A2 7.0 7.9 13.6 21.5 18.6
East Java
Pujon-Malang
Ap 0.37 9.2 15.7 24.9 9.7
Notes: C
EC, cation-exchange capacity; AEC, anion-
exchange capacity.
69071.indb 429 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM

1. CECv ≤30 me/100 g. Andosols with comparatively

low variable charges (e.g., andosols of Sumatra,
Central and East Java).
2. CECv = 30 to 50 me/100 g. Andosols with interme-
diate variable charges (e.g., andosols at Lembang,
West Java).
3. CECv ≥50 me/100 g. Andosols with high vari-
able charges (e.g., andosols at Ciapus-Bogor, West
Java).
The above results seem to be in agreement with those

observed in New Zealand. Although the analyses were
conducted with quite different methods, Fieldes (1962)
reported that allophane developed an increasingly
higher negative charge as the pH increases above pH
= 5.
Concerning the amount of positive charges, it can be
noticed that andosols with low CECv have low anion-
exchange capacities (AEC), whereas andosols with
intermediate and high CECv exhibit medium to high
AEC values. The data in Table 9.5 also show that the
AEC values of most of the andosols appear to be larger
for the subsurface than for the surface A horizons. This
may be reflected in the P-fixation capacity, if any. Hence,
P-fixation may occur in some but not all of the ando-
sols in Indonesia, and will more likely be an issue in
the subsurface layers. Phosphate fixation has been con-
sidered by several FAO and Japanese soil scientists as
one of the detrimental features of the otherwise fertile
andosols. In Indonesia, no reports are present yet about
the harmful effect of P-fixation of andosols. As far as it
69071.indb 430 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM

is known by the author, the andosols are the best soils

for agriculture in Indonesia.
The data in Table 9.5 also show that the soluble or
exchangeable Al3+ concentrations are very high in the
Ciapus and Dieng andosols, which are also reflected
in the soil reactions of the respective soils. As noted in
Table 9.3, the Ciapus andosols are the most acidic in soil
reactions as compared to the others. The high levels of
free Al3+ may have an effect on increasing the chances
of P-fixation. However, the mechanism of this fixation
according to a ligand-exchange process, as proposed by
Japanese scientists (Shoji et al., 1998), is harmful for the
existence of andosols. Ligand exchange may release the
humic molecules from the aluminum exchange sites,
and in the form of free molecules, the humic and fulvic
acids are subject to rapid attack by decomposition pro-
cesses, normally occurring under tropical conditions.
Therefore, the author believes that aluminum bridging is
a better explanation for the retention of phosphates, as
illustrated below:
Humic Acid – Al – HPO4 or Humic Acid – Al –PO4 (9.1)
Such a bridging interaction is not harmful for the exis-

tence of andosols, because it will preserve the humic
molecules. The interaction between allophane and imo-
golite (through their structural aluminum layers) and
humic acids is the most important process in the gen-
esis of andosols. Free Al3+ is considered to also play a
role in the accumulating process of humic substances.
Additionally, in chelated form, the phosphate mole-
cule is still available by exchange for plant use. This is
69071.indb 431 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM

then the reason why the author has stated above that
in Indonesia, no serious problems in fixation of phos-
phates have so far been reported, like in andosols of
Japan.
9.7 Land use and evaluation

9.7.1 Evaluation of analytical properties
As discussed above, the andosols in Indonesia are char-
acterized by very high organic matter contents, with
humus contents exceeding those reported for mollisols
in the United States. As a whole, they are medium-tex-
tured and friable soils, with low bulk densities, high
water contents, good porosity, and stable aggrega-
tion. They contain high amounts of nitrogen and have
medium levels of potassium and phosphates (Tan and
Massey, 1964). The latter are presumably due to their
intermittent enrichment with volcanic ash, supplying
the potassium- and phosphorus-bearing minerals.
9.7.2 Significance of basic soil properties

The physical and chemical properties, summarized
above, indicate that the andosols of Indonesia are per-
haps the most fertile soils in the world, next to the mol-
lisols. The nitrogen contents of the andosols of ≥1% can
be matched only by green and stable manures, and no
other soils in the world have been reported to contain
those high nitrogen contents. However, a disadvan-
tage is perhaps that much of the areas of andosols in
Indonesia are located in rugged terrain, high up in the
69071.indb 432 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM

mountains, unlike the rolling great plains, where most of

the extensive areas of mollisols are found in the United
States and Canada. Another striking difference is that
the chemical characteristics are also controlled by vari-
able charges generated by the peculiar amorphous type
of clays and by the high amounts of humic substances.
Hence, as variable-charged soils, the andosols of Indo-
nesia must be handled very differently when used in
agricultural operations than the mollisols. Mollisols
are known to be permanent-charged soils due to the
presence of crystalline clays, such as smectites or mont-
morillonites, with lots of isomorphous substitutions in
their crystal structure. Lime is perhaps not needed in
too large amounts in the andosols, due to the soil’s pH
range, which is mostly between 5 and 6. In the more acidic
types of andosols (umbric andosols) and when required
to offset losses by plant uptake and leaching, perhaps
applications of dolomitic limestone or gypsum are more
warranted than the use of calcitic limestone. In contrast
to the oxisols and ultisols of Indonesia, which are also
variable-charged soils, the negative charges in andosols
are already sufficiently high for maintaining the proper
CEC values, and there is no need to increase them fur-
ther with large applications of liming materials.
9.7.3 Agricultural operations

Because of the favorable soil properties above, the ando-
sols in Indonesia are favored for a variety of agricultural
operations whenever the areas are suitable for inhabita-
tion. The lowland andosols in North Sumatra were in
the pre-World War II period used for cultivation of the
69071.indb 433 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM

famous Deli-tobacco wrappers, which formerly found

their markets in Holland. Grown on the andosols, the
tobacco plants usually receive adequate phosphate fertil-
ization, little potassium, and small amounts of nitrogen
fertilizers. To control the bacterial wilt disease, the area
is cultivated with tobacco only once every four years.
In Lembang, West Java, the andosols are often consid-
ered the main factor for a successful horticultural opera-
tion. Due to the location in a cool tropical climate, the
soils are favored for growing cabbage, tomatoes, carrots,
potatoes, green onions, and other temperate region veg-
etables and cut flowers. Although the soils contain high
amounts of organic matter, the farmers often fertilize
these crops again with tons of organic manure, probably
to counteract any toxic effect due to the high Al3+ con-
tents of the soil. In the Pengalengan highlands, the best
tea plantations are found on andosols. The production
of approximately 3000 kg tea/ha per year is considered
quite high, as discussed in Chapter 8. The quality of this
highland tea is allegedly far better than the lowland tea that
is grown at lower elevations on different kinds of upland
soils. The cultivation of these crops was addressed in
Chapter 8 on upland soils; therefore, the following will
address the other crops also favored for cultivation on
mountain andosols (e.g., coffee and clove).
9.7.3.1 Estate crops

Coffee and clove are formerly the two other important
estate crops of Indonesia.
9.7.3.1.1 Coffee Egyptians were recorded as

having used coffee beans for making beverages since
69071.indb 434 4/25/08 10:43:41 AM

biblical times. Coffee, locally called kopi, is not native

to Indonesia, and the plants have their origin perhaps
in the Abyssinian highlands of Ethiopia, where cultiva-
tion of coffee allegedly started in 600 AD. From here
it was carried over the world by Arab merchants, who
imported some of the plants for cultivation in their
homeland, the Arabian Peninsula. This was the reason
for assigning it later the Latin name Coffea arabica. Ironi-
cally, much of the coffee in the world is now produced in
Latin and South America, far from its country of origin.
Renowned in the United States is, for example, Colom-
bian coffee, though the latter is not pure arabica coffee
but may contain other varieties, discussed below.
In Indonesia, coffee was planted during the Dutch
colonial time in large estates, at first as a government-
enforced (Dutch: verplichte) cultivation in Java and
Sumatra. In the wet tropical climate of Sumatra and
West Java, the coffee plants are easily subject to the
dreadful leaf disease by Hemileia vastatrix (Ultée, 1950).
This disease was first noted in 1969 in Sri Lanka, and
since then has spread quickly to the coffee plantations
of the Padang Highlands (Bukit Tinggi and surround-
ings) in West Sumatra, where it has wiped out whole
plantations. This is the reason why today, coffee plan-
tations are primarily concentrated in the mountains
of East Java, where the monsoon climate is more suit-
able for its cultivation. It needs 3 months of sharp dry
seasons for proper berry-setting, ripening, and easy
harvesting. Usually, arabica coffee grows well at aver-
age annual temperatures between 16 and 20°C, and
at elevations between 800 and 1500 m above sea level.
In the coffee-growing areas of East Java, the lower
69071.indb 435 4/25/08 10:43:41 AM

altitudinal limit for cultivation of arabica is set by the

hemileia disease, which below 800 m is still a devas-
tating factor. The higher altitudinal limit at 1500 m is
determined by the possible occurrence of night frost.
Coffee still grows well at 1700 m above sea level, but
the plants are then frequently damaged by night frost.
Due to the disease above, new types of coffee, presum-
ably resistant to the hemileia, have been imported by
the Dutch people (e.g., the Liberica and Robusta coffees).
The liberica coffee (Coffea liberica) has been imported
from Liberia, Africa, whereas the robusta coffee (Cof-
fea canephora) originated from the Congo. Both coffee
varieties appear to also grow well in the lowlands of
Indonesia. They soon became the sources for the devel-
opment of smallholder coffee farms operated by local
people in lowland areas below 800 m, from which the
famous Lampung coffee originated (Lampung is a prov-
ince at the southern tip of Sumatra). In Sumatra, Java,
Bali, Timor, Menado (Sulawesi), and West Papua, most
of the lowland coffee is now replaced by either robusta
or liberica coffee. Some arabica coffee is still grown at
local small farms in the mountains of Bengkulu, South-
west Sumatra, at altitudes of 1000 m, whereas arabusta,
a crossing between arabica and robusta, is cultivated in
Timor (AARD, 1986).
Traditionally, coffee in Indonesia was planted first as
seedlings. Used to growing as an undergrowth bush
in its original forest setting in Africa, the vertical stem
of the seedling soon produces lateral branches that
become progressively longer, giving the shrub a pyra-
midal shape when left to grow. In practice, formation of
a crown composed of lateral branches was encouraged
69071.indb 436 4/25/08 10:43:41 AM

by the former Dutch Coffee Research Institute, at Jem-

ber, East Java, by grafting on top of the stem seedling
young shoots, taken from the lateral branches of older
trees. The more of these lateral branches, the bigger will
be the yield, because coffee flowers develop the most
on these branches. Flowering starts usually at the end
of the rainy season, when stem elongation and shoot
growth have stabilized somewhat. In the presence of
a prolonged rainy season, the flowers will be aborted.
This is then the reason why a monsoon climate with a
couple months of dry season is essential for growing
coffee. The fruit, called a berry or drupe, turns red or
yellow, depending on variety, when ready for harvest. A
1-year-old plant will already give a small yield, and this
yield continues to grow and even-up in plants at ages of
3 to 4 years. Today, the yield of a third-year plantation is
around 2000 to 3000 kg (beans)/ha (AARD, 1986).
In the Dutch coffee plantations, it was customary to
grow the coffee plants below shade trees, preferably
tall, nitrogen-fixing legume trees (e.g., Albizia sp. and
Gliricidia spp.). A similar use of such a shade method,
applied in cultivation of tea, was discussed in Chap-
ter 8. Such a system of tall trees does not only provide
shade for protection of the coffee crops against sunburn,
but it also provides the estate with a series of ecological
advantages. The canopy of the shade trees intercepts
the rainfall, which is usually rather heavy in the moun-
tains, decreasing substantially the impact of the rain-
drops on the andosols beneath. The dead leaves and
twigs produce a litter layer, mulching the soil and by
decomposition recycling the nutrients contained by the
plant remains. As pointed out earlier, these shade trees
69071.indb 437 4/25/08 10:43:41 AM

generally develop deep root systems that draw nutrients

from the deeper soil layers, contributing to what we call
nutrient cycling. In addition, the albizia trees can provide
precious firewood and cheap timber. Unfortunately,
the use of shade trees in estate crops has been reduced
or discontinued recently. New cultivation methods,
including applications of a battery of agrochemicals and
higher-yielding crop varieties, have brought changes
in the concepts of growing estate crops. The danger of
the hemiliea disease that can become serious in shady
areas, due perhaps to increased relative humidity, is an
additional factor for encouraging the use of a shade-
less system. Nevertheless, experimental results of the
Indonesian government research stations suggest only
the use of lesser amounts of shade trees, but not elimi-
nating them totally. Estates that grow coffee with zero
(0) shade trees produce an average of 2000 kg beans/ha
as compared to a substantially lower average of 1300
kg/ha from estates using 1322 shade trees per hectare
(AARD, 1986). This is to be expected, because the density
of shade will control both growth and yield of plants.
The most suitable density of shade trees, for profitable
bean production, has to be found for each estate, and as
presented by the Agency for Agricultural Research and
Development (AARD, 1986), higher coffee yields aver-
aging 2200 kg/ha were obtained in estates using either
331 or 147 shade trees per hectare.
By growing these cover trees, a forest-like setting
is also created, playing an important role in issues of
conservation and biodiversity, similarly as those occur-
ring in a tropical rain forest. The structural diversity of
the estate crops, produced by the different varieties of
69071.indb 438 4/25/08 10:43:41 AM

plants and layers and heights of canopies, can become

an important refuge, harboring a diverse population of
birds. It is without question that all these ecological ben-
efits afforded to the lands in Indonesia are lost forever
by the elimination of shade trees. The author has noticed
lately that the wild chicken or jungle fowl, numerous
in the past, have now become extinct or endangered in
many of the estates because of loss of habitats. They are
locally called ayam hutan (ayam means “chicken,” and
hutan means “wild” or “forest”) or in West Java also
named kasintu, but not manuk as often stated in English
books. Manuk is a Sundanese dialect referring to birds in
general. In the past, Indonesia recognized at least two
types of ayam hutan, the red (Gallus gallus) and green
jungle fowl (Gallus varius). The red variety, from which
Indonesia’s domestic chickens have descended, has
been considered extinct for a long time, but the green
jungle fowl has apparently been able to exist for a while
in the huge expanses of mountain forest settings cre-
ated in the tea, coffee, and other plantations. During the
Dutch time, no hunting was permitted on the estates,
but these wild birds have apparently also disappeared
rapidly in numbers because of habitat losses in recent
years.
9.7.3.1.2 Clove This is another plant that has

made Indonesia famous as the Spice Islands. Clove
plants (Figure 9.6), known during the Dutch time by
the Latin name Eugenia caryophyllata but in the English
literature called Eugenia aromaticum, are native to Indo-
nesia. Locally known as cengkeh, the plants are reported
to originate from the islands group of Ternate, Tidore,
69071.indb 439 4/25/08 10:43:42 AM

A
C
Figure 9.6 (A) Young cengkeh or clove tree. (B) Fresh green

cloves. (Courtesy of P.T. Cenkeh Lanriber. Photo (B) provided
by Januar Darmawan.) (C) Dried clove showing the form of a
nail or screw.
Ceram, Halmahera, and Ambon in the Moluccas. It is

presumably also found in Timor (Deinum, 1950b). Clove,
as a spice, was known already in 547 a.d. in Egypt,
presumably imported from China and Ceylon. It was
a very precious commodity, and even after the Portu-
guese found their way to the Moluccas in 1511, the clove
was still scarce and expensive in European markets.
From Timor, French sailors succeeded to smuggle clove
plants in 1753 to Réunion island, and the crop has since
then spread to Madagascar, Sainte Marie, and Zanzibar,
Africa, where today extensive clove plantations can be
found. As is the case with nutmeg, cultivation of cloves
69071.indb 440 4/25/08 10:43:43 AM

in Indonesia is mostly done by smallholder farms, in

the early days under a forced (Dutch: verplichte cultuur)
cultivation system. The latter was abolished in 1863
(Deinum, 1950b). The plants were, in 1798, during the
brief British occupation of Indonesia, brought to Suma-
tra, where clove has been cultivated since then in many
small plantations in Bengkulu, Southwest Sumatra,
Payah Kumbuh, and other areas in West Sumatra.
The plants are propagated by germinating seeds and
allowed to grow for 8 to 12 months in seedbeds or pots
before they are ready for transplanting in the fields.
Some farmers keep them for 2 years in the pots before
transplanting. The plants will grow in the lowlands as
well as in the uplands. In West Java, they have been
cultivated on lowland ultisols, but they will grow bet-
ter on soils at elevations of 600 to 800 m above sea level
with an average annual rainfall of ±3000 mm (Tan and
Hadiwidjaja, 1959).
Prior to flowering, a period of 2 to 3 months of dry
weather, where the monthly rainfall is around 80 to 90
mm, appears to be of advantage. Though this is not a
really dry season characteristic of a monsoon climate,
this semidry period usually results in prolific forma-
tion of flower buds, which should then receive again
adequate amounts of rains for proper development
(Deinum, 1950b). A really dry season with 3 months
of <60 mm rain is unsuitable, whereas a climate with
too high annual rainfalls (≥4000 mm), as exhibited in
the Ciapus and Pasir Madang areas, West Java, is also
very harmful. The high humidity seems to encourage
the appearance of the two most dreadful clove diseases:
dieback, locally known as the mati bujang disease, and
69071.indb 441 4/25/08 10:43:43 AM

a fungal blister-blight disease, called by farmers CDC

(cacar daun cengkeh; cacar means “pox, blister,” and daun
means “leaf”). The dieback disease, noted already in
the early Padang and Bengkulu plantations (Deinum,
1950b), has destroyed most of the clove plantations
at Ciapus and Pasir Madang. No satisfactory reasons
have been presented so far for this cengkeh dieback
disease. Deinum (1950b) has quoted J. Reitsma, profes-
sor of plant pathology at Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB),
Bogor, about Phytophthora sp. isolated from roots of
sick plants. In contrast, AARD (1986) has pointed to
an infestation by the xylem limited bacteria (XLB). The
mycoplasma-like organisms are allegedly clogging the
xylem vessels, blocking the flow and supply of water to
leaves and twigs. In a sense, it is like clogging the arter-
ies of human heart patients by cholesterol sludge. This
then results in yellowing of the leaves followed by pre-
mature dying of leaves and twigs, all too well-known
symptoms of the cengkeh dieback that has devastated
the clove plantations in Ciapus, Pasir Madang, and
other areas in West Java, and also in Sumatra where
annual rainfall is high (Tan and Hadiwidjaja, 1959). The
blister-leaf-blight disease or CDC, first noticed in 1975
in Lampung, South Sumatra, has spread rapidly over
the other clove areas in Sumatra and Java. This disease,
caused by the fungus Phyllostica sp., is allegedly also
very serious in areas with high rainfall. According to
AARD (1986), it has devastated 74% of the clove planta-
tions in the Lampungs alone. However, it appears to be
easier to control than the dieback disease, by the use
of fungicides in combination with proper culture man-
agement and sanitation practices.
69071.indb 442 4/25/08 10:43:44 AM

Because of the two diseases above, lowland areas of

Sumatra and West Java, characterized usually by contin-
uously humid conditions, are less suitable for growing
cloves. The plantations are, therefore, more restricted to
the upland regions, where the conditions are relatively
dryer, limiting the appearance of the dieback and leaf-
blister-blight diseases. The upland soils are also lighter
in texture (e.g., andosols are sandy loams, with good air
and water percolation, factors favoring the growth of
clove trees) (Tan and Hadiwidjaja, 1959). Stagnant water
conditions appear to be harmful for the somewhat
delicate root system. Some shade is required for the
first few months of growth, which is usually provided
by growing small bushes, like Tephrosia candida.
Clove is an evergreen tree that can grow to a 15- to 20-
m-tall tree, and allegedly has a life span of 130 years or
more (Deinum, 1950b). At 4 years of age the tree starts
to flower, and 2.5 to 3 months later the first fresh cloves
can be harvested. Harvest time differs from region to
region. For example, in South Sumatra trees are har-
vested in March through April, whereas in the Moluc-
cas harvest time is usually in October through January.
The fresh cloves harvested are, in fact, the unopened
flower buds that are green in color (Figure 9.6), which
assume a dark brown, rusty color after drying in the sun
until the moisture content is ≤4%. This dry clove has the
shape of a nail or screw and is the reason for the name
clove (from French clou, meaning “nail”). A yield in the
past of 1.5 to 4 kg/tree (dry cloves) was considered low,
because yields of 12 to 15 kg dry cloves per tree have
been reported from 10- to 15-year-old trees in Menado
and South Sumatra (Deinum, 1950b). Apparently, the
69071.indb 443 4/25/08 10:43:44 AM

yield is not much different today. Currently the yield

of fresh cloves from young trees grown in upland soils
of Java is around 1 to 2 kg/tree (= ±700 g dry). This is,
of course, small, but it will increase to maximum yields
of ±10 kg fresh cloves (= 6.5 kg dry) per tree at the age
of 10 to 12 years (Januar Darmawan, P.T. Cengkeh Zan-
zibar Company, personal communication, 2007). With
144 to 150 plants per hectare, this means a yield of 504
to 525 kg/ha in terms of dry cloves. Lower yields of 400
kg/ha have also been reported from clove plantations
in Gorontalo, Minahassa, North Sulawesi. Selling at a
price of Rp. 30,000.00 to Rp. 50,000.00 per kilogram (Rp.
10,000.00 = U.S. $1.00), cloves are still bringing in a siz-
able income to farmers.
9.7.3.1.3 Kretek industry The aroma of cloves,

produced by their major chemical component, eugenol,
has found application in the preparation of food dishes
all over the world. When extracted as oil, eugenol is
said to have antiseptic and anesthetic properties and
is even today used by some dentists in root canals and
treatment of toothaches. Dry cloves are often used for
enhancing the flavor of Asian as well as European and
American food. Especially in India, it is ground and
mixed with other spices and is then used in almost any
Indian dish. Beriyani, a famous local Indian rice pilaf, is
usually flavored with whole cloves. In Indonesia, cloves
are used in flavoring and increasing the aroma of cook-
ies and cakes. The main application, however, is in the
production of kretek-cigarette, an Indonesian brand of
cigarette spiced with chopped cloves. The name kretek
comes from the crackling sound of the burning cloves
69071.indb 444 4/25/08 10:43:44 AM

when smoking the cigarette. In Indonesia, the story

goes that kretek was produced in 1880 by Haji Jamhari
of East Java, who created it for treatment of his asthma.
As customary in the past, many Indonesians go by one
name only, and Haji is a title, earned by Muslims, after
their sacred pilgrimage to Mecca. His kretek caught
on locally and today is one of the most popular ciga-
rettes in the market of Indonesia. It is now produced
and marketed by a number of companies. Some of the
well-known brands are Sampoerna, Goedang Garam,
Djarum, Bentoel, and Dji Sam Soe. Recently, kretek
has also found its way to European and U.S. markets.
Strong opposition was apparently launched, especially
in the United States, for fear of losing the cigarette mar-
ket by promoting adverse health effects from smoking
kreteks. They have been the source for political debates,
highlighted by the news media in the United States. A
U.S. Senate 2004 bill was allegedly proposed that would
have placed legal restrictions on imports of kreteks. The
coup de grace for the kretek market in the United States
is perhaps the purchase of P.T. Sampoerna by Philip
Morris International Tobacco Company on March 14,
2005.
69071.indb 445 4/25/08 10:43:44 AM

69071.indb 446 4/25/08 10:43:44 AM
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69071.indb 473 4/25/08 10:43:50 AM

69071.indb 474 4/25/08 10:43:50 AM
Index
A Acidic materials
andosols, 402
AARD (Agency for Agricultural brown podzolic soils, 369–370,
Research and 371
Development), 18–19 inceptisols, 299
ABC horizons, lowland oxisols, lowland ultisols, 180, 181
143 podzolic latosols, 295–296
Acacia, 79, 353 volcanic, 34
Aceh region, 35, 65, 194, 196, 250, Acidic vertisols, 238
252, 397 Acidity; See also pH, soil
Achras zapota (sawo), 172, 246 andosols, 420
Acid brown earths, 311 argillic (Bt) horizons, 187–188
Acid-brown forest soils, 13, 303, brown forest soils, 377
307–308, 313, 314, 374 brown podzolic soils, 376–377,
association with podzolic
379
latosols, 294–295
highland alfisols/gray-brown
brown forest soil classes, 308,
podzolic soils, 347, 349,
309
352
physicochemical
highland podzols/spodosols,
characteristics, 310
383, 392–393, 396
properties, 315
Acid humus inceptisols/brown forest soils,
highland podzols/spodosols, 315
382 lowland alfisols, 218
podzolization, 74–75 lowland oxisols, 154, 155, 163
podzols/spodosols, 381–382 lowland ultisols, 179, 192, 198
Acid leaching, highland and lowland vertisol color, 239
podzols/spodosols, mineral leaching and, 73
381–382 peat soils/histosols, 256, 257,
Acid parent material, 369 270–273, 283, 288–289
Acid rain, 271 formation of, 255, 272
Acid reactions, soil sequence in water, 270–271
hilly country, 215 podzolization, 98
Acid sulfate soils, 272 precipitation/evapotranspiration
Acidic (carboxyl) group, clay ratios and soil formation,
peptidization, 105 119
475
69071.indb 475 4/25/08 10:43:51 AM

soil sequence in hilly country, andosols, 405, 406

215 brown podzolic soils, 370
spodic horizon formation, 108 lowland oxisols, 139, 141
tropical conifer forest litter, lowland ultisols, 182, 183
353 lowland vertisols, 230–231
ultisols/red-yellow podzolics, peat soils/histosols, 263
182 podzols/spodosols, 385
and vertisol/grumusol zonal soils, 386
formation, 228
Af climates, 65
volcanic materials, 38
andosols, 406
Aclimatic soils, 387
brown forest soils, 304
lowland podzols, 387 podzolic soils, 340
Acreages/areas of distribution of inceptisols, 302
soils, 124 tea and coffee requirements,
highland alfisols/gray-brown 126–127
podzolic soils, 345–346 Agathis australis (kauri tree), 389
lowland oxisols, 161 Agathis rain forest, 80
lowland ultisols, 178, 197 Agave angustifolia (cantala), 174,
mountain soils, 333 206
peat soils/histosols, 124, Agave sisalana (sisal), 174, 206
256–258 Age, soil
spodosols, 390 andosols, 402, 425
Acreages of major food crops, brown podzolic soils, 374
125 highland alfisols/gray-brown
Acrisols, 187; See also Red-yellow podzolic soils, 352
podzolic soils (ultisols); inceptisols/brown forest soils,
Ultisols, lowland (red- 312
yellow podzolic soils)
Indonesian versus U.S., 116
AEC (anion exchange capacity),
lowland oxisols
193–194
and clay mineralogy, 161
Aeolian origin, lowland alfisols,
210 and color, 156
Aeration modal profiles, 143
carbon dioxide exchange, 112 parent materials, 137
in lowland vertisols, 243 particle size distribution,
Aerobic micobial processes, peat 153
formation, 261 U.S. versus Indonesia, 152
Aerophotogrammetry, 21 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
Afa climates, 86, 139 podzolic soils, 180, 192
69071.indb 476 4/25/08 10:43:51 AM

Index 477
Agency for Agricultural soil quality and, 198, 199
Research and lowland vertisols, 244–253
Development (AARD), coconut, 249–253
18–19, 126 estate crops, 246–249
Aggregation, lowland ultisol small landholders or
particles, 199–200 farmers’ crops, 245–246
Aglaia odorata (culan flowers), 325 mountain regions, 334–335
Agricultural Environment peat soils/histosols, 126,
Research Institute, 19 286–291
Agricultural operations estate crops, 289–291
andosols, 128, 434–445 rice cultivation, 288–289,
clove, 439–444 290
coffee, 434–439 spodosols, 396–397
kretek industry, 444–445 temperate region crops at
brown podzolic soils, 379–380 higher altitudes, 75
highland alfisols, 353–367 transmigration program, 23
apples and grapes, 355–356 upland soils, inceptisols,
dairy farming, 359–362 316–331
estate crops, 362–367 albizia, 325–328
wheat crops (gandum), cabbages, 317–319
356–359 dairy farming, 330–331
highland alfisols/gray-brown estate crops, 322–330
podzolic soil and, 353 fruits, 321–322
inceptisols/brown forest soils, horticultural crops, 317–322
315–316 nutmeg, 328–330
lowland alfisols, 222–227 potatoes, 319–320
estate crops, 223–227 tea, 322–325
kapok, 224–225 tomatoes, 320–321
teak, 225–227 Agroforestry; See also Rubber
lowland oxisols, 163, 165–177 (Hevea); Teak (Tectona
estate crops, 173–177 grandis, jati); Tree farming
fruit crops, 171–174 rubber, 23
nonrice cultivation, 169–177 teak, 225–226
rice cultivation, 165–169 Agrogeology, 13
vegetable crops, 170, 171 A horizons
lowland ultisols, 200–209 andosols, 407, 408, 409, 410,
estate crops, 206–209 412, 414, 415, 421–422, 423
rice cultivation, 204–206 brown podzolic soils, 372, 373,
shifting cultivation, 374
200–204 clay migration, 105
69071.indb 477 4/25/08 10:43:51 AM

highland alfisols/gray-brown highland (gray-brown

podzolic soils, 347, 353 podzolic soils), 337–367;
highland spodosols, 380–381 See also Gray-brown
humus iron podzol, 388 podzolic soils (alfisols)
iron and aluminum complex climate, 340–341
formation, 108
land use and evaluation,
lowland ultisols/red-yellow
352–367; See also Land
podzolic morphology,
use, highland alfisols
184
lowland ultisols/red-yellow parent materials of, 338–340
podzolic soils, 182 physicochemical
Air/aeration, soil, 112, 243, 396, characteristics, 347–351
410, 420 soil morphology, 341–343
Alang-alang (Cochon grass, kandic great group diagnostic
Imperata cylindrica), 20, 21, features, 345
201, 260 lowland
Alaska peat, 288 classification issues, 338,
Albic (E) horizons 346–347
vertisols in association
brown podzolic soils, 368
with, 233–234
formation of, 75, 102, 106, 113
vertisols in toposequence
podzolic soils, 341, 342, with, 227–228
343, 349 lowland (red Mediterranean
highland podzols/spodosols, soils), 99, 123, 130,
380, 381, 392 209–227
humus iron podzol, 388 climate, 212–213
lowland ultisols/red-yellow land use and evaluation,
podzolic soils, 182 221–227; See also Land
ultisols/red-yellow podzolics, use, lowland alfisols
188 parent materials of, 210–212
Albite, 180
physicochemical
Albizia (jeungjing), 316–317, 322,
characteristics, 218–221
325–328, 364, 437
soil classification, 215–218
Albizia falcata, 364
Alfisols, 344 soil morphology, 213–215
aluminum oxide/iron oxide Miami silt loam, 119
ratios, U.S. versus percent of total area, 124
Indonesia, 119, 120 soil formation, 98
brown forest soils as, 307 terminology/taxonomy, 95–96
69071.indb 478 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM

Index 479
Algemene Vereeniging voor dairy farming, 361
Rubber Onderzoek ter nutmeg cultivation, 328
Oostkust van Sumatra tea cultivation, 364
(AVROS), 3–4, 18, 176 andosols, 405, 408, 409
Alisols, 306 and climate, 67–72
Alkali content; See Bases/base inceptisols, 299
status, soil rainfall, 68
Alkali soils (aridisols), 99, 100 temperature, 68–69
Alkaline earth elements, 131, ultisols/red-yellow
210, 380 podzolics, 182, 183
Alkalinity; See pH, soil zonal divisions into
Alkalinization, 100 lowland, upland,
Alkalis, soil; See Bases/base mountain, and high-
status, soil mountain land, 69–72, 73
Allitic soils, 149, 220, 411 highland/mountain soils, 333,
Allitic weathering, 149 336
Allitization, 97 alfisols/gray-brown
Allium cepa (shallots, bawang podzolic soils, 340, 341,
merah), 170 343, 346
Allium fistulosum (green onions), brown podzolic soils,
170, 317 368–369, 370, 371, 372
Allophane, 312, 400, 423, 424 podzols/spodosols, 382,
Allophanic clays, 414–415 386, 392
Allophanic soils, 413–414 zonal soils, 386
Alluvial soils/sediments lowland alfisols, 213
classification system, 123 lowland oxisols, 138, 140, 141
coconut growth in, 250 classification and
lowland oxisols, 132 nomenclature, 148–149
lowland podzols, 383 versus highland, 145–146
lowland vertisol/grumusol iron content, 137
formation, 229, 230 and weathering, 156
Nusa Tenggara, 47 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
Sumatra, 37–38 podzolic soils, 189, 197
Alor, 46 lowland vertisols, 231
Alpine conditions, 91 peat soils/histosols, 263
Alpine grassland, 81 soil formation processes, 114,
Alternative energy sources, 18 117
Altitude/elevation climate, 110
and agricultural activity organic matter oxidation at
cabbages, 317–318 higher elevations, 113
69071.indb 479 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM

transition zones; See Upland laterization, 97

soils leaching, 76
upland inceptisols/brown translocation of, 106–108,
forest soils, 299, 303, 308, 120
309–311, 313 Sumatran bauxite deposits, 37
vegetation zones, 84–91 Aluminum bridging, 431
cloud-belt forest, 89–90 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), 97
coastal flora, 84–88 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)/iron
rain forest and mountain oxide (Fe2O3) ratios,
rain forest, 88–89 119–120, 241
subalpine, 90–91 Am climate, oxisols, 141
zonal distribution of soils, Am climates, 65
13–14 brown podzolic soils, 370
Alum, lowland ultisols/red- coffee requirements, 127
yellow podzolic soils, 190 grape cultivation, 356
Alumina inceptisols/brown forest soils,
andosols, 423
302–303, 308
desilicification, 102–103
lowland oxisols, 139
podzolization, 98
zonal soils, 386
Aluminum
Ama climates
aluminum oxide/iron oxide
lowland soils, 130
ratios, U.S. versus
alfisols, 212
Indonesia, 119
oxisols, 139
andosols, 411, 415, 428, 429, 431
chelates, 74, 113 peat soils/histosols, 263
highland/mountain soils, 333, vertisols, 231
334 sugarcane growth, 127
alfisols/gray-brown Amaranthus spp. (spinach,
podzolic soils, 352 bayem), 170
humus iron podzols, 391 Ambon, 44, 45–46, 440
podzols/spodosols, 396 monsoons, 60
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Ambonites, 46
313–314 American System, 7; See also
lowland oxisols, 131, 157 U.S. Department of
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Agriculture (USDA)
podzolic soils, 193, 196 classification and
peat soils/histosols, 275, 282 taxonomy categories
soil formation issues with, 5
allitization, 97 terminology, 74–75
clay formation, 75–76 Ammonia, 205
69071.indb 480 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM

Index 481
Ammonium nitrogen, redox lowland ultisol acidic tuffs,
conditions and, 109–110 180
Ammonium sulfate fertilizer, Andesites/andesitic tuffs
176–177 Ambon, 46
Amorphic soils, 413 andosols, 401, 403
Amorphous clays, 413; See also brown podzolic soils, 370, 371
Noncrystalline clays highland alfisols, 338
andosols, 400, 433 highland alfisols/gray-brown
highland alfisols/gray-brown podzolic soils, 340
podzolic soils, 350, 351 inceptisols, 299, 301
lowland alfisols, 220 lowland oxisol formation, 156
Amorphous silica, andosols, 423 lowland oxisols, 132, 133, 137
Anacardium occidentale (cashew lowland vertisol/grumusol
nut), 203 formation, 229
Anaerobic processes podzols/spodosols, 383
gleyization, 101 soil formation from, 116
peat formation, 271 Sulawesi, 44
peat soils/histosols, 282, Sumatran volcanic materials,
288–289 38
soil physicochemical volcanic, 34
characteristics, 278 Andesito-basaltic volcanic
Analytical properties materials, 34, 179
andosols, 432 Andesito-dacitic tuffs, 179, 180
highland alfisols, 352 Andic horizon, 416–417
inceptisols, 313–315 Andisols, terminology, 236, 270,
lowland alfisols, 221 401, 416
lowland oxisols, 161–164 Ando soils, 400
lowland ultisols, 197–199 Andosols, 399–445
lowland vertisols, 242 brown forest soils mistaken
peat soils/histosols, 282–283 for, 306
Anaphalis javanica (edelweiss chemical characteristics,
plant), 91 421–432
Andalusite, 211 humus content and
Andepts, 400, 414; See also composition, 421–423
Andosols nitrogen content, 424
Andesine classification and
brown podzolic soils, 371 nomenclature, 123,
podzolic soils, 339 clay mineralogy, 424–427
inceptisols, 299 climate, 405–407
69071.indb 481 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM

highland alfisols/gray-brown Anion exchange capacity (AEC),

podzolic soil and, 353 193–194, 429, 430
land use and evaluation, Apatite, 180
432–445 Apples, 354, 355–356
agricultural operations, 128, Aqua suborder, 101
434–445 Aquaculture, 354
analytical properties, Aquox, 151, 152–153
evaluation of, 432 Aquults, 189
basic soil properties and, Arabica coffee, 354
432–433 Arable land area, 28
latosol/oxisol co-occurrence, Arabusta coffee, 436
142 Area of arable land, 28
mountain soil classification by Area of land containing soil
Soil Research Institute, types acreage; See
309 Acreages/areas of
mountain soils, 336 distribution of soils
nomenclature, 399–400 Areca catechu (Pinang palm, betel
parent materials of, 402–405 palm), 85, 86
physical properties Aren palm (Arenga saccharifera),
bulk density and porosity, 249
420–421 Arenosols, 306
charge characteristics, Arfak mountains, 48
428–432 Argillaceous limestone, 228
particle size distribution, Argillans, 106
417–420 Argillic-B horizons, 337
soil reaction, 420 Argillic (Bt) horizons, 101,
physicochemical 104–105, 341–342
characteristics, 417–432 chromosols, 188
silica/sesquioxide ratios of Davidson soils, 154
clay fractions, 241 formation of, 102, 107
soil classification, 411–417 highland alfisols/gray-brown
soil morphology, 407–411, 412, podzolic soils, 344, 345,
413, 414 347, 352
Andriesse classification scheme, inceptisols/brown forest soils,
256, 261, 262, 268–269 306–307
Anerobic microbial processes, kurosols, 187
peat formation, 261, 262 lowland alfisols, 216, 218
Anggur (grapes), 354, 356 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
Angi Gigi, 382 podzolic soils, 182,
Angi Gita, 382 184–188, 190, 192–193, 196
69071.indb 482 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM

Index 483
podzolic soils, 312 forest, 79–80
Argillization, 97, 101 Atmospheric pressure
Aridic regimes monsoons, 55–58
lowland oxisols, 141 subalpine zone, 91
ustox soils, 141 Augite
Aridisols (saline soils, andosols, 403, 404
solonchaks, white alkali brown forest soils, 300, 301
soils, solods, sodic soils, brown podzolic soils, 371, 379
black alkali soils), 99, 100 false red limestone sand
percent of total area, 124 fraction, 211
Arjuna tuff, 301 gray-brown podzolic soils,
Arjuna volcano, 299, 300, 301, 339, 340, 370
310, 312 highland alfisols/gray-brown
Artocarpas integra (jackfruit, podzolic soils, 339
nangka), 203, 246 inceptisols, 300, 301
Aru Islands, 48 lowland oxisols, 133, 134–135,
As climates, lowland oxisols, 139 136, 137
Asa climates, lowland alfisols, Australian soil classification
212 system, 215–216
Asian Soil Conference, 20 kurosols and chromosols,
Assam tea, 324, 363 187–188
Assarting, 202 peat soils/histosols, 268
Association Available water, peat, 281–282
minerals Avicennia spp. (kayu api), 85
hornblende, 402, 404 AVROS; See Algemene
hypersthene, 338 Vereeniging voor Rubber
hypersthene-augite, 301, Onderzoek ter Oostkust
340, 370, 404 van Sumatra
olivine, 338 Aw climates, 139
soils Awa climates
alfisols, 209, 215 lowland ultisols, 182
grumusols-terra rosa, 233 lowland vertisols, 230, 231
grumusols-vertisols, 230 ultisols/red-yellow podzolic
oxisol-alfisol, 209 soils, 189
oxisol-andosol, 142 Ayam hutan (jungle fowl), 439
podzols-brown forest soils,
294, 298
vegetation
broad-leaf trees, 340, 353
B
climax, 77 B horizons, 104–105
69071.indb 483 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM

aluminum accumulation, 396 Bandaneira, 45

andosols, 408 Bandung, 34, 54, 75, 228, 324, 367
brown forest soils, 304 Bangil, 228
brown podzolic soils, 368, 373 Bangka, 29, 37, 127, 382, 385, 386,
clay accumulation in, 154 389, 390, 393
clay migration, 105, 106 Bangka podzols (lowland
iron and managanese, 109 podzols, tanah padang,
lowland oxisols, 143, 154 padang soils), 382, 390,
podolization, 392 392, 394
podzol-B horizon, 381, 389 Banjarmasin, 39, 41
podzolization, 98 Banjirs (floods), 166
spodic horizon formation, 74 Bantam, 179, 181, 183, 185–186,
Bacan nut (nutmeg, Myristica 191, 196, 197
speciosa), 328 Barito River, 39
Bako-bako/bakau (Rhizophora), Barito River basin, 41
84 Basaltic ash deposits, 211, 239,
Balai Besar Penelitan dan
404
Pengembangan
Basalto-andesitic tuffs, 137, 299,
Sumberdaya Lahan
301, 338, 404
Pertanian, 19
Basalts, 34, 44, 301, 404–405
Balai Penelitan Bioteknologi
Base saturation
Perkebunan, 17
andosols, 405
Balai Perguruan Tinggi
Pertanian, 8
Bali podzolic soils, 337, 338,
acreages of major Indonesian 344, 345, 346, 352
food crops, 125 highland brown podzolic
geography, 29 soils, 377
geomorphology, 30 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
lowland alfisols, 210 298, 311, 313, 314, 315
monsoons, 59 lowland alfisols (red
Baluran volcano, 211, 219 Mediterranean soils), 215,
Bamboo, 246 216, 218, 219, 221, 222
Bamboo grass, 421 lowland oxisols, 155, 156, 163
Bananas (Musa spp., pisang), 163, lowland ultisols/red-yellow
174, 202, 203, 321–322, 354 podzolic soils, 184, 187,
Banda Aceh, 204 188, 191, 192, 198
Banda Islands, 30, 45 peat soils/histosols, 256, 270,
Banda Sea, 29, 45, 60 273
Bandah-Aceh, 204 red lateritic soils, 215
69071.indb 484 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM

Index 485
soil sequence in hilly country, Bayem (Amaranthus spp.,
215 spinach), 170
spodosols, 381, 385 Beach forest, 87
U.S. soil taxonomy and, 184 Beach vegetation, 87–88
Bases/base status, soil Beech forest, 304
andosols, 404–405 Bekasi River, 168
brown podzolic soils, 377 Belitung, 29, 127, 382, 390
highland podzols/spodosols, Bengkulu, 7, 205, 263, 328, 436,
381 441, 442
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Bengkulu Mountains, 13, 18
311 Beras, 168
laterization, 97 Bermuda highs, 58
leaching, 73 Betel (Piper betel), 223
lowland alfisols, 210, 218, 219, Betel palm (Areca catechu, pinang
220 palm), 85, 86
lowland oxisol formation, 131 Betelnuts, 85, 86, 223
lowland vertisol/grumusol
Bevolkingsthee, 322, 362
formation, 229
Bh horizon
lowland vertisols, 229, 238
humus iron podzol, 389
podzolization, 98
Sumatran podzol, 394
tropical broad-leaf rainforest,
Bhs horizons, formation of, 106,
314–315
108
Basic parent material
Biak, 48
inceptisols, 299, 301
lowland oxisols, 137 Bibliotheca Bogoriensis, 20
lowland ultisols, 179 Biji pala (nutmeg), 128, 329
podzols/spodosols, 383 Biodiesel, 206
precipitation/ Biotechnology, estate crops,
evapotranspiration ratios 17–18
and soil formation, 119 Biotite, 107, 180, 199, 371, 378, 384,
volcanic materials, 34, 137 403
Basic rocks, lowland ultisols, 228 Birdshead (Vogelkop), 45, 48, 53
Basin peat, 255 Black alkali soils (aridisols), 100
Batak, 36, 37 Black andosols, 409, 411, 413, 415,
Batang Kampar, 205 419
Batang Samo, 205 Black cotton soil, 227, 235
Batavia, 2, 6 Black dust soil, 417, 418
Batuagung Range, 229 Black latosols, 142
Bauxite, 37 Black margalitic soils, 215, 231,
Bauxite soils, 149 235, 240
69071.indb 485 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM

Black self-mulching soils, 227; Brassica rugosa (sawi), 170, 317,

See also Vertisols, lowland 355
Black turf soil, 227, 235 Braunerde (brown earth), 294,
Blanket peat, 255 297, 298, 304, 306, 307,
Blast disease, 206 368; See also Inceptisols
Bleicherde, 373 (brown forest soils,
Boehmite, 149 cambisols)
Boerderijen, 359 Braunerde (brown earth),
Bogor, 4, 6, 241, 357, 361 podzol, 375
annual precipitation, 54 Braunlehm, 334
experiment station Bray method, 271, 274, 282, 352
establishment, 4 Breeding, plants; See Plant
Faculty of Agriculture at, 8–9 breeding/hybrids
latosol/oxisols Broad-leaf rain forest, tropical,
climate areas, 140 314–315
particle size distribution, Brown andosols, 409, 411, 413,
419
136, 137
Brown earth (braunerde),
Bogor Institute of Agricultural
inceptisol, 294, 297, 298,
Sciences, 9
304, 306, 307, 368; See also
Bogor Research Institute; See
Inceptisols (brown forest
Soil Research Institute
soils, cambisols)
Bogor Research Station Center,
Brown earth (braunerde),
17
podzol, 375
Bogor Soil Research Institute; See Brown forest soils (inceptisols);
Soil Research Institute See Inceptisols (brown
Bog-type peats, 268 forest soils, cambisols)
Bohea tea, 363 Brown forest soils (brown
Bojonegoro, 231 podzolic soils)
Bone Mountains, 44 andosols and, 402
Bonthain, 44 classification and
Borassus flabellifer (lontar palm), nomenclature, 368, 375
249 clay mineralogy, 378
Boreal forest (taiga), 298 vegetation, 377
Borneo; See Kalimantan (Borneo) zonal soils, 386
Bougainville Mountains, 49 Brown hornblende, 180
Boylolali, 357 Brown latosols/oxisols
Braak formula, 68–69 charge characteristics, 157–158
Brassica oleracea (cabbage), 75, clay and sand content, 153
170, 317–319 clay mineralogy, 160–161, 162
69071.indb 486 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM

Index 487
lowland oxisol profiles, 143 Bukit Barisan Mountains, 25, 32,
mineralogical composition of 35, 36, 38, 52, 397
sand fraction, 134 Bukit Tinggi, 25, 37, 38, 53, 435
nitrogen content, 156 Bulk density
organic matter, N content, andosols, 415, 420–421
CEC, base saturation and inceptisols/brown forest soils,
pH, 155 316
particle size distribution, 136 peat soils/histosols, 277,
profile description, 146–147 278–280, 286, 291
Brown margalites, 235 Bunch grass, 91
Brown Mediterranean soils, 214, Buried profile, andosol, 410, 411,
218, 219 412, 414
Brown podzolic soils, 98, 182, Burning, forest, 24
367–380 Buru, 44, 45
brown forest soils as, 307 Bush vegetation, 186
carbon/nitrogen ratio, depth
of profile and, 114
classification and
nomenclature, 368
C
climate, 115, 183, 370, 372 Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), 75,
geographic/topographic 170, 317–319
distribution, 368–369 Cacao (Theobroma cacao), 224, 250,
land use and evaluation, 326
379–380 Cacao plantations, soil
mountain soils, 13, 336, conservation programs,
367–380 326
organic C and C/N ratios, 115 Cacatuas, 85
parent materials of, 369–370, Calapogonium spp., 176
371 Calcareous materials
physicochemical brown podzolic soils, 369
characteristics, 375–379 inceptisols, 304
soil classification, 374–375 lowland alfisols, 211
soil morphology, 372–374 lowland ultisols, 179, 181, 228
Brown soil, noncalcic, 123 podzols/spodosols, 383
Brown soils, 297 Calcification, 94, 99
Brunisols, 308 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
Brunizem, 297, 308 308
Bt horizons; See Argillic (Bt) with laterization, 114
horizons lowland alfisols, 210, 220
Bukit Asam, 37 Calcitic limestone, 284
69071.indb 487 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM

Calcium Canadian Wetland Classification

basalts, 34 Center, 275
highland alfisols/gray-brown Canarium commune/Canarium
podzolic soils, 352 indicum (pohon kenari),
inceptisol formation, 304 329
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Canopies, rain forest, 78
313 Cantala (Agave angustifolia), 174,
lowland ultisols, 198 206
lowland vertisol/grumusol Cape Datuk, 39
formation, 229 Cape Sambar, 39
lowland vertisols, 238, 242, Capillary water, 281, 283
244 Capsicum annuum, Capsicum
peat soils/histosols frutescens (hot pepper),
exchangeable bases, 273 202–203, 245–246
liming effects, 284 Carbon content; See also Organic
soil sequence in hilly country, matter, soil
215 andosols, 421–422
Calcium carbonate, 232 lowland alfisols, 219
Calcium concretions, 210, 234, lowland ultisols/red-yellow
242 podzolic soils, 191
Calcium fertilizer, rice, 167 peat soils/histosols, 275–277
Calophyllum sp., 260 Carbon dioxide
Camara (trees), 88 dissolved
Cambiare (Latin), 307 and chemical weathering,
Cambic horizon, 298, 415 111
Cambisols, 307 and leaching, 120
Camellia sinensis; See Tea mineralization of organic
(Camellia sinensis/theifera, matter, 111–112
Thea sinensis) Carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio,
Campnosperma microphyllum/ 102
auriculatum, 265 andosols, 419, 421–422
Canadian systems of soil brown podzolic soils, 376
taxonomy, 101, 268 comparison of temperate and
brown forest soils, 308 tropical soils, 115
gray wooded soils, 344–345 gray-brown podzolic soils, 114
highland alfisols (luvisols), highland alfisols/gray-brown
and red-yellow podzolic soils, highland podzols/spodosols,
188 394
69071.indb 488 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM

Index 489
inceptisols/brown forest soils, highland alfisols/gray-brown
lowland alfisols, 219 highland podzols/spodosols,
lowland ultisols/red-yellow 381
podzolic soils, 191 and iron and aluminum
lowland vertisols, 237 mobility, 107
peat soils/histosols, 270, lowland oxisols, 154, 156–157,
275–277 161, 164
Carbonic acid, 112 clay mineralogy, 162
Carbonization, organic matter, reddish-brown, brown, and
405 red latosols, 155
Carboxyl group, clay lowland ultisols/red-yellow
peptidization, 105 podzolic soils, 193, 200
Caribbean kapok, 224 lowland vertisols, 238, 240
Carica papaya (papaya, papaya mineral nutrition, 75
semangka), 172, 173, 174, peat soils/histosols, 271
percolating water, 112–113
203, 354
podzolization, 98
Carrots (Daucus carota), 75, 170
soil moisture, dissolved
Cartensz top, 50, 392
carbon dioxide and, 112
Cashew nut (Anacardium
soil sequence in hilly country,
occidentale), 203
215
Cassava (Manihot utilissima,
volcanic materials, 34
yucca), 125, 156, 163, 169,
Cation exchange capacity,
202, 203, 222–223, 245, effective (ECEC), 95, 157
284, 288 Cattle
Castanea argentea (saninten), 89 dairy farming, 317, 330–331,
Castanea javanica (ki hiyur), 89 354, 359–362, 397
Castanea sp. (chestnut, saninten), fallow lands (tegalans), 222
314–315, 353 Cauliflower, 75
Castanozems, 297, 306 Cauliflower soil structure,
Castor oil crops, 245 grumusols, 232
Casuarina equisetofolia, 88 Ceiba pentandra (kapok, tani,
Casuarina forest, 82 petani), 174, 203, 213, 223,
Cat clays, 272 224–225, 246
Cation concentration, subsoil, Cementation, lowland oxisols,
108 147, 154
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) Cengkeh, 128; See also Clove(s)
alkalinization, 100 (Eugenia caryphyllata and
andosols, 428, 430 E. aromatica)
69071.indb 489 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM

Center for Agricultural lowland ultisols/red-yellow

Land Resources and podzolic soils, 193–194,
Development, 19 200
Center of Research and lowland vertisols, 240
Development of Estate Charge distribution analysis,
Crops, 18 lowland oxisols, 157–158
Center of Research and Chelates/complex formation
Development of Soils altitudinal variations in soil
formation and fertility, 74
and Agroclimate, 4
aluminum and iron
Centrale Proefstations
translocation, 120
Vereeniging (CPV), 4
highland podzols/spodosols,
Central Java 381
climate, 67, 72, 140 and iron and aluminum
geomorphology, 34 mobility, 107–108
inceptisols, 303 and micronutrient availability,
latosols, 140 75
lowland alfisols, 210 mountain soils, 334
lowland ultisols, 179 podzolization, 98
lowland vertisols, 227 redox conditions and, 109
mountain flora, 89 with silica, 103, 104
sugarcane growth, 247 soil formation, 113
Central lake plain, 49 Cheluviation (eluviation), 98,
Centrosema, 176 334, 337, 346, 381, 392, 394
Ceram, 44, 45, 46, 86 Chemical characteristics
Cf climates andosols, 421–432
andosols, 406, 407 humus content and
composition, 421–423
lowland oxisols, 139
nitrogen content, 424
lowland vertisols, 230
highland alfisols, 347–349
Cfhi climate
highland spodosols, 392–394
andosols, 406
inceptisols, 311–312
podzols/spodosols, 385 lowland alfisols, 218–220
Cfi climates, highland alfisols/ lowland oxisols, 154–157
gray-brown podzolic lowland ultisols, 192–193
soils, 340 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
Charge characteristics podzolic soils, 190
andosols, 428–432 lowland vertisols, 238–239
clay peptidization, 105 mineralization versus
lowland oxisols, 157–159, 161 humification, 110–112
69071.indb 490 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM

Index 491
Chemical weathering Cipanas, 341
ferralization, 97 Circum Australia Mountain
percolating water and, 112–113 system, 30
soil solution strength and, Circum Sunda Mountain
117–118 system, 29, 30, 43
temperature and, 116–117 Citarum River, 166
Chemically bound water, peats, Citrus crops, 354
281 Citrus nobilis (jeruk siam/jeruk
Cheribon, 247
paseh), 173–174
Chernozems (mollisols), 99, 124,
Citrus vein phloem
377; See also Vertisols,
degeneration, 174
lowland
Chestnut (Castanea argentea, Clam disease, 330
Castanea sp.), 89, 314–315, Classification of soils
353 andosols, 123, 399–402,
Chfi climates, mountain 411–417
podzols, 386 brown podzolic soils, 368,
Chili pepper (Capsicum), 202–203, 374–375
245–246 inceptisols, 306–309
Chilluviation (illuviation), 98, in Indonesia, 121–125
334, 337, 346, 381, 394, lowland alfisols, 215–218
395–396 lowland oxisols, 148–153
Chromosols, 215; See also lowland ultisols, 186–189
Alfisols, lowland lowland vertisols, 235–236
Cianjur, 167, 228, 324 methodological issues, 7–8
Ciapus, 303, 403, 404, 405, 406, peat soils/histosols, 267–270
409, 410, 420, 422, 425, publications, 14
426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, spodosols, 390–392
441, 442
systems of
Ciasam, 168
FAO-UN, 121, 122; See also
Ciawi, 19, 160
Food and Agricultural
Cibadak, 322
Cibinong, 136, 137, 145, 173, 241 Organization (FAO)
Cicurug, 322 classification system and
Cigombong, 341 terminology
Cikampek, 168 in Indonesia, 14
Ciluar profile, 133, 136, 137 USDA; See U.S. Department
Cimanggu, Bogor, 6 of Agriculture (USDA)
Cimanuk River, 228 classification and
Cinchona (quinine), 334, 354 taxonomy categories
69071.indb 491 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM

WRB, 98, 130; See also World ultisols/red-yellow

Reference Base (WRB) for podzolic soils, 190–191,
Soil Resources 200
Clay loam, Davidson soils, 154 vertisols, 227, 232, 237–238,
Clay mobilization/movement/ 239–241
translocation, 75 lowland soils, oxisols, 138, 148,
highland alfisols/gray-brown 151–152, 153, 159–161, 162
podzolic soils, 347, 349 cation exchange capacity,
highland brown podzolic 157, 158–159
soils, 368 classification and
highland podzols/spodosols, nomenclature, 149, 154
381, 392 particle size distribution,
inceptisols/brown forest soils, 137
311–312, 313 organic complexes
lowland oxisols, 154 humo-complex formation,
lowland ultisols, 190 105, 106, 381
mountain soils, 334 translocation of, 106, 113
soil formation, 98, 102, 104–106 podzolization, 98
humic acids and, 113 upland brown forest soils/
illimerization, 101 inceptisols, 304, 309–311,
Clay schists, 385 312–313, 314
Clay skins, 106 Claystone, 229
Clays/clay mineralogy; See also Clean weeding, 176
specific minerals Climate, 51–76
andosols, 412–415, 417–420, and agricultural operations
424–427 cloves, 441–442
formation of, 75–76 grape cultivation, 356
argillization, 101 nutmeg cultivation, 328–329
lowland ultisols/red-yellow sugarcane, 246, 247–248, 250
podzolic soils, 190 tea and coffee
highland soils, 334 requirements, 126–127
alfisols, 347, 349–351 altitudinal variations, 67–72
brown podzolic soils, 376, and rainfall, 68
377 and temperature, 68
podzols/spodosols, 381, 392 zonal divisions into
spodosols, 394–396 lowland, upland,
lowland soils mountain, and high-
alfisols, 218, 220–221, 222 mountain land, 67–72
peat soils/histosols, 278 divisions based on length of
ultisols, 194–197 wet/dry seasons, 61–67
69071.indb 492 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM

Index 493
Mohr system, 62–65 alfisols (gray-brown
Schmidt and Ferguson podzolic soils), 340–341
system, 65–67 brown podzolic soils, 370,
equatorial climate concept, 372
52–54 spodosols, 385–387
monsoon(s) upland soils
concept of, 55–59 inceptisols/brown forest
and pedogenesis, 72–76 soils, 296, 297, 299, 302–
west and east, 59–61 304, 308, 316
Nusa Tenggara, 47 podzolic latosols, 295–296
and pedogenesis/soil Climatic (zonal) soils
formation, 72–76, 110–115 brown forest soils, 304
altitudinal variations, 74–76 mountain podzols, 386–387
mineralization versus Climax association, 77
humification, 110–115 Climax vegetation, 77–79
precipitation/evaporation monsoon flora as indication of
effects in different monsoon climate, 61
climatic types, 73 tropical monsoon forest, 78–79
and weathering in tropical rain forest, 77–78
mountain regions, 333 tropical savannah forest, 79
tropical Cloud-belt forest, 84, 89–90
concept of, 54–55 Clove(s) (Eugenia caryphyllata
and pedogenesis, 72–76 and E. aromatica), 2, 15,
Climate effects on soil formation 127–128, 223, 439–444
and properties C/N ratio; See Carbon/nitrogen
andosols, 400, 405–407, 423 (C/N) ratio
highland soils Coal deposits, 37, 41
brown podzolic soils, 369, Coastal flora, 84
379 Coastal plains, 47, 255, 401–402
podzols/spodosols, 386 Cochon grass (alang-alang,
lowland soils, 130 Imperata cylindrica), 20, 21,
alfisols, 212–213, 215–216, 201, 260
219 Cocoa, 126
histosols, 262–264 Coconut (Cocos nucifera, kelapa
oxisols, 138–142 gading), 23, 71, 88, 126,
peat soils/histosols, 262–264 286, 321, 354; See also
ultisols/red-yellow Copra
podzolics, 181–182, 183 highland alfisols/gray-brown
vertisols, 230–231, 246 podzolic soils, 354
mountain soils lowland ultisols, 203
69071.indb 493 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM

lowland vertisols, 233, 246, lowland vertisols, 234–235,

249–253 239
transmigration program, 23 melanization, 102
Coconut, dwarf (Cocos nucifera, rubification, 101
kelapa puyuh), 250, 252 soil formation terminology, 97
Coconut, variety of (Cocos Color-B horizon, 298
nucifera var. pultaria, Combretocarpus sp., 260
kelapa kopiyor), 253 Compaction, peat, 279, 280
Coffea canephora (robusta), 436 Complex formation; See
Coffea liberica, 436 Chelates/complex
Coffee (Coffea arabica), 2, 126, 174 formation
andosols, 434–439 Concretions
experiment station calcium, 210, 234, 242
establishment, 4 iron; See Iron concretions
highland alfisols, 354 lowland oxisols, 144–145, 147
soil conservation programs, Conductivity, electrical (EC), 100
326 Conferences, national, 19–20
Colombian coffee, 435 Conglomerates, 44
Colonialism, 2 Conifers, 89, 90, 353
Color, soil brown forest soils, 304
andosols, 400, 407, 408 brown forest soils, podzolic,
brown podzolic soils, 373 377
gleyization, 101 brown podzolic soils, 379
highland alfisols/gray-brown highland podzols/spodosols,
podzolic soil and, 353 382, 387–389
highland alfisols/gray-brown mountain trees, 71–72
podzolic soils, 342–343, Conservation practices, 20–21
347, 349 Constant charge, 240
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Cool fronts, 58
297, 298, 304–306, 312 Cool monsoon climate, coffee
lowland alfisols, 210, 214 requirements, 127
lowland oxisols, 137, 138, Copra, 126, 249–250, 252; See also
141–142 Coconut (Cocos nucifera,
clay mineralogy, 161 kelapa gading)
organic matter and, 156 Coral reefs, 27, 32, 45, 47
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Coral sands, 250, 251
podzolics, 178–179 Corn, 17, 202
altitude and, 182 acreages of major Indonesian
classification and food crops, 125
nomenclature, 188–189 lowland alfisols, 223
69071.indb 494 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM

Index 495
lowland oxisols, 169–170 Cultivation, and peat bulk
lowland vertisols, 244, 245, 246 density, 279–280
peat soils/histosols, 284, 288 Cw climates, red-yellow
Cotton (Gossypium), 174, 223, 245 podzolics, 181–182
CPV (Centrale Proefstations Cyperaceae sp. (sedges), 255, 257
Vereeniging), 4 Cyrtostachys lakka, 260
Cracking; See Plasticity/shrink–
swell propertes/cracking
Cratoxylon glaucum, 260
Critical lands, 21
D
Cromosol, 148 Dacites/dacitic parent materials,
Crop production; See 34
Agricultural operations Ambon, 46
Crotalaria spp., 176 andosols, 402
Crust tirs, 235 lowland ultisols, 179, 180, 181,
Crystalline clays 186, 192
andosols, 423, 433 soil formation from, 116
lowland alfisols, 220–221 Sumatran volcanic materials,
lowland oxisols, 159 38
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Dacito-andesitic volcanic
podzolic soils, 195 materials, 34, 38, 137
Crystalline kaolinite, 160 andosols, 402, 403
Crystalline schists, 49 inceptisols, 301
Crystoballite, 44, 312, 351 lowland oxisols, 133, 137
Cs climates lowland red oxisols, 156
andosols, 406 Dacito-liparitic tuffs, 180
brown podzolic soils, 370 Dahat teak, 225
lowland vertisols, 230 Dairi lands (Tapanuli), 384, 388
red-yellow podzolics, 181, 182 Dairy farming, 317, 354, 397
Cshi climate, podzols/spodosols, highland alfisols, 354, 359–362
385 highland podzols/spodosols,
Csi climate, 407 397
C-type climates, lowland upland soils, inceptisols,
ultisols, 182 330–331
Cucumbers (Cucumis sativis, Dairy goats, 361
ketimun), 170 Dam construction, 21–22
Cucumis sativis (cucumbers, Damar batu (Pinus merkusii), 17,
ketimun), 170 71–72, 89, 380, 397
Culan flowers (Aglaia odorata), Dams, 166
325 Danau Volcano, 181
69071.indb 495 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM

Dark gray margalites, 235 Degraded lateritic soils, 189, 295

Daucus carota (carrot), 75, 170, 317 Degraded soils
Davidson soil, 152, 154, 159 clean weeding and, 176
Davidson soils, 295 deforestation and, 24
Decomposition, mineral peat soils/histosols, 289
iron translocation, 107 rubber cultivation and, 176
laterization, 97 soil formation
and soil fertility, 74 processes; See Soil
soil formation, 101 formation/pedogenesis
water movement in soil, 110 Dehydration, lowland oxisols,
Decomposition, organic matter 161
andosols, 423 Deli, 241, 404, 420
gray-brown podzolic soil Deli Tobacco Experiment
humification, 114 Station, 3
highland alfisols/gray-brown Demak plain, 227, 230, 245
podzolic soils, 352, 353 Depok, 140
litter, peat formation, 261–262 Depth of profile; See
lowlands versus highlands, 75 Horizons/profiles/pedon
mineralization versus Derno-pale podzolic soils, 344
humification, 110–111 Desert climate, 55
nitrogen content, 274 Desilicification, 75–76
and peat bulk density, 279 aquox latosol formation, 152
peat formation, 258–259, climate and, 110
261–262 soil formation, 102–103, 104
shade system, 437 Diagnostic features, 95
tropical broad-leaf rain forest, alfisols, 338, 345
315 andosols, 415–416
tropical rain forest litter layer, histosols, 254, 268
78 kandic great groups, 345
Deep weathering, lowland oxisols, 142–143
ultisols/red-yellow peat soils/histosols, 254
podzolic soils, 191 podzols/spodosols, 108, 381,
Deforestation, 20, 24, 25, 130 394
lowland ultisol exhaustion ultisols
after, 199 alfisols versus, 338
shifting cultivation and, 201, upland versus lowland, 296
202 Dieback disease, 15
transmigration program and, Dieng, 357, 425, 429
23 Differential thermal analysis
and vegetation cover, 82 (DTA)
69071.indb 496 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM

Index 497
andosols, 425, 426 and lowland alfisol
highland alfisols/gray-brown productivity, 221–222
podzolic soils, 351 lowland alfisols, 218
inceptisols/brown forest soils, lowland oxisols, 132, 162
313 ultisols/red-yellow
lowland alfisols, 220 podzolics, 182, 186, 188
lowland oxisols, 159–160, 161 soil sequence in hilly country,
lowland ultisols/red-yellow 188, 215
podzolic soils, 194–195, Drainage projects
196 peatlands, Indonesia, 287
lowland vertisols, 239–240 peatlands, U.S., 284–285
Digul, 250 peat soils/histosols, 289
Digul-Fry depression, 50 Drought
Dioecious, 329 Mohr system, 63, 64
Diplazium spp., 186 vegetation adapted to in
Dipterocarpaceae, 80, 81, 89, monsoon climates, 89
Drowned soil, 382
259–260
Dry climate
Disordered kaolinite, 159,
lowland oxisols, taxonomic
160–161
complications, 139, 141
Dolomitic limestone, 284, 315,
soil formation, 99
353, 433
ultisols/red-yellow podzolic
Dome, swamp forest, 259
soils, 189
Drainage
Dry seasons, 65; See also Wet/dry
raised bed crops, 245 seasons
and soil formation, 110 length of, and soil forming
aquox latosol formation, 152 processes, 113–114
iron mobilization, 107 lowland alfisols, 212, 223–224
lowland oxisols, 152 lowland oxisols, 139
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Mohr system, 63, 64
podzolic soils, 192–193 mountain summits, 68
lowland vertisol/grumusol, Nusa Tenggara, 47
229 weak, 55
and redox reactions, 108, West Java, 55
109 Drying effects, lowland alfisols,
silicification, 103–104 222
soil properties DTA; See Differential thermal
andosols, 408 analysis (DTA)
highland alfisols/gray- Dumpy, 207
brown podzolic soils, 342 Duras, 207
69071.indb 497 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM

Dutch colonialism, 2–6 Ecological damage; See also

nationalization of colonial Degraded soils
plantations, 17 peat soils/histosols, 279, 280
post-World War II period, 6–7 shifting cultivation and, 201
transmigration program, EDAX; See Energy dispersive
34–35 analysis by x-rays
Dutch soil classification system, Edelweiss (Anaphalis javanica or
14, 121, 150, 154 Leontopodium alpinium), 91
andosols, 417 Education, Indonesia, 6, 8–9, 10
Dwarf coconut (Elaeis guineensis, Effective cation exchange
kelapa puyuh), 250, 252 capacity (ECEC), 95, 152,
Dwarf hybrids, oil palm, 207–209 157
Dwarf podzols, 375 Egg-cup podzol, 389
Eggplants (Solanum melongea,
terong), 170
E Eilanden River, 50
Elaeis guineensis (oil palm, kelapa
E horizons; See Albic (E)
sawit), 126, 176, 199,
horizons
206–209, 246, 250, 288,
East–Central Java, soil maps, 14
East Indonesian vegetation 290, 291, 322, 323
province, 80–81 Elaeis melanococca, 207
East Java Electrical conductivity (EC), 100
climate, 67, 72, 140 Electrochemical potential,
coffee plantations, 127 276–277
evapotranspiration rates, 118 Electrokinetic potential, 105
geomorphology, 34 Electrolytes, peat formation, 255
inceptisols, 303 Electronegativity, lowland
lowland alfisols, 210, 213 ultisols/red-yellow
lowland oxisols/latosols, 140 podzolic soils, 195–196
lowland ultisols, 179 Electron microbeam analysis,
lowland vertisols, 227, 231 426, 427
mountain flora, 89 Elevation; See Altitude/elevation
sugarcane growth, 127 Eluvial B horizons, 98
East monsoon, 60 Eluviation (cheluviation), 98, 334,
EC (electrical conductivity); See 337, 346, 381, 392, 394
Electrical conductivity Eminent domain, 35
ECEC; See Effective cation Endert climate system, 62
exchange capacity Energy dispersive analysis by
Eco-friendly crops, 327 x-rays (EDAX), 426, 427
69071.indb 498 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM

Index 499
Energy resources (oil, natural lowland vertisols, 206–209,
gas) 246–249
Kalimantan, 41 mountain regions, 334–335
Sumatra, 37 peat soils/histosols, 289–291
Energy sources, alternative, 18 research institutes
Entisols, 124, 126 establishment of, 3
Environmental friendly crops, new, 18
327 upland soils, inceptisols,
Epidote, 211 322–330
Epiphytes, 88 albizia, 325–328
Equator, 52–53 nutmeg, 328–330
Equatorial climate, 59 tea, 322–325
concept of, 52–54 Eucalyptus, 79
terminology, 51–52 Eugenia caryphyllata and E.
Erosion aromatica (cloves), 2, 15,
conservation issues, 21 127–128, 223, 439–444
lowland ultisols, 198, 199, 200
Eugenol, 444
Eupatorium sp., 408
mountain regions, 333
Eusideroxylon zwageri (ironwood),
rubber cultivation and, 176
80
Erythrina trees, 87
Eutrophic processes, peat
ESP; See Exchangeable sodium
formation, 256, 262, 268,
percentage
274
Estate crops
andosols, 434–445 Evaporation
clove, 439–444 rainwater, 64
coffee, 434–439 and soil formation in different
kretek industry, 444–445 climate types, 73
biotechnology focus of new Evapotranspiration, 118, 261
experiment stations, Exchangeable sodium
17–18 percentage (ESP), 100–101
classification and Exhaustion, lowland ultisols, 199
nomenclature, 126, 250 Exocarpus latifolia (sandalwood),
early experiment station 82
focus, 5–6 Experiment stations in
highland alfisols, 362–367 Indonesia, 3
lowland alfisols, 223–227 Algemene Vereeniging voor
kapok, 224–225 Rubber Onderzoek ter
teak, 225–227 Oostkust van Sumatra
lowland oxisols, 169, 173–177 (AVROS), 176
69071.indb 499 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM

historical development of Ferralsols, 98, 149; See also

Indonesian soil science, Oxisols (latosols),
17–19 lowland
wheat crops (gandum), 357 Ferrods, 391
Exploratory Soil Map of Ferromagnesian minerals, 107,
Indonesia, 14–15, 16, 124, 379
132 Ferruginous humic latosol,
148–149
Fertility, soil
F altitudinal variations in, 74–76
chelates and, 75
Fabric early experiment station
andosol, 412 focus, 4
gray-brown podzolic, 335 highland alfisols/gray-brown
rotlehm, 101 podzolic soils, 352
soil formation, 106 historical development of
Faculteit der Diergeneeskunde, 6 Indonesian soil science,
Faculties, 6, 8 15, 17
Faculties of Agriculture and Soil lowland oxisols, 156, 164
Science, 9 lowland ultisols, 198
Faculties of Agriculture and micronutrient mass flow, 75
Veterinary Science, 11–12 and plant nutrition, historical
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, development of
6, 9 Indonesian soil science,
Faculty of Veterinary Science at 15, 17
Bogor, 9 Sulawesi, 44
Fallow lands (tegalans), 222, 224 tropical broad-leaf rain forest,
False red limestone soils, 211 315
False terra rossa soils, 221 vertisols/margalitic soils,
Farmers’ crops upland versus lowland,
highlands temperate crops, 75 231
lowland vertisols, 245–246 volcanic material and, 34, 38
Feldspar, 199 Fertilizer application, 22
Fen types, peat, 268 andosols, 434
Ferralitic soils, 220 brown podzolic soils, 379
Ferralitization/laterization, highland alfisols/gray-brown
76, 97, 101, 103, 210; podzolic soil, 353
See also Laterization inceptisols/brown forest soils,
(ferralitization) 315
lowland oxisols, 164, 169
69071.indb 500 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM

Index 501
lowland ultisols lowland podzols as intrazonal
estate crops, 206 tropical podzols, 382
upland rice cultivation, lowland soil categories,
205–206 129–130
lowland vertisols, 245 peat/histosols, 257, 268
mineral nutrition studies, 15 soil formation terminology,
paddy-sawah, 166–167, 245 98, 101
redox conditions and, 109–110 vertisols, 236
rubber, 176–177 Food crops; See also Agricultural
tea cultivation, 364 operations
teak, 226–227 acreages in Indonesia, 125
vegetable crops, 170 early experiment station
Fiber crops, 174, 206, 250 focus, 5–6
Fibrists, 269 Food imports
Ficus spp., 175 dairy products, 361–362
Field capacity, 243 rice, 126
Film water, 281 Forest fires, 260; See also Slash/
Fish culture, 354 burn (ladang, shifting
Fisheries, 18–19 cultivation) system
Flocculation, clay, 106, 377 Forest peat, 261
Flooding, 20, 22, 24–25, 166, 262 Forestry
Flora; See Vegetation brown podzolic soils, 380
Flores, 29, 46 highland alfisols/gray-brown
Fluviatic sands, 383 podzolic soil and, 353
Folic horizon, 254 rubber; See Rubber (Hevea)
Folists, 269 teak; See Teak (Tectona grandis,
Food and Agricultural jati)
Organization (FAO) Forests
classification system and altitudinal zones
terminology, 8, 121, 122 beach, 87
acrisols, 187 cloud-belt forest, 89–90
andosols, 399, 415, 420 rain forest and mountain
brown podzolic soils, 367, 368 rain forest, 88–89
cheluviation/chilluviation, andosols, 408
381 brown forest soils, 99; See
highland podzols/spodosols, also Brown forest soils
380 (brown podzolic soils)
inceptisols/brown forest soils, inceptisols/cambisols, 298,
296, 307 304
lowland oxisols, 151 podzolic, 377
69071.indb 501 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM

clearing for crop cultivation, upland soils, inceptisols,

22 321–322
climax vegetation, 77–79 Fuli (mace), 329
tropical monsoon forest, Fulvic acids, 334, 353, 422–423,
78–79 431
tropical rain forest, 77–78
tropical savannah forest, 79
podzolic soils, 342,
G
352–353 Gabah (unhulled rice), 166, 167,
highland podzols/spodosols, 168
382 Gajah Mada University, 8
inceptisol formation, 296 Gambung Tea Research
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Institute, 324, 367
314 Gandum (wheat crops), 356–359
peat swamp, 254–255, 259–260, Garcinia mangostana
265–266, 267 (mangosteen), 172
podzols/spodosols, 381–382 Gardenia augusta, 325
reforestation, 21 Gebleichte parabraunerde, 344
slash/burn system, 20 Gede-Pangrango volcano
upland soils, inceptisols/ complex, 25, 54, 133, 323,
brown forest soils, 316 335, 406
Formation of soil; See Soil Geelvink Bay, 48
formation/pedogenesis Gelam vegetation, 260–261
Fragipan horizon, 184 General Agricultural Research
French soil classification system, Station, 5–6
149 Genesis of soils; See Soil
Fresh fruit bunches (FFBs), 208 formation/pedogenesis
Frontal borders, 58 Geochemical weathering, 191
Frontal systems, atmospheric Geographic distribution
pressure, 58 brown earth formation,
Fruit crops worldwide, 297
highland alfisols/gray-brown brown podzolic soils, 368
podzolic soil, 354 peat soils/histosols, 254–255
lowland alfisols, 223 Geography, 27–30
lowland oxisols, 163, 169, Geomorphology, 27–50
171–174 Ambon, 45–46
lowland ultisols, 202 Ceram, 46
lowland vertisols, 246 geography, 27–30
transmigration program, 23 Java, 31–35
69071.indb 502 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM

Index 503
Kalimantan, 38–41 colonial, verplichte, 435, 441
Maluku, 44–46 dairy farming, 359–360
Nusa Tenggara, 46–47 nationalization of colonial
Papua (West Irian), 47–50 plantations, 17
Sulawesi, 41–44 peat reclamation, 327–328
Sumatra, 35–38 regreening programs, 21, 325
Gibbsite (hydrargillite), 104, 105, transmigration program,
134–135, 149, 159, 161, 162, 22–23, 34–35, 201
194, 300, 351, 371, 378, Granites
408, 424, 425, 428 inceptisols, 299
andosols, 423 lowland ultisols, 179, 181, 192,
brown podzolic soils, 371, 378 193–194
highland alfisols/gray-brown Papua (West Irian), 49
podzolic soils, 338, 339, parent materials, Kalimantan,
350, 351 290
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Sulawesi, 43
300, 312–313 Granulation, mountain, 334, 353,
Gilgai, 234 418
Glagah (Saccharum spontaneum), Grapes (anggur), 354, 356
247 Grasses, 186
Glass, volcanic, 180, 300, 301, 339, andosol humus source, 421
371, 384, 403 beach, 88
Gley horizon formation, 108, 123 gelam vegetation, 260
Gley soils, 123 lowland alfisols, 213
Gley tirs, 234, 235 slash/burn system and,
Gleying, 101, 108 203–204
Gleyization, 94, 101, 234, 239 subalpine zone, 91
Gleysols, 101 Gray-brown luvisolic soils, 337,
Gliciridia spp., 437 344–345
Glugur, 408 Gray-brown podzolic soils
Gneiss, 43, 228 (alfisols), 182, 341; See also
Goats, 222, 361, 397 Alfisols, highland (gray-
Goethite, 138 brown podzolic soils)
Golan method, 244–245 aluminum oxide/iron oxide
Gonystylus bancanus, 260 ratios, U.S. versus
Gorontalo, 65 Indonesia, 119, 120
Gossypium (cotton), 174, 223, 245 andosols and, 402
Gossypium barbadense (cotton), brown podzolic soils, 375
174
Government policy
69071.indb 503 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM

brown podzolic soils as Grumusols, 123, 130, 215,

transitional soils, 368, 227, 235–236; See also
370, 372 Vertisols, lowland
carbon/nitrogen ratio in, 114 Guava (Psidium guajava, jambu
classification as braunerde, kelutuk), 172
298 Gula aren, 249
mountain soil composition, 13 Gula mangkok, 249, 253
mountain soils, 336 Gulf (Teluk) Cenderawasih, 48
soil formation, 98 Gunung Mas, 140
Gypsum, 315, 353, 433
mineralization versus
humification, U.S. soils
versus humid tropics, 115
precipitation/ H
evapotranspiration ratios Halloysite, 350
and, 118 andosols, 424, 425
thermography, 314 brown forest soils, 313
ultisol clay composition as highland alfisols/gray-brown
distinguishing feature podzolic soils, 349–350,
from, 195 351
Gray-brown soils, 303 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
Gray hydromorphic soil, 123 313
Gray luvisolic soil, 337, 344–345 lowland alfisols/red
Gray margalitic soils, 229 Mediterranean soils, 220,
Gray wooded soils, 344–345 221
Graywacke, 43, 46 lowland oxisols, 159, 160–161,
162
Green beans (Phaseolus radiatus),
245
Halmahera nutmeg (Myristica
Green hornblende, 180
succedanea), 44, 328
Green manures, 164, 176, 200,
Hapludox soils, 142
244 Hardpans, 408
Green onions (Allium fistulosum), Hardwood forest, 353
170, 317 Heath, 269, 304, 382
Green tea, 325 Heather forest, 382
Groundwater laterite, 123 Hematite, 138, 161
Groundwater podzol, 123 Hemists, 269
Groundwater table, peat soils/ Henry’s law, 111, 112
histosols, 283 Hevea (rubber), 175, 176, 246; See
Grumus, 235 also Rubber (Hevea)
69071.indb 504 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM

Index 505
Hevea brasiliensis, 174–177 High mountains, altitude and
Hevea guyanensis, 175 climate, 67–72
Hibiscus, 87 High-pressure systems, 57
Highlands Hilly topography, lowland
cool humid, humification in, alfisols, 215
114 Histic epipedon, 254
decomposition of organic Historical development of
matter, 75 Indonesian soil science,
transitional zone (uplands); 1–25
See also Upland soils post-World War II period, 6–8
simultaneous podzolization higher education,
and laterization, 76, 110, establishment of, 8–9, 10
130 Kentucky Contract Team
Highland soils; See also (KCT) and Midwestern
Mountain soils Consortium for
alfisols; See also Alfisols, International Activities
(MUCIA) projects, 11–12
highland (gray-brown
land use and soil
podzolic soils)
conservation, 20–25
apples and grapes, 355–356
national conferences and
dairy farming, 359–362
scientific societies, 19–20
estate crops, 362–367
new experiment stations,
wheat crops (gandum),
17–19
356–359
pedology, 13–14
andosols, 407 soil fertility and plant
estate and industrial crops, nutrition, 15, 17
126 soil survey, 14–15, 16
humus formation and pre-World War II period, 2–6
accumulation, elevation Histosols/peat, 130; See also Peat
and, 141–142 soils/histosols (tanah
oxisols, absence of plinthite in gambut)
profiles, 145, 146 Hole-in-hole cultivation, 286, 291
podzolization, 74–75, 110 Holocene volcanic deposits, 116
podzols; See Spodosols Horizons/profiles/pedon
ultisols, lowland red-yellow andosols, 407–411, 412, 413,
podzolic soils versus, 130 414, 419
vegetation, 80 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
High moor peats, 256, 262 304–306, 310, 311–312
High mountain (cloud belt) lowland alfisols, 213–214, 219,
forest, 89–90 221–222
69071.indb 505 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM

lowland oxisols, 134–135, Hornblende

142–146, 161 andosols, 402, 403, 404
brown, 146–147 brown forest soils, 300
clay mineralogy, 162 false red limestone sand
particle size distribution, fraction, 211
153–154 highland alfisols/gray-brown
lowland podzols, 389 podzolic soils, 339
lowland ultisols/red-yellow highland brown podzolic
podzolic soils, 182, soils, 371
184–186, 187, 190 highland podzols/spodosols,
lowland vertisols, 232–234 383, 384
mountain soils inceptisols, 300
alfisols/gray-brown lowland ultisol acidic tuffs,
podzolic soils, 337, 339, 180
341–343, 347, 348, 349, 353 oxisol sand fractions, 134–135
brown podzolic soils, 368, podzols/spodosols, 383
369, 371, 372–374, 376 Horticultural crops; See also
podzols/spodosols, 380– Agricultural operations
382, 387–389, 391, 392–396 highland alfisols/gray-brown
tropical gray-brown podzolic soils, 355–359
podzolic soil, 335 research institutes, 18–19
peat soils/histosols, 254, 264, upland soils, inceptisols,
265–266, 270, 279 317–322
soil classification systems, cabbages, 317–319
121–122, 123 fruits, 321–322
soil formation, 102 potatoes, 319–320
aluminum oxide/iron tomatoes, 320–321
oxide ratios, U.S. versus Hot pepper (Capsicum annuum,
Indonesia, 119, 120 Capsicum frutescens),
comparison of temperate 202–203
and tropical soils, 114, 115 Houston clay, 235
gray-brown podzolic soils, Huma system
carbon/nitrogen ratio lowland ultisols, 201, 202–203
increases, 114 padi (upland rice), 289
oxic, 95 Humic acids/humic substances
spodic, 74 altitude and, 74
zonal divisions of, 121–125 andosols, 422–423
Soil Research Institute cation exchange capacity, 164
classification systems, chelates, 74; See also Chelates/
121–122 complex formation
69071.indb 506 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM

Index 507
formation of; See Humus inceptisol formation, 296
formation/humification nonrice crops grown in sawah
highland alfisols/gray-brown fields, 169–170
podzolic soils, 349, 353 and nutmeg cultivation,
highland podzols/spodosols, 328–329
381, 394 Humid temperate climate,
humic/fulvic acid ratios, altitudinal zones, 299
422–423 Humid tropics, 130
and leaching, 76 gray-brown podzolic soils,
Miami silt loam (alfisol), comparison of C and
120–121 C/N ratios with U.S.
mountain soils, 333, 334 alfisols, 115
soil formation lowland oxisols/latosols,
clay complex formation, 138–139, 157
105, 106 classification, 149
at higher altitudes, 113 climate areas, 140
and iron and aluminum nitrogen content, 156
mobility, 107–108 organic matter, N content,
mineralization versus CEC, base saturation,
humification, 110–111 and pH, 155
podzolization, 98 lowland ultisols, 182
silica complex formation, peat formation, 261, 262
104 precipitation/evaporation
Humic allophane soil, 400, 411 ratio and weathering
classification and intensity, 118
nomenclature, 400 tea and coffee requirements,
Humic andosols, 416 126–127
Humic/fulvic acid ratios, Humidity
422–423 mobilization and leaching of
Humic gley, 123 micronutrients in soil,
Humic gray-brown podzolic 75–76, 110
soil, 343, 347, 348, 350 tea and coffee requirements,
Humic latosols, 142, 148 126–127
Humic rhodic hapludox/ Humo-clay complexes, highland
kandiudox, 142 alfisols/gray-brown
Humid climate podzolic soils, 347
grape cultivation problems, Humods, 391
356 Humults, 189, 192
highland alfisols/gray-brown Humus
podzolic soils, 340, 341 acid, 74
69071.indb 507 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM

brown podzolic soils, 372 Hydromorphous process, allitic

Humus content soils, 149
andosols, 400, 407, 408, Hypersthene, 180
421–423 andosols, 404
and lowland oxisol CEC, 157 highland alfisols/gray-brown
and lowland vertisol color, 239 podzolic soils, 338, 339,
Humus formation/humification 340
andosols, 423 highland brown podzolic
highland podzols/spodosols, soils, 379
381, 394 highland podzols/spodosols,
lowland oxisols 383, 384
elevation and, 141–142 inceptisols, 300, 301
versus mineralization, lowland oxisols, 133, 134–135,
145–146 136, 137
lowland soils, 129 Hypersthene-augite association,
lowland vertisols, 239 133, 301, 340, 370, 404
mineralization versus, 110–111
strength of soil solution and,
120–121 I
upland and highland oxisols, Ice age, 116
146 ICRAF (International Center
Humus-iron podzol, 387, 388, 391 for Soil Research and
Hybrid oil palms, 207–209 Agroforestry), 201
Hybrid rice varieties, 167, 205 Idenburg top, 50, 392
Hybrid sugarcane, 247 Illimerization, 97, 101, 104–105,
Hydrargillite (gibbsite), 104, 105, 113
134–135, 149, 159, 161, 300, Illites, 104
312–313, 338, 339, 350 Illuvial B horizons, 98, 298
andosols, 423 Illuvial Bt horizon, 304
brown podzolic soils, 371, 378 Illuviation (chilluviation), 311,
highland alfisols/gray-brown 334, 337, 346, 381, 394,
podzolic soils, 351 395–396
Hydro regime, oxisol/latosol Ilmenite, 180
classification, 149 Imogo layers, 418
Hydrogen sulfide, 85, 271–272, Imogolite, 400, 419, 423, 424–427,
282 431
Hydrol humic latosols, 149 Imperata cylindrica (Cochon grass,
Hydrology, 24, 25 alang-alang), 20, 21, 260
Hydromorphic soils, 101 Imperata grasses, 186, 201
69071.indb 508 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM

Index 509
Imperial pluck, 365 Indigenous populations, 23, 35,
Imports, food 201
dairy products, 361–362 Indonesian soil classification
rice, 126 system, 123, 151
Inceptisols (brown forest soils, podzolik coklat, 375
cambisols), 99, 294, Indonesian Soil Research
296–313, 314, 341 Institute; See Soil
brown podzolic soils as Research Institute
transitional soils, 375 Indonesian Standing Committee
chemical characteristics, on Soil and Land
311–312 Classification, 14
classification and Industrial crops, classification
nomenclature, 123 and nomenclature, 126,
clay mineralogy, 312–313, 314 250
climate, 302–304 INIRO; See Institut Nederlands
land use and evaluation, Indiesch Rubber
313–331 Oenderzoek
agricultural operations, Institute for Higher Education in
316–331; See also Agricultural Sciences, 8
Agricultural operations Institut Nederlands Indiesch
basic soil properties and, Rubber Oenderzoek
315–316 (INIRO), 18
evaluation of analytical Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB), 9,
properties, 313–315 11–12, 357
mountain soil composition, 13 Integrated pest control, 317
paddy-sawah, 126 Intercrops
parent materials of, 299–301 albizia, 327
particle size distribution, inceptisols, 319, 327
309–311 lowland alfisols, 222–223
percent of total area, 124 kapok estates, 224
physicochemical teak estates, 226
characteristics, 309, 310 lowland ultisols, 203
podzolic latosols as paddy rice field rotation,
transitional soils, 294–295 169–170, 174, 176, 246
soil classification, 306–309 rubber, 176
soil morphology, 304–306 Intergrades
upland soils, 294 andosol-latosol, 142
Indica kapok, 224 oxisols, 147
Indica rice, 167 Intermediate parent materials,
Indica x Japonica rice variety, 167 116, 299, 369, 370
69071.indb 509 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM

International Center for elevation and, 137

Soil Research and ferruginous humic latosols,
Agroforestry (ICRAF), 148–149
201 formation of, 131
International Peat Society (IPS), hematite formation, 138
254 mountain soils, 334
International Rice Research mountain soils, podzols, 391
Institute (IRRI), 167 peat soils/histosols, 288–289
International Soil Reference pyrite, 257, 271, 272
and Information Centre soil formation, 131
(ISRIC), 268 ferralization, 97
International Union of Soil gleyization, 101
Science (IUSS), 268 laterization, 97
Intrazonal soils, 121, 235, 306 podzolization, 98
brown forest soils as, 306 redox conditions and, 109
lowland podzols (padang soil, translocation of, 106–108,
Bangka podzols), 382, 120
389, 390–391 Iron-B horizon, 109
tropical podzols, 382 Iron concretions, 210, 234, 239
Ionic forms, iron minerals, 107 brown podzolic soils, 371
IPB; See Institut Pertanian Bogor highland alfisols, 338, 339, 340
Ipomoea batatis (sweet potato), inceptisols, 300
169–170, 203, 245 lowland oxisols, 144–145, 146,
Ipomoea reptans (kangkung), 170 147
Iran mountains, 39 Iron crust layer, 147
Irian Jaya (West New Guinea), Iron oxide minerals
47, 48 inceptisols, 298
Iron lowland alfisol sand fraction,
Al/Fe ratios, 119–120, 241 211
basalts, 34 lowland oxisols, 138, 154
chelates, 74 mountain soils
humic acids, 113 highland alfisols/gray-
pH and, 75 brown podzolic soils, 350
coastal swamps, 85 tropical gray-brown
false red limestone sand podzolic soil, 335
fraction, 211 Iron podzol, 391
leaching, 76 Ironwood (Eusideroxylon
lowland alfisols, 210 zwageri), 80
lowland oxisols, 134–135, 138 Irrigation
classification issues, 154 lowland alfisols, 222
69071.indb 510 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM

Index 511
lowland oxisols, 163 monsoons, 59, 60
lowland vertisols, 244, 245 evapotranspiration rates, 118
peat soils/histosols, 283, 286 experiment station
rice paddy fields, 165–166, 170 establishment, 4
teak, 226–227 geography, 28, 29
Isoelectric point, 417 geomorphology, 30, 31–35
podzolic soils, 348
J highland brown podzolic
soils, 369, 370, 371, 376,
Jacatra, 2 378, 379
Jackfruit (Artocarpus integra, lowland alfisols, 210, 222
nangka), 203, 246 lowland oxisols, 131, 140
Jakarta, 6, 54, 55 lowland ultisols, 197
Jambi, 205, 263 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
Jambu kelutuk (Psidum guajava, podzolic soils, 179, 183,
guava), 172 192, 193
Japonica rice, 167 lowland vertisol/grumusol
Jasmine (Jasminium sambac), 325 formation, 229
Jasmine tea, 325 lowland vertisols, 227–228, 231
Jati (Tectona grandis, teak), 79, 82, soil maps, 14
89, 225–227, 232 universities with agriculture
Jatiluhur Dam, 21, 166 and soil science
Jati putih (albizia), 316–317, 322, departments, 9, 10
325–328 upland inceptisols/brown
Java, 2 forest soils, 310
agricultural operations vegetation
acreages of major coastal flora, 87
Indonesian food crops, mountain flora, 89
125 subalpine, 91
cloves, 441–442 Java coffee, 127, 354
coconut plantations, 250 Java Sea, 181
sugarcane production Jember, 4
method, 248 Jepon Kenek, 223
tea cultivation, 363 Jeruk siam/jeruk paseh (Citrus
wheat crops (gandum), 357 nobilis), 173–174
andosols, 401, 403, 404, 405– Jet stream, 57
406, 409, 419 Jeungjing (albizia), 316–317, 322,
climate, 64, 65, 67 325–328, 364, 437
lowland oxisols, 140 Jonggol, 158, 228
69071.indb 511 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM

Junghuhn, 70 Kandic horizons, 184, 216

Jungle fowl (ayam hutan), 439 Kandidiudults, 190, 295
Kandiudalfs, 346
Kandiudox soils, 142
K Kandiudults, 190, 295
Kangkung (Ipomoea reptans), 170
Kacang panjang (Vigna sinensis, Kaolinite, 104, 105, 149
long beans), 170 andosols, 423, 425
Kai Islands, 48 brown podzolic soils, 378
Kalimantan (Borneo), 38–41, 181 crystalline, 160
acreages of major Indonesian disordered, 159, 160–161
food crops, 125 highland alfisols/gray-brown
climate, 59, 61, 64, 72 podzolic soils, 350, 351
equator, 53 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
geography, 28, 29 312
geomorphology, 30 lowland oxisols, 157, 158,
granite parent materials, 228 159–161
lowland oxisols, 131 lowland vertisols, 240
lowland podzols, 382, 383, 385 ultisols versus alfisols,
lowland ultisols/red-yellow 195–196
podzolic soils, 179, 183, Kapok (Ceiba pentandra, tani,
191, 192, 193, 196, 197 petani), 174, 203, 213, 223,
rice cultivation, 204, 205 224–225, 246
shifting cultivation, 200– Kapuas River, 39
201, 203–204 Karangpandan, 140, 341
peat soils/histosols, 261, 262, Karo Highlands, 357
263 Karst, 32
bulk density analysis, Kastanozem, 209, 215–216
278–279 Kauri podzol, 389, 392, 395
peat swamp forest, 260 Kauri trees (Agathis australis), 389
rubber and oil palm Kayu api (Avicennia spp.), 85
cultivation, 246 Kayu pasang (oak, Quercus spp.),
transmigration program, 23, 82, 88, 89, 304, 314
35 Kayu puspa (Schima noronhae), 89
universities with agriculture Kayu sengon (albizia), 316–317,
and soil science 322, 325–328
departments, 9, 10 KCT; See Kentucky Contract
vegetation, 80, 85 Team project
Kalk roodaarde, 217 Kediri, 228
Kandic great group level, 345 Kedondong (Spondias dulcis), 203
69071.indb 512 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM

Index 513
Kei Islands, 48 lowland ultisols, 181–182, 183
Kelapa gading (coconut, Cocos lowland vertisols, 230, 231
nucifera), 23, 71, 88, 126, peat soils/histosols, 263
203, 233, 246, 249–253, podzols/spodosols, 385, 386,
286, 321, 354 391–392
Kelapa kopiyor (coconut, Cocos Krakatau eruption, 117
nucifera var. pultaria), 253 Krawang, 169
Kelapa puyuh (dwarf kelapa, Kretek industry, 127, 223,
Elaeis guineensis), 252 444–445
Kelapa sawit (oil palm, Elaeis Kubre Mountain, 382, 383, 386,
guineensis), 126, 176, 199, 388–389, 391, 394
206–209, 246, 250, 288, Kuningan Highlands, 357
290, 291, 322, 323 Kupang, 59, 212, 213
Kembang pala, 128 Kuroboku, 400, 407, 411
Kembang pala (mace), 329–330 Kurosols, 187
Kendeng Hills, 229
Kendeng Mountain, 338, 339,
350, 351
Kentucky Contract Team (KCT)
L
project, 11–12, 122 Labradorite, 339, 350, 351, 379
Kerinci Peak, 38 Lactuca indica, Latuca sativa
Ketapang tree (Terminalia (lettuce), 170
catappa), 87, 88 Lada (pepper, processed), 127
Ketimun (Cucumis sativis, Ladang rice; See Rice cultivation,
cucumbers), 170 upland rice (ladang rice,
Ki hiyur (Castaneia javanica), 89 padi gogo, padi huma)
Kinabohutan, 250 Ladang (slash/burn, shifting
Kinibalu Mountain, 39 cultivation) system, 20,
Köppen climate system, 54, 61, 24, 44, 200–204, 205
62, 64, 69; See also specific Lahar, 34, 132, 405
climate zones, e.g., Ama Lake depletion, 25
climates Lampung, 127, 181, 205, 248
andosols, 405, 406 coconut plantations, 250
brown podzolic soils, 370, 372 lowland oxisols, 131
grape cultivation, 356 lowland ultisols, 179
highland alfisols, 340, 341 Lampung coffee, 436
inceptisols, 302, 303 Lamtoro (Leucena glauca), 364
lowland alfisols, 212, 213 Land appropriation, 35
lowland oxisols, 138–139, 140, Land use, 125–128
141 andosols, 432–445
69071.indb 513 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM

agricultural operations, 128, agricultural operations,

434–445 200–209
analytical properties, basic soil properties and,
evaluation of, 432 199–200
basic soil properties and, evaluation of analytical
432–433 properties, 197–199
brown podzolic soils, 379–380 lowland vertisols, 242–253
highland alfisols, 352–367 peat soils/histosols, 282–291
agricultural operations, agricultural operations, 126,
353–367 286–291
analytical properties, analytical properties,
evaluation of, 352 evaluation of, 282–283
basic soil properties and, basic soil properties and,
352–353 283–286
inceptisols, 313–331 spodosols, 396–397
agricultural operations, Land Use Bureau, 22
316–331; See also Landsat imagery, 82
Agricultural operations, Laspondom, 387
upland soils, inceptisols Lateriet ground van kalksteen,
basic soil properties and, 217
315–316 Laterite from limestone, 217
evaluation of analytical Laterites/lateritic soils, 97, 131;
properties, 313–315 See also Oxisols (latosols),
lowland alfisols lowland
agricultural operations, classification and
222–227 nomenclature, 123
evaluation of analytical iron crust layers and, 147
properties, 221 lowland alfisols (terra rosa)
significance of basic soil classification, 216–217
properties, 221–222 as stage in formation, 210
lowland oxisols, 161–177 lowland oxisol classification/
agricultural operations, taxonomy, 148, 149–150
165–177; See also podzolic latosols and, 295
Agricultural operations, ultisols/red-yellow podzolic
lowland oxisols soils versus, 188, 189
analytical properties, Laterization (ferralitization), 13,
evaluation of, 161–164 94, 97–98, 101, 103
significance of basic soil aluminum oxide/iron oxide
properties, 164 ratios, U.S. versus
lowland ultisols Indonesia, 119
69071.indb 514 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM

Index 515
brown podzolic soils, 378 Lava/lava flows, Java, 32, 34; See
climate and, 110 also Volcanic material
definition, 76 Law of polymerization, 103
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Lawang, 357
309–311, 313 Lawu Volcano, 229, 300, 301, 310,
lowland alfisols, 210, 216 312, 336, 338, 339, 340,
lowland oxisols, 147 342, 372, 376
lowland soil formation, 130 Layers, tropical rain forest, 78
in monsoon zones, 113–114 Leaching, 73
podzolic latosols, 295 brown podzolic soils, 379
simultaneous podzolization lowland oxisols, 156, 162–163,
and laterization, 76, 110, 164
130 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
terminology, 105 podzolic soils, 190, 198,
upland soils, 293 200
Laterization zone, 13 lowland vertisols, 244
Latimojong Mountains, 43 monsoon climate influence,
Latosolic brown forest soils, 309, 302–303
310 peat soils/histosols, 289
Latosols (oxisols), 13, 131, 311, podzols/spodosols, 381–382
341; See also Oxisols soil formation
(latosols) lowland oxisols, 146
association with vertisols, 230, lowlands, 76
231 podzolization, 98
black, 142 soil solution strength and,
brown forest soil climates in 118, 119, 120
Indonesia, 303 Leaf blight disease, 176
classification/taxonomy/ Legume trees, 364
nomenclature, 95, 98, 123, Lembang, 359, 361, 409, 422, 423,
130, 131, 148, 149–150, 154 429
aluminum oxide/iron Leontopodium alpinium (Edelweiss
oxide ratios, U.S. versus plant), 91
Indonesia, 119 Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusa
FAO-UN system, 151 Tenggara), 30, 43, 46–47
red-yellow podzolic soils andosols, 401
versus, 188, 190 climate, 72
soil formation, 76, 116 monsoons, 59, 60, 61
Latuca indica, Latuca sativa weak dry season, 55
(lettuce), 170, 317, 355 Lessivage, 101, 104–105, 107, 294,
Laurantaceae, 90 368
69071.indb 515 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM

Lettuce (Lactuca indica, Latuca peat soils, 284

sativa), 170, 317, 355 Liparites/liparitic tuffs, 34, 116
Leucena glauca (pete cina, Ambon, 46
lamtoro), 365 andosols, 402
Leuwilliang, 339 brown podzolic soils, 370, 371,
Lianas, 78, 88 373
Liberica coffee, 436 highland podzols/spodosols,
Ligands; See Chelates/complex 383
formation inceptisols, 299
Lime application lowland ultisols, 179, 199
andosols, 433 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
highland alfisols/gray-brown podzolic soils, 192
podzolic soil, 353 soil formation from, 116
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Sumatra, 38, 228
315 Litchi, 171–172
lowland oxisols, 164 Lithologic effect, 191, 387; See also
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Parent materials
podzolic soils, 199, 200, Lithosol, 123
205 Litter
lowland vertisols, 244 highland alfisols/gray-brown
peat soils/histosols, 283–284, podzolic soils, 352
289 highland podzols/spodosols,
Lime concretions, 234 396
Lime content, lowland vertisols, peat formation, 258–259,
235, 239 261–262
Limestone formations, Ambon, shade system, 437
46 tropical broad-leaf rain forest,
Limestone parent materials 315
lowland alfisols, 210–211, tropical rain forest, 78
216–217, 221 Litter layer; See O horizon (litter
lowland ultisols, 228 layer)
lowland vertisol/grumusols, Livestock, 222, 361; See also Dairy
229, 242 farming
Limestone plate interbedding, Livistona hasseltii, 260
234 Lixiviation, 97, 101, 150, 210
Limestone reefs, 32 Lixivium, red, 150
Limestone soils, 211–212 Loams
Limestone treatment, 433 Davidson soils, 154
inceptisols/brown forest soils, red Mediterranean soils, 209
315 Lombok, 210
69071.indb 516 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM

Index 517
geography, 29 land use and evaluation,
geomorphology, 30 282–291; See also Peat
Lompobatang Mountain, 44 soils/histosols (tanah
Long beans (Vigna sinensis, gambut), land use and
kacang panjang), 170 evaluation
Lontar palm (Borassus flabellifer), parent materials of, 258–262
249 physicochemical
Low humic gley soil, 123 characteristics, 270–282;
Low humic latosols, 148 See also Peat soils/
Low moor peats, 255–256, 262 histosols (tanah gambut),
Low-pressure systems, 57, 58 physicochemical
Lowlands characteristics
altitudinal zones, 70 soil classification, 267–270
clove production, 127–128 soil morphology, 264–267
Kalimantan, 41 mineral nutrition studies, 15
soil formation, 75–76 oxisols, 130–177
sugarcane growth, 127 climate, 138–142
vegetation, 80, 81 land use and evaluation,
Lowland soils, 129–291; See also 161–177; See also Land
specific soil types use, lowland oxisols
alfisols, 209–227 parent materials of, 132–138
climate, 212–213 physicochemical
land use and evaluation, characteristics, 153–161;
221–227; See also Land See also Oxisols (latosols),
use, lowland alfisols lowland
parent materials of, 210–212 soil classification, 148–153
physicochemical soil morphology, 142–147
characteristics, 218–221 podzols/spodosols, 386–387
soil classification, 215–218 Bangka, 382, 389, 390
soil morphology, 213–215 climate, 385–386
andosols, 337, 401–402, 405, formation of, 382
422, 423, 433–434 padang soils/tanah padang,
decomposition of organic 382, 389, 390, 394
matter, 75 parent materials of, 383, 385
histosols, 253–291 soil formation
climate, 262–264 climate and, 110, 111
decomposition of litter parent material; See Parent
and formation of peat, materials
261–262 tea cultivation, 363–364
69071.indb 517 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM

transitional zone (uplands); lowland alfisols, 210, 212, 213,

See Upland soils 214, 219, 222, 223
ultisols, 177–209 lowland vertisols, 227
climate, 181–182 monsoons, 60
highland red-yellow soil maps, 14
podzolic soils versus, 130 vegetation, 87
land use and evaluation, Madura tobacco, 223
161–177; See also Land Magnesium
use, lowland ultisols basalts, 34
parent materials of, 179–181 citrus crop soil applications,
physicochemical 174
characteristics, 190–197; inceptisols/brown forest soils,
See also Physicochemical 313
lowland vertisols, 238, 242,
characteristics, lowland
244
ultisols
peat/histosol exchangeable
bases, 273
soil morphology, 182–186,
peat soils/histosols, 284
187
Magnetite, 134–135, 180, 211
vertisols, 227–253 Mahakam River, 39, 41
climate, 230–231 Maize; See Corn
land use and evaluation, Makassar, 44
242–253; See also Land Makassar Strait, 28
use, lowland vertisols Malabar-Pengalengan highland,
parent materials of, 228–230 406, 409
physicochemical Malabar Volcano, 336
characteristics, 237–241 Malang, 355, 356, 357, 359, 403,
soil classification, 235–236 406
soil morphology, 232–235 Malang highland, 359, 403, 405
Lusi River valley, 230, 245 Malang-Pujon highlands, 407,
Luvisols, 306, 337, 344–345 429
Maluku (Moluccas), 2, 246
agriculture
M acreages of major
Indonesian food crops,
Mace (kembang pala), 2, 128, 316, 125
329–330 clove trees, 127
Madiun, 231 coconut plantations, 250
Madura rice cultivation, 205
geography, 28 shifting cultivation, 204
69071.indb 518 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM

Index 519
climate, 65 fertilization practice trends,
clove origins, 440 355
geography, 29, 30 golan method, 244
geomorphology, 44–46 green, 164, 176, 200, 244
lowland ultisols, 179, 197, vegetable crops, 170
198–199, 204, 205 Maps
monsoons, 60 soil, 5, 14–15, 16
nutmeg species, 328 lowland oxisols, 132
universities with agriculture methodological issues, 7
and soil science revision of, 124
departments, 9, 10 upland soils, 309
vegetation, 81, 85, 86, 87 vegetation, 82, 83
Manganese, 109, 174 Marga, 228
Manganese-B horizon, 109 Margalites, 236
Manganese chelates, 75 Margalitic soil, 227, 228; See also
Manganese mottles, 146 Vertisols, lowland
calcium and magnesium
Mangoes (Mangifera indica), 171,
content, 242
172–173, 246
particle size distribution, 237
Mangosteen (Garcinia
silica/sesquioxide ratios of
mangostana), 172
clay fractions, 241
Mangrove forests, 84, 85
Marl soil, 227, 228, 236; See also
Mangrove swamps, 254, 257, 271,
Vertisols, lowland
272
Mass action law, 112
Manihot glaziovii, 175 Mass flow, micronutrients, 75
Manihot utilissima (cassava, Mass movement, lowland
yucca), 156 vertisols, 243
acreages of major Indonesian Matric potential, 280
food crops, 125 Medan, 204, 205, 263, 264, 404
lowland alfisols, 222–223 Mediterranean climate, 215–216
lowland oxisols, 163, 169 Mediterranean soils, 99, 123, 130;
lowland ultisols, 202, 203 See also Alfisols, lowland
lowland vertisols, 245 (red Mediterranean soils)
peat soils/histosols, 284, 288 Meervlakte, 49
Manila hemp (Musa textilis), 206 Mehlich method, charge
Maninjau Lake, 410, 429 distribution analysis,
Manisan pala (candied nutmeg), 157–158
330 Melaleuca sp., 81, 260
Manokwari, 60, 263 Melanization, 97, 102
Manures Menado, 60, 328
69071.indb 519 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM

Menangkabau, 36, 38 Mineral reserve, 379

Merapi Volcano, 32 Mineral resources, Sumatra, 37
Meratus Mountains, 40, 41 Mineral soil, 123
Merauke, 65, 205, 250, 263, 264 Mineralization, organic material,
Merbabu Volcano complex, 357 258, 293, 394, 423
Mergelgrond, 236 andosols, 423
Merica (pepper, processed), 127 highland podzols/spodosols,
Mesothermal climate, 139 394
Mesotrophic processes, 256 versus humification, 110–115,
Metal–organic complexes; 145–146
See Chelates/complex lowland oxisols, 141, 145–146,
formation 164
Metamorphic rocks, 383, 385 upland soils, 293
Metroxylon (sago palm), 81, 86, Mineralogy, clay; See Clays/clay
87, 289 mineralogy
Miami silt loam (alfisol), 119 Minerals, soil and parent
Mica schists, 46, 199 materials
Microbial activity accumulation of, 98; See also
and carbon dioxide Chilluviation (illuviation)
production, 112 altitudinal variations in soil
peat formation, 261, 271, 272 formation and fertility, 74
Micronutrients associations of; See
citrus grown on sandy soil, Association, minerals
174 brown podzolic soils, 370
mobilization of elements in clay; See Clays/clay
soil, 75 mineralogy
Micropedology, 335, 410, 411, 412 highland podzols/spodosols,
Midwestern Consortium for 383
International Activities inceptisols, 299, 300
(MUCIA) projects, 11–12, Kalimantan, 40
122 lowland alfisol sand fraction,
Migration policy/transmigration 211
program, 22–23, 34–35 lowland oxisol sand fraction
Mills, rice, 168 composition, 134–135
Mimosa spp., 176 lowland ultisols, 199
Minahasa, 43, 44, 53, 132 mobilization/translocation of,
Minehassa Coconut Foundation, 98
250 leaching, 73
Mineral nutrition of plants, 5, soil formation, 106–108
15, 17 mountain soils, 333–334
69071.indb 520 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM

Index 521
highland alfisols/gray- nitrogen content, 274
brown podzolic soils, 339 Moluccas; See Maluku
podzols/spodosols, 383, (Moluccas)
384, 385 Monosilicic acid, 104
tropical gray-brown Monsoon(s)
podzolic soil, 335 concept of, 55–59
salinization, 99–100 west and east, 59–61
volcanic materials, 34 Monsoon climate, 302–303
Miscanthus sp. (solfatara grass), altitudinal vegetation zones,
421 84
Mobilization of clay and altitudinal zones, 71
minerals, 98; See also andosols, 407
Clay mobilization/ brown podzolic soils, 115
movement/translocation; coffee requirements, 127
Translocation evapotranspiration rates, 118
aquox latosol formation, 152 global application of concept,
leaching, 73; See also Leaching
57
soil formation, 102, 106–108
grape cultivation, 356
Modal profiles
inceptisols/brown forest soils,
podzolic soils, 340, 341
304–306
lowland oxisols, 143, 146–147
308
red Mediterranean soils, 218
Köppen climate system;
Mohr system, 4–5, 62–65, 69, 70,
71 See Am climates; Ama
Moist month, 62 climates
Moisture content; See Water, soil latosol/oxisol climate areas,
Moisture regimes 140
lowland oxisols, 141 lowland, 130
peat soils/histosols, 277 Mohr system, 65–66
ultisols/red-yellow podzolic North American, 57–58
soil suborders, 188–189 oxisol organic matter, N
Moisture tension, 280–281 content, CEC, base
Mojosari Institut Pertanian saturation, and pH, 155
Bogor, 357 peat formation, 261, 262
Mollic andosols, 415 soil formation, 73, 115
Mollic horizons, 415 tea cultivation, 363–364
Mollisols (chernozems), 99, 124, terminology, 51–52
377 ustic moisture regime, 216
brown forest soils as, 307 vegetation effects, 89
69071.indb 521 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM

zonal distribution of soils, ultisols/red-yellow podzolics,

13–14 182, 184, 195
Monsoon forest Mountain climate
climax vegetation, 78–79 highland alfisols/gray-brown
vegetation provinces, 81–82 podzolic soils, 340
Monsoon vegetation, 60–61 podzols/spodosol formation,
Monsoon zones, soil formation, 391–392
113–114 tea and coffee plantations, 126
Montane zone, 70 Mountain crops, 126
Montmorillonites; See Smectites/ Mountain forest
montmorillonites altitudinal vegetation zones,
Mor humus, 381 84
Morphology, soil clear-cutting, 25
andosols, 407–411, 412, 413, 414 evapotranspiration rates, 118
brown podzolic soils, 372–374 monsoon climate influence, 89
classification and Mountain granulation, 334, 353,
nomenclature, 139 418
classification on basis of, 344 Mountain lands, tropical, 70, 71
classification system, 121–122 mobilization of elements in
highland alfisols, 341–343 soil, 74
inceptisols, 304–306 podzolization, 74–75
Indonesian soil classification transitional zone (uplands), 76,
system, 123, 151 110, 130; See also Upland
lowland alfisols, 213–215 soils
lowland oxisols, 142–147 Mountain peat, 256–257
lowland ultisols, 182–186, 187, Mountain rain forest, 88–89, 90,
188 421
lowland vertisols, 232–235 Mountain soils, 333–397
peat soils/histosols, 264–267 alfisols, 337–367
spodosols, 387–389 climate, 340–341
USDA classification issues, land use and evaluation,
94–95 352–367
Mother prune, 364 parent materials of, 338–340
Mottled zone, 144, 146 physicochemical
Mottling characteristics, 347–351
brown forest soils, 304 soil morphology, 341–343
brown podzolic soils, 373 andosols, 402, 407, 422, 423;
mountain podzols/spodosols, See also Andosols
388 brown podzolic soils, 367–380
oxisols, 144, 146 climate, 370, 372
69071.indb 522 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM

Index 523
land use and evaluation, Muscovite, 199
379–380 Musi River, 37
parent materials of, 369– Myristica argentea (papua nut),
370, 371 328
physicochemical Myristica fragrans (nutmeg, pala,
characteristics, 375–379 pohon pala, biji pala), 2,
soil classification, 374–375 127, 128, 316, 328–330
soil morphology, 372–374 Myristica speciosa (bacan nut), 328
clay mineralogy, 349–350 Myristica succedanea (halmahera
composition, 13 nutmeg), 44, 328
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Myrtaceae, 90
308
podzols/spodosols, 380–397
climate, 385–387
land use and evaluation,
N
296–297 Namlea, 65
parent materials of, 383–385 Nangka (Artocarpas integra,
physicochemical jackfruit), 203, 246
characteristics, 392–396 Nasi, 168
soil classification, 390–392 Nassau/Oranje mountains, 48,
soil morphology, 387–389 392
rainfall/evapotranspiration National conferences, 19–20
ratios and soil formation, Nationalization of colonial
118 plantations, 17
vegetation, 80 National Soil Science
Mountains Conference, 19
altitude and climate, 67–72 National Watershed
geography, 29–30 Development Program of
geomorphology, 30 Indonesia, 21
MUCIA; See Midwestern Natric horizons, 216
Consortium for Natural gas; See Energy
International Activities resources (oil, natural
Müller Mountains, 39 gas)
Mung bean (Phaseolus radiatus), Nephelium lappaceum
169, 226, 246 (rambutans), 171–172
Muria Volcano, 163 Netherlands East Indies, 2, 3
Musa paradisiaca (banana), 202 New Guinea; See Papua (West
Musa spp. (banana, pisang), 163, Irian)
174, 202, 203, 321–322, 354 New Zealand soil classification
Musa textilis (Manila hemp), 206 andosols, 399, 412–413
69071.indb 523 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM

kauri podzols, 389 andosols, 413

yellow-brown earths, 187 lowland oxisols, 159
Nias Yellow Dwarf, 252 lowland ultisols, 194–195
Nipah palm (Nipa fructicans), 84, Nonrice cultivation
85 lowland oxisols, 169–177
Nitrification, redox conditions lowland vertisols, 244, 248
and, 109–110 Nonsaline alkali soils, 100
Nitrogen content Nontronite, 351
andosols, 419, 424 North American Monsoon, 58
brown podzolic soils, 376, 379 North Carolina varieties of
highland alfisols/gray-brown tobacco, 223
podzolic soils, 348, 353 North Minehassa, 328
inceptisols/brown forest soils, Numforrs, 48
310 Nusa Tenggara (Lesser Sunda
lowland alfisols, 219, 221 Islands), 30, 43, 46–47, 65,
lowland oxisols, 155, 156 67, 79, 82, 125, 210, 213
lowland ultisols, 191, 198 andosols, 401
lowland vertisols, 237 Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans, pala,
peat soils/histosols, 270, 282 pohon pala), 2
Nitrogen fertilization land use, 127, 128
paddy-sawah, 166–167 upland soils, inceptisols/
redox conditions and, 109–110 brown forest soils, 316,
rice cultivation, 205 328–330
rubber, 176–177 Nutrient cycling, 78, 199, 315,
Nitrogen fixation, albizia, 326 353, 396, 437, 438
Nitrogen–phosphorus– Nutrients, soil
potassium (NPK) highland alfisols/gray-brown
fertilizers podzolic soil, 353
highland alfisols, 355 lowland oxisols, 163
lowland vertisols, 245 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
tea cultivation, 364 podzolic soils, 198
teak, 226–227 slash/burn system and, 202,
Nitrogen–phosphorus– 204
potassium (NPK) ratios, soil amendments and, 199,
15, 17 200
Nomenclature; See specific lowland vertisols, 242, 244, 245
soils and classification peat formation, 255
systems peat soils/histosols, 256, 271,
Noncalcic brown soil, 123, 344 273–275
Noncrystalline clays Nutrition, plant, 5, 15, 17, 75
69071.indb 524 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM

Index 525
O Organic carbon sequestration,

peat soils/histosols,
O horizon (litter layer), 111 275–277
highland podzols/spodosols, Organic fertilizers/soil
388 amendments, 176, 244
humification, 113 lowland oxisols, 163–164
humus iron podzol, 388 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
ultisols/red-yellow podzolics, podzolic soils, 200
182 vegetable crops, 170
Oak (Quercus, Kayu pasang), 82, Organic matter, soil; See also
88, 89, 304, 314 Humic acids/humic
Ochric andosols, 415, 416 substances
Ochric horizon, 415 altitude and, 74
Oil extraction rate (OER), oil andosols, 405, 410, 417, 419,
palm, 208–209 421–422
Oil (petroleum) fields; See chelates; See Chelates/complex
Energy resources (oil, formation
natural gas) decomposition; See
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis, Decomposition, organic
kelapa sawit), 126, 176, matter
199, 206–209, 246, 250, highland alfisols/gray-brown
288, 290, 291, 322, 323 podzolic soils, 348, 349
Oil palm, dwarf (Elaeis highland brown podzolic
guineensis, kelapa puyuh), soils, 376, 377, 379
252 highland inceptisols/brown
Oil Palm Research Center, 18 forest soils, 310, 312,
Oligoclase, 180, 299, 300, 384, 403 313–314, 316
Oligotrophic peat, 256, 268, 270, highland podzols/spodosols,
275 381–382, 396
Olivine, 134–135, 338, 339 and leaching, 76
Ombrogenous peat, 256, 259, 261, lowland alfisols, 210, 221
272 lowland oxisols, 156, 162
Ombrophilous peat, 256, 261, 270 elevation and, 141
Onions, green (Allium fistulosum), mineralization of, 164
170, 317 reddish-brown, brown, and
Ophir Mountain, 23, 38, 404, 428, red latosols, 155
429 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
Orange pekoe tea, 324 podzolic soils, 192–193,
Oranges, 23 198
Orchards, 172–173 liming effects, 200
69071.indb 525 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM

soil suborders, 188–189 formation of, 102

virgin conditions, 199 lowland oxisols, 151–152, 157
lowland vertisols, 237, 239 Oxidation; See Redox
melanization, 102 state/oxidation
Miami silt loam (alfisol), Oxisols (latosols), 129; See also
120–121 Latosols (oxisols)
mineralization; See aluminum oxide/iron oxide
Mineralization, organic ratios, U.S. versus
material Indonesia, 119
mountain soils, 334 association with vertisols, 230,
and nitrogen content, 274 231
in oxisols, 103 coconut growth in, 250
redox conditions and, 109 lowland alfisol comparison
soil formation with, 210
oxidation at higher paddy-sawah, 126
elevation, 113 percent of total area, 124
temperate region versus soil formation processes, 76,
highland and monsoon 103
regions of Indonesia, 114 laterization subprocesses,
upland soils, 293 97–98
Organic soils; See also Peat soils/ parent materials, 116
histosols (tanah gambut) suborders, 141, 151
definition, 253–254 terminology, USDA
peat soils/histosols, 253–254, classification and, 95, 98,
258 123, 130, 131
soil classification systems, 123 x-ray diffraction (XRD)
tropical peats, 257 analysis, 195, 197
Organo–metal complexes; Oxisols (latosols), highland, 145,
See Chelates/complex 146
formation Oxisols (latosols), lowland,
Organomineral horizons, 182 130–177
Organosols, 123 climate, 130, 138–142
Orthite, 383, 384 land use and evaluation,
Orthox, 153 161–177
Osmotic potential, 280 lowland ultisols,
Overpopulation; See Population/ distinguishing from, 179
overpopulation parent materials, 132–138
Owen-Stanley Range, 48 mineralogical composition
Oxic horizons, 95 of sand fraction, 134–135
depth of, 142–143 quartz content, 132–133
69071.indb 526 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM

Index 527
physicochemical Padi gogo/padi huma, 205–206,
characteristics, 153–161 289, 290; See also Rice
charge characteristics, cultivation, upland rice
157–159, 240 (ladang rice, padi gogo,
chemical characteristics, padi huma)
154–157 Pala (nutmeg, Myristica fragrans,
clay mineralogy, 159–161, pohon pala, biji pala), 2,
162, 240 127, 128, 316, 328–330
lowland ultisols/red yellow Palajawa (nonrice) crops, 244
podzolic soils versus, 190 Palaquium sp., 260
particle size distribution, Palawija (nonrice crops), 169, 244,
153–154 248; See also specific crops
podzolic latosols as Palembang, 36, 37, 202, 263, 264,
transitional soils, 294–295 382
soil classification, 148–153 Pallid zone, 146
soil morphology, 142–147 Palms
Oxygen, gleyization, 101 aren (Arenga saccharifera), 249
coconut; See Coconut (Cocos
nucifera, kelapa gading)
P lontar (Borassus flabellifer), 249
oil; See Oil palm (Elaeis
Paceklik, 244 guineensis, kelapa sawit)
Pacific Ring of Fire, 28 peat swamp forest, 260
Padang (town in West Sumatra), sago (Metroxylon), 81, 86, 87,
9, 10, 23, 31, 38, 53, 131, 289
186, 187, 204–205, 263, 265, Palm sugar, 248–249
269, 290, 382, 404, 410 Palm wine, 249
Padang Bulan, 429 Palu valley, 67
Padang soils (lowland podzols, Paludification, 261
tanah padang), 382, 389, Pamusiran project, 327–328
390, 394 Pandanus spp., 186
Paddy rice fields (sawah); See Pangrango-Gedeh Volcano, 133,
Rice cultivation, paddy 335
rice fields (sawah) Papaya/papaya semangka
Paddy sawa, 126 (Carica papaya), 172, 173,
Paddy soils 174, 203, 354
iron-B and managanese-B Papua (West Irian)
horizon formation, 109 alpine conditions, 91
productivity studies, 15, 17 climate, 64, 65, 72
redox conditions, 110 coconut plantations, 250
69071.indb 527 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM

geography, 28, 29 and anion exchange

geomorphology, 30, 47–50 capacity, 193–194
highland peats, 256–257 and base saturation, 192
lowland ultisols/red-yellow lowland vertisols, 228–230,
podzolic soils, 179, 197 231, 237–238, 242
rice cultivation, 204, 205 peat soils/histosols, 258–262,
shifting cultivation, 200–201 265
lowland vertisols, 231 podzolic latosols, 295–296
nutmeg species, 328
and soil formation, 115–117
peat soils/histosols, 261, 262,
spodosols, 383–385
263, 264
Parinarium sumatranum, 265
podzols/spodosols, 392
transmigration program, 23 Particle aggregation, lowland
vegetation, 81 ultisols, 199–200
Papua nut (Myristica argentea), Particle size distribution
328 andosols, 417–420
Parabraunerde, 344 highland alfisols, 347
Paracrystalline clays, 220, 312, highland alfisols/gray-brown
350, 351 podzolic soils, 348
andosols, 400, 413 highland spodosols, 392
Parastemon sp., 260 inceptisols, 309–311
Parent materials lixiviation, 101
andosols, 401, 402–405, 408 lowland alfisols, 218, 219
highland alfisols/gray-brown lowland oxisols, 133, 136, 137,
podzolic soils, 338–340, 153–154
350 lowland ultisols, 190–192
highland brown podzolic lowland vertisols, 237–238
soils, 369–370, 371, 373, peat soils/histosols, 270
378
spodosols, 392
highland versus lowland red-
Pasar Minggu, 136, 137, 140
yellow podzolic soils, 130
Pasir Madang, 313, 314, 441, 442
inceptisols, 298, 299–301
lowland alfisols, 209, 210–212, Pasir Muncang, 136
221 Pasir Sarongge, 406
lowland oxisols, 132–138 Pasuruan, 4, 228, 247
and color, 141, 156 PB-36, 205–206
particle size distribution, Peanut, 169, 244, 284
136, 137–138 Peat Soil Research Institute, 19
lowland ultisols, 179–181, 191, Peat soils/histosols (tanah
199 gambut), 253–291
69071.indb 528 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM

Index 529
acreage and geographic Peat swamp forest, 254–255,
distribution in Indonesia, 259–260, 265–266, 267
124, 256–258 Pedochemical weathering, 191
climate, 262–264 Pedogenesis; See Soil
decomposition of litter and formation/pedogenesis
formation of peat, Pedology, 5, 13–14
261–262 Pedon (soil profile),
definition of organic soils, 62, 73; See also
253–254 Horizons/profiles/pedon
geographic distribution, Peds, clay deposition, 106
254–255 Pekalongan, 247
Kalimantan, 41 Pemanukan, 168
Papua (West Irian), 50 Pemanukan River, 168
Sumatra, 37 Pematang, 372, 386
land use and evaluation, Peneplain of Kalimantan, 39
282–291 Pengalengan highlands, 34, 323,
agricultural operations, 126, 339, 357, 361, 364, 403, 404,
286–291 422, 423, 429, 434
analytical properties, Pepper, 2, 288
evaluation of, 282–283 black (Piper nigrum), 127
basic soil properties and, hot (Capsicum annuum,
283–286 Capsicum frutescens),
parent materials of, 258–262 202–203
percent of total area, 124 Peptidization, clay, 105, 381
physicochemical andosols, 418
characteristics, 270–282 Percolation
acidity of peat, 270–273 clay migration, 105, 106
aluminum contents, 275 lowland alfisols, 219–220
carbon content and organic Miami silt loam (alfisol),
carbon sequestration, 120–121
275–277 in monsoon zones, 113–114
nutrient status, 273–275 pH of water, 112–113
physical properties, 277–282 silica movement, 103
reclamation programs, and weathering, 117–118
327–328 Perhumid climate, 231
soil classification, 267–270 Peridotites, 40, 43, 46
soil morphology, 264–267 Permanent charged soils, 193,
types of peats, 255–256 240, 244, 428
wildfires in, 130, 202 Permeability
69071.indb 529 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM

inceptisols/brown forest soils, lowland ultisols/red-yellow

316 podzolic soils, 191, 192,
lowland oxisols, 162 195–196, 198, 199
lowland ultisols, 198, 200 lime application and, 199,
lowland vertisols, 243 200
silicification, 103–104 slash/burn system and, 202
Perox, 151 lowland vertisols/grumusols,
Pest control, integrated, 317 229, 237, 238, 240, 242
Pesticides, 22 peat soils/histosols, 282,
Petani (Ceiba pentandra, kapok, 283–284
tani), 174, 203, 213, 223, formation of, 256, 270–271
224–225, 246 water, 270–271
Peta rice, 167 Phaeozems, 297, 306
Pete cina (Leucena glauca), 364 Phaseolus radiatus (green bean),
Petrographic analysis, lowland 245
oxisols, 133 Phaseolus radiatus (mung bean),
Petroleum resources; See Energy
169, 226, 246
resources (oil, natural
Philippine teak, 225
gas)
Phosphate fixation, 396, 430–431,
pH, soil
432
aluminum and iron
Phosphorus/phosphate content
translocation, 120
andosols, 419, 420, 428, 433
podzolic soils, 352
calcification and, 114
highland alfisols/gray-brown lowland alfisols, 221
podzolic soils, 346, 347, lowland ultisols, 198
348, 349, 352, 353 lowland vertisols, 239, 242, 244
highland brown podzolic peat soils/histosols, 271, 273,
soils, 376–377 274, 282, 284
highland podzols/spodosols, Phosphorus/phosphate fertilizer
392–393 andosols, 434
inceptisols/brown forest soils, paddy-sawah, 166–167
310, 313 rice cultivation, 205
classification, 308–309, 311 rubber, 176–177
liming effects, 315–316 Physical properties
lowland alfisols, 210, 218, 219 andosols
lowland oxisols bulk density and porosity,
lime application and, 164 420–421
reddish-brown, brown, and charge characteristics,
red latosols, 155 428–432
69071.indb 530 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM

Index 531
particle size distribution, physical properties, 277–282
417–420 spodosols, 392–396
soil reaction, 420 chemical characteristics,
peat soils/histosols, 277–282 392–394
bulk density, 278–280 clay mineralogy, 394–396
water retention, 280–282 particle size distribution,
Physicochemical characteristics 392
andosols, 417–432 Pinang palm (Areca catechu,
highland alfisols, 347–351 betelnuts), 85, 86
chemical characteristics, Pineapple, 284, 288
347–349 Pines
clay mineralogy, 349–351 brown podzolic soils, 379, 380
particle size distribution, kauri podzols, 389
347 vegetation, 71–72
highland brown podzolic Pinus forests, 80
soils, 375–379 Pinus merkusii (damar batu), 17,
inceptisols, 309 71–72, 89, 380
lowland alfisols, 218–221 Pinus merkusii/sumatrana (damar
chemical characteristics, batu, tusam tapanuli), 17,
218–220 72, 89, 380, 397
clay mineralogy, 220–221 Piper betel (betel), 223
particle size distribution, Piper nigrum (pepper), 127
218, 219 Piper spp., 186
lowland oxisols, 153–161, 162 Pisang (Musa spp., banana), 163,
lowland ultisols, 190–197 174, 202, 203, 321–322, 354
charge characteristics, Pisang raja/pisang ambon/
193–194 pisang ambon-lumut
chemical characteristics, (banana varieties),
192–193 321–322, 354
clay mineralogy, 194–197 Plagioclase feldspars, 299
particle size distribution, Plagioclase minerals, 134–135,
190–192 299, 379, 403, 412
lowland vertisols, 237–241 Plains, geomorphology, 30
peat soils/histosols, 270–282 Planosols, 123, 306
acidity of peat, 270–273 Plant breeding/hybrids
aluminum contents, 275 arabusta coffee, 436
carbon content and organic oil palm, 207–209
carbon sequestration, rice, 167, 205
275–277 sugarcane, 247
nutrient status, 273–275 tea, 324, 367
69071.indb 531 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM

Plant nutrition, 5, 15, 17 brown forest soils and, 298,

Plantations, 2; See also specific 303
crops clay migration, 311
classification and gray-brown; See Gray-brown
nomenclature, 126 podzolic soils (alfisols)
colonial, nationalization of, 17 Podzolik coklat, 375
mountain regions, 334–335 Podzolization, 94, 106–107, 294
tea cultivation, 362–367 clay mobilization, 311–312
Plasticity/shrink–swell lowland soils, 130
propertes/cracking latosols with clay
lowland alfisols, 212 accumulation in B
lowland oxisols, 162 horizons, 154
lowland vertisols, 227, 238, ultisols, 178
242–243 mountain soils, 333, 336–337,
Plates, limestone, 234 392
Pleistocene age deposition, 138, alfisols/gray-brown
181, 402
podzolic soils, 346, 349
Pleistocene terra rossa, 216
brown podzolic soils, 369,
Plinthic kandidiudults, thermic,
374, 375
190
spodosols, 380, 392
Plinthite, 108, 144, 145, 146, 158
simultaneous podzolization
Plinthization, 109
and laterization, 76, 110,
Plorarium alternifolium, 260
130
Plucking system, tea harvesting,
365–367 soil formation processes, 98
Plutonic rocks, 43 terminology, 74–75, 105
Pod (Russian), 380, 390 in upland soils, 76, 293
Podok Gedeh, 341 inceptisols/brown forest
Podzol-B horizon, 381, 389 soils, 297, 304, 308,
Podzol-braunerde, 307, 375 309–310
Podzolic (prefix), 294, 367 podzolic latosols, 295
Podzolic latosols, 341 Podzolization zone, 13
climate, 140 Podzolized lateritic soil, 189
lowland oxisol classification Podzols
issues, 154 brown podzolic soils as
upland soils, 294–296 transitional soils, 368,
Podzolic soil zones, 118, 297–298 370, 372; See also Brown
Podzolic soils podzolic soils
brown; See Brown podzolic changes with elevation/
soils altitude, 13
69071.indb 532 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM

Index 533
classification and Population/overpopulation, 24
nomenclature, 123 Java, 34–35
etymology, 380, 390 transmigration program,
highland/mountain, 336; See 22–23, 34–35
also Spodosols Pores/porosity
gray-brown; See Alfisols, alfisols, 218
highland (gray-brown andosols, 420–421
podzolic soils) clay deposition, 106
humus iron podzol and inceptisols, 316
iron podzols, 391 ultisols, 200
lowland Porphytic rhyolite, 369
Bangka, 382, 390 Positive charges, 193–194
climate, 385–386 Poso Lake, 43
formation of, 382 Potassium
padang soils/tanah padang, basalts, 34
382, 389, 390, 394 highland alfisols, 352
parent materials of, 383, 385 lowland alfisols, 221
red, 191, 288 lowland ultisols, 198, 199, 200,
red-yellow; See Ultisols, 207
lowland (red-yellow lowland vertisols, 239, 242, 244
podzolic soils) peat soils/histosols, 271
soil formation; See Potassium fertilizer
Podzolization rice, 167, 205
terminology/taxonomy, 96, 98, rubber, 176–177
381 Potassium nitrate, mango flower
yellow, 188, 192–193 bud treatment, 172–173
Pohon (tree), swamp forest Potato (Solanum tuberosa), 17, 75,
species, 260, 265 315, 317, 319–320
Pohon kenari (Canarium PPN; See Pusat Perkebunan
commune/Canarium Negara
indicum), 329 Precipitation; See
Pohon pala (Myristica fragrans, Rainfall/precipitation
pala, nutmeg, biji pala), 2, Precipitation/evaporation ratio,
127, 128, 316, 328–330 117–121
Pole forest, 259 Pressure potential, 280
Pole vegetation, 286 Priangan, 323
Pollengrass, 91 Primary minerals, 97, 101, 148,
Polyathia glauca, 260 162, 211, 335, 350, 352, 371,
Polymerization, law of, 103 379
Pontianak, 263 Productivity
69071.indb 533 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM

lowland oxisols, 163 Pusat Penelitian Perkebunan

paddy soils, 15, 17 Bogor, 17
Proefstation Oost Java, 247 Pusat Perkebunan Negara
Proefstation West Java, 247 (PPN), 17
Profiles, soil (pedon), Pyricularia oryzae, 206
62, 73; See also Pyrite, 257, 271, 272, 282
Horizons/profiles/pedon
Properties, soil; See Land use
Provinces, vegetation, 79–83
East Indonesian, 80–81
Q
South Indonesian, 81–83 Quartz-containing laterite, 189
West Indonesian, 80 Quartz content
Pruning, tea plants, 364 andosols, 403
Pseudo-gley formation, 109 highland alfisols/gray-brown
Pseudo-podzolization, 368; See podzolic soils, 338, 339
also Lessivage highland brown podzolic
Pseudosand, 334 soils, 378
Psidium guajava (guava, jambu highland podzols/spodosols,
kelutuk), 172 383, 384
Pueraria, 176 inceptisols, 300, 301
Pujon, 350, 351 lowland oxisols, 132–133, 134,
Pujon-Malang highlands, 407,
135, 136–137
429
lowland ultisols, 179, 180
Pulp, 397
lowland vertisols, 229, 237–238
Pulp, albizia uses, 327–328
podzolic latosols, 296
Pumica, 418
ultisols/red-yellow podzolics
Puncak highland, 34
Puncak Jaya, 50, 392 versus laterites, 188, 189
Puncak Trikora, 50, 392 Quartz sandstone, 383
Pure red limestone soils, 211–212 Quartz-schists, 385
Pure terra rossa soils, 221 Quartzite, 383, 385
Pusat Penelitian Bioteknologi Quaternary formations
Bogor, 17 geomorphology, 30
Pusat Penelitian dan Kalimantan, 41
Pengembangan lowland oxisols, 132
Perkebunan, 18 Nusa Tenggara, 47
Pusat Penelitian dan Quaternary volcanic materials
Pengembangan Tanah lowland oxisols, 133
dan Agroklimat, 4 lowland vertisol/grumusol
Pusat Penelitian Kelapa Sawit, 18 formation, 229
69071.indb 534 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM

Index 535
Quercus spp. (oak, kayu pasang), climate classes
82, 88, 89, 304, 314 equatorial climate, 53
Quinine (cinchona), 334, 354 monsoons, 57, 58
precipitation/evaporation
effects in different
R
climatic types, 73
tropical climate, 54
Radermachera gigantae, 260 climate classes based on wet/
Rain forest dry seasons, 61–67
altitudinal vegetation zones, Mohr system, 62–65
84, 88–89 Schmidt and Ferguson
brown podzolic soils, 370 system, 65–67
climax vegetation, 77–78 highland alfisols/gray-brown
geography podzolic soils, 341
Java, 32 highland podzols/spodosols,
Kalimantan, 39 386
lowland oxisols, 138–139 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
lowland ultisols, 182 296, 303
monsoon climate indicators, and lowland alfisol
61 productivity, 221–222
mountain, 88–89, 90, 421 lowland oxisol areas, 140
secondary growth, 201, 203 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
tropical podzolic soils, 183
andosols, 405, 421 lowland vertisol/grumusol
climate requirements, occurrence, 230, 231
63–64, 65 oxisol/latosol classification,
climax vegetation, 77–78 149
deforestation, shifting peat soils/histosols
cultivation and, 201 acidity of peat, 270–271
Kauri trees (Agathis formation of, 256, 262, 263,
australis), 389 264
lowland oxisols, 138–139 peat systems, 261–262
lowland ultisols, 182 precipitation/evaporation
mountain podzols, 387–389 ratio, 117–121
terminology, 72 and soil formation
tropical broad-leaf, 314–315 calcification, 99
Rainfall/precipitation in different climate types,
altitude and, 68 73
andosols, 406, 407 salinization, 99–100
brown podzolic soils, 372 tea cultivation, 363–364
69071.indb 535 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM

Rainfall zones, 68, 69 clay mineralogy, 159–160, 161,

Rainwater storage, 166 162
Rainy season; See Wet/dry elevation and, 141
seasons lowland oxisol profiles, 143,
Raised bed crops, 245 145
Rajamandala, 228 lowland ultisols/red-yellow
Rambutans (Nephelium podzolic morphology,
lappaceum), 171–172 184
Ramsar Convention, 254 mineralogical composition of
Randublatung, 231 sand fraction, 135
Rangkasbitung, 179, 181 nitrogen content, 156
Rattan plants, 78, 88 orchards, 173–174
Reclamation, peat soils/ organic matter, N content,
histosols, 287 CEC, base saturation and
Recycling agricultural waste, 18 pH, 155
Red earth (roode aarde), 149, parent materials of, 156
217, 297; See also Oxisols
particle size distribution, 136,
(latosols), lowland
153
Red earth (roode aarde)
silica/sesquioxide ratios of
formation
clay fractions, 241
inceptisols, 297
Red limestone soil, 211, 217
rubification, 101
Red lixivium, 150
Red earth stage, 149
Red Mediterranean soils,
Red earths on limestone, 220
Red laterite, 150 209, 217, 218; See also
Red lateritic limestone soils, 217 Alfisols, lowland (red
Red lateritic quartz sand soil, Mediterranean soils)
189 vertisols in association with,
Red lateritic quartz soil, 189 227–228
Red lateritic soils Reddish-brown lateritic soils,
alfisol/red Mediterranean soil 295
names, 217 Reddish-brown latosols/oxisols,
oxisol/latosol names, 150 136
soil sequence in hilly country, charge characteristics, 157–158
215 clay content, 153
ultisol/red-yellow podzolic clay mineralogy, 160, 161, 162
soil names, 189 elevation and, 141
Red latosols/oxisols organic matter, N content,
acidity of, 154, 155 CEC, base saturation and
charge characteristics, 157–159 pH, 155
69071.indb 536 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM

Index 537
Reddish-yellow latosols/oxisols, classification and
134 nomenclature, 123
Redox state/oxidation elevation in hilly rolling
and food crop production on topography, 188
peat soils, 288–289 lateritic soil classification, 150
highland alfisols, 338 lowland podzols and, 389, 390
highland podzols/spodosols, parent materials of, 181
394 physicochemical
inceptisols/brown forest soils, characteristics, 191
313 podzolik coklat, 375
and nitrogen fertilization, soil formation
109–110 highland versus lowland,
peat soils/histosols, 261, 282, 130
287, 288–289 parent materials, 116
redox potential, 276–277 zonal soils, 386
soil formation, 271–272 Reef limestone, 210–211, 229
soil formation, 107, 108–110 Reforestation programs, 21, 25,
Red podzolic soils, 188, 191 353
Red quartz soil, 189 Regosol, 123
Red-yellow latosols/oxisols Regreening programs, 21, 325
charge characteristics, 157–158 Regur soil, 227, 236
clay mineralogy, 162 Rejuvenation
elevation and, 141 lowland oxisols, 147, 152, 163
particle size distribution, 136 lowland ultisols, 182, 184, 192,
sand content, 153 198, 199
Red-yellow Mediterranean soils Relative humidity, 71, 91
(alfisols), 99, 123, 130; See Relocation (transmigration)
also Alfisols, lowland (red policy, 22–23, 34–35
Mediterranean soils) Rembang, 32, 227
classification and Rembang hills, 229
nomenclature, 217–221 Rembang plains, 230, 245
color differences, 214 Rembang-Tuban hills, 215, 220,
Red-yellow podzolic soils 229, 231, 233
(ultisols), 13, 295; See also Rendzina, 123, 215, 233, 234, 235,
Ultisols, lowland (red- 237, 241
yellow podzolic soils) Reophilous (temperate region)
aluminum oxide/iron oxide peats, 256, 257, 258, 269
ratios, U.S. versus Research
Indonesia, 119, 120 early experiment stations, 3–4,
Bantam, 179 5–6
69071.indb 537 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM

International Rice Research paddy rice fields (sawah)

Institute (IRRI), 167 gleying in, 108
new experiment stations, highland alfisols/gray-
17–19 brown podzolic soil,
Research Institute for Estate 353–354
Crops, 3 intensification of
Research Institute of cultivation, 24
Biotechnology for Estate intercrops/rotation crops,
Crops, 169 169–170, 174, 176, 246–247
Research Institute of Sumatra lowland alfisols, 222
Planters Association lowland histosols/peat,
(RISPA), 18 288–289
Reservoirs, 166 lowland oxisols, 165–169
Resettlement program, 22–23, lowland ultisols, 204–205
201 lowland vertisols, 244, 245
Respiration, 112 nonrice crops grown in,
Reynoso system, 248 169–170
Rheophilous peat, 256 peat soils/histosols,
Rhizophora (bako-bako, bakau), 288–289
84, 85 soil types, 126
Rhodic hapludox/kandiudox, sugarcane growth, 246–247
142 water resources, 22
Rhodic kandiudults, 295 transmigration program, 23
Rhodustalfs, 216 upland rice (ladang rice, padi
Rhyolites/rhyolitic tuffs, 34 gogo, padi huma), 126
inceptisols, 299 lowland alfisols, 222–223
lowland ultisols, 179, 180 lowland oxisols, 169
porphytic, 369 lowland ultisols, 202, 203,
Sumatra, 38, 228 205–206
Riau, 29, 264 peat soils/histosols, 288,
Rice 289, 290
International Rice Research upland soils, 169
Institute (IRRI), 167 water resources, 22
mineral nutrition studies, 15 Rice mills, 168
Rice cultivation Rice Research Station,
acreages of major Indonesian Sukamandi, 6
food crops, 125, 126 Ricinus communis (castor), 245
early experiment station RISPA; See Research Institute
focus, 5–6 of Sumatra Planters
intensification of, 24 Association
69071.indb 538 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM

Index 539
River deposits; See Alluvial Saccharum (tebu); See Sugarcane
soils/sediments (Saccharum, tebu)
Robusta coffee, 436 Saccharum officinarum, 247
Rock fragments Saccharum spontaneum (glagah),
highland alfisols/gray-brown Sago palm (Metroxylon spp.), 81,
podzolic soils, 339 86, 87, 289
inceptisols, 300 Sahul Shelf area, 29
lowland oxisols, 147 Salak Volcano, 133, 300, 301, 310,
Rode kalk grond, 217 341, 404
Rode kwarts gronden, 189 Saline-alkali soils, 100
Rode lateritische kwartz Saline soils (aridisols), 96, 99, 100
zandgrond, 189 Salinization, 94, 99–100
Roode aarde (red earth), 217, 297 Salt damage to crops, 100–101
Root crops, 202 Sand
Root respiration, 112 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
Rotation crops (intercrops), 299, 312–313
paddy rice fields, 169–170, lowland alfisols, 211
174, 176, 246 lowland oxisols
Rotlehm, 101 mineralogical composition
Rough pluck, 365
of, 134–135
Rubber (Hevea), 2, 23, 126, 199,
particle size distribution,
246, 250
137, 153
experiment station
lowland soil mapping, 133
establishment, 3
peat soils/histosols, 277
Hevea brasiliensis, 174–177
podzols/spodosols, 383
Hevea guyanensis, 175
Sandalwood (Exocarpus latifolia
lowland ultisols, 203, 206
and Santalum album), 82
peat soils/histosols, 288,
Sandstone, 46, 181, 383, 385
290–291
transmigration program, 23 Sandy parent materials, lowland
Rubification, 97, 101 podzols, 385
Rubrozem, 149 Sandy soils
Rumput angin (Spinifex littoreus), citrus micronutrient
88 deficiency, 174
loam, Davidson soils, 154
Sangi Island, 328
S Sangihe, 45
Sanidine, 180, 300, 301, 371, 379,
Sabang, 250 383, 384
69071.indb 539 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM

Saninten (Castanea argintea, Schouten Island, 48

Castanea sp.), 89, 314–315, Schwaner Mountains, 39
353 Scientific societies, 19–20
Santalum album (sandalwood), 82 Secondary forest
Saprists, 269 andosols, 408
Sarangan, 341, 372 shifting cultivation and, 201,
Satellite imagery, 82 203
Savannah climate, 139 Secondary silica, 392
Savannah forest, 79 Sedges (Cyperaceae sp.), 255, 257,
Savannahs 269
climate classes, 65 Sedimentary deposits, 30, 383,
Nusa Tenggara, 47 385
vegetation provinces, 82 Sediments
Sawah, 126, 165–166; See also Rice alluvial; See Alluvial
cultivation, paddy rice soils/sediments
fields (sawah) peat formation, 259
nonrice crops grown in, Self-mulching soils, 227, 238
169–170 Sequences, soil
sugarcane as intercrop, 246 profile; See
Sawi (Brassica rugosa), 170, 317, Horizons/profiles/pedon
355 topographic
Sawo fruit (Achras zapota), 172, alfisols, 215
246 vertisols, 227–228
Schima noronhae tree (kayu Serang, 179, 181
puspa), 89 Serpong, 181
Schists, 40, 43, 46, 49, 199, 385 Sesquioxide ratios; See Silica/
Schmidt-Ferguson quotient (Q), sesquioxide ratios
65–67 Sesquioxides
Schmidt and Ferguson system, highland brown forest soils,
65–67 304
altitudinal zones, 69–70 highland brown podzolic
brown podzolic soils, 372 soils, 381
highland alfisols/gray-brown highland podzols/spodosols,
podzolic soils, 341 381
inceptisols, 303 highland spodosols, 395
lowland oxisol areas, 140 lowland alfisols, 210, 220
lowland ultisols/red-yellow lowland oxisols, 157, 158, 159
podzolic soils, 183 soil formation, 97, 103
lowland vertisols, 230 Shade system, 329, 364, 365,
peat soils/histosols, 263 437–439, 443
69071.indb 540 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM

Index 541
Shade trees/shade systems, 326 lowland alfisols, 220
Shales, 46, 181, 383 lowland oxisols, 148
Shallots (Allium cepa, bawang lowland vertisols, 240, 241
merah), 170 soil formation, 103
Sharecropping, rice, 167–168 Siliceous material, volcanic tuff,
Shifting cultivation (ladang, 133, 136, 137, 299
slash/burn system), 20, Silicification, 103–104, 105, 152
24, 44, 200–204, 205, 397 Silt, 277
Shorea spp., 260 Silt-loam texture, 347
Short-range-order clays, 413 Singkarak, Lake, 25
Shrinkage; See Plasticity/shrink– Singkarak rice variety, 205–206
swell propertes/cracking Singkep, 29
Shrub vegetation, 388 Sisal (Agave sisalana), 174, 206
Siak River, 166 Skins, clay, 106
Sibartong Mountain, 383, 387 Slash/burn (ladang, shifting
Sibayak Mountain, 3, 25, 38, 206, cultivation) system, 20,
318, 359, 401, 404, 405, 409 24, 44, 200–204, 205, 397
Silaut peat area, 264–267, 271– Slate, 385
272, 275, 285 Smallholders, 126
Silica clove cultivation, 441
aluminum sources, 107 dairy farming, 359–360
aquox latosol formation, 152 pepper growth, 127
desilicification, 75–76, 102–103 tea cultivation, 362
ferralization, 97 Small landholders’ crops
laterization, 97 albizia, 327
lowland alfisols, 210 classification and
lowland oxisols, 131 nomenclature, 126
lowland ultisols, 190 coconut, 250
lowland vertisols, 229 lowland vertisols, 245–246
organic, lowland oxisols, nutmeg, 328–329
134–135 peat soils/histosols, 289–290
secondary, 392 tea, 322, 323–324
silicification, 103–104, 105 Smectites/montmorillonites, 104,
solubility, law of 105
polymerization and, 103 andosols, 433
volcanic materials, 34 brown podzolic soils, 378
Silica/sesquioxide ratios cation exchange capacity, 157,
highland spodosols, 394, 395, inceptisols/brown forest soils,
396 312
69071.indb 541 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM

lowland alfisols, 221 lowland soils, 129, 130

lowland ultisols/red-yellow alfisols, 209–210
podzolic soils, 195 oxisols, 131, 145–146, 147
lowland vertisols, 227, 232, peat soils, 255
234, 239, 240 parent materials and, 115–117
ultisols versus alfisols, precipitation/evaporation
195–196 ratio and weathering
Smonitza, 235 intensity, 117–121
Snow Mountain range, 81, 91, processes, contemporary
392 concepts, 102–110
Societies, scientific, 19–20 aluminum and iron
Sod-podzolic soils, 344 translocation, 106–108
Sodic soils (aridisols), 100 clay translocation, 104–106
Sodication, 100 desilicification, 102–103, 104
Sodium, 100–101, 238, 261, 273 redox reactions, 108–110
Soil amendments, 163–164, 170, silicification, 103–104, 105
176, 200, 244 processes, previous concepts,
Soil classification; See
96–102
Classification of soils
publications, 14
Soil conservation, 20–25
soil classification, 122
Soil formation/pedogenesis,
transitional zones/upland
94–121; See also Parent
soils, 293
materials
inceptisols/brown forest
altitudinal variations in, 74–76
andosols, 402 soils, 308–311
climate and, 72–76 podzolic latosols, 295–296
altitudinal variations, 74–76 Soil maps; See Maps
mineralization versus Soil morphology; See
humification, 110–115 Morphology, soil
precipitation/evaporation Soil profile (pedon),
effects in different 62, 73; See also
climatic types, 73 Horizons/profiles/pedon
factors in, 93–94 Soil properties; See Properties,
FAO and WRB system soil
terminology, 130 Soil reaction, 242, 420; See also
highland soils pH, soil
alfisols, 337–338, 346 Soil Research Institute, 4, 7, 19,
brown podzolic soils, 368, 132, 269
369, 374, 375 albizia growing programs,
mountain regions, 333–334 325–326
69071.indb 542 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM

Index 543
conferences and seminars Spice crops, 250
sponsored by, 19, 20 Spice Islands, 127, 328; See also
lowland oxisol classification/ Maluku (Moluccas)
taxonomy, 150–151 Spice trade, 2
mountain soil classification, Spices, 126, 246
309 Spinach (Amaranthus spp.,
podzolik coklat, 375 bayem), 170
spodosols, 390 Spinifex littoreus (rumput angin),
soil maps; See also Maps 88
alfisols on soil map, 346 Spodic horizon, 389
revision of, 124 formation of, 74, 102, 106, 107,
soil surveys, 14 108, 113
Soil science in Indonesia; See mountain podzols, 381, 390
Historical development Spodosols
of Indonesian soil science brown podzolic soil
Soil solution strength, 117–118, classification, 375
119 brown podzolic soils; See
Sol brun acides (France), 307, 311 Brown podzolic soils
Sol brun lessivé, 306–307, 337, classification and
344 nomenclature, 380–381
Sol bruns, 296 climate, 385–387
Sol dur allitic, 149 land use and evaluation,
Solanum lycopersicum (tomatoes), 296–297
317 mountain soils, 380–397
Solanum melongea, (eggplant, parent materials of, 383–385
terong), 170 percent of total area, 124
Solanum tuberosa (potato), 317 physicochemical
Solfatara grass (Miscanthus sp.), characteristics, 392–396
421 soil classification, 390–392
Solodization, 99–100 soil formation, 106–107, 108
Solods (aridisols), 100 soil morphology, 387–389
Solok rice, 205 terminology, 74–75, 381, 390
Solonchaks (aridisols), 99, 123 Spondias dulcis (kedondong), 203
Solonetz, 123 Stabilization, lowland ultisols,
Solonetzic soils, 238 200
Solonization, 99 Stemonurus sp., 260
South Indonesian vegetation Steppes, Nusa Tenggara, 47
province, 81–83 Stoniness, lowland alfisols, 221,
Soybean, 125, 169, 244, 245, 246 222
Sphagnum, 257, 269 Structure, soil
69071.indb 543 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM

grumusols, 232 climate, 65, 67, 72

highland alfisols/gray-brown climate classes, 64
podzolic soil and, 353 copra production, 250
lowland ultisols/red-yellow geography, 28, 29
podzolic soils, 199–200 geomorphology, 41–44
lowland vertisols, 243–244 lowland oxisols, 131–132
mountain soils, 334 lowland ultisols, 179, 200–201,
Subalpine zone, 70, 72, 84, 90–91 204, 205
Subarid climate, 55 monsoons, 59
Subhumid climates, alfisols, 216 universities with agriculture
Submontane zone, 70 and soil science
Subsidence, peat soils/histosols, departments, 9, 10
277, 285, 287, 289 vegetation, 81, 91
Subsoil Sulfur bacteria, 271, 272
cation concentration, 108 Sulfur-rich soils, 109, 261
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Sumatra, 2
podzolic soils, 191 acreages of major Indonesian
lowland vertisols, 234 food crops, 125
Sugar, palm (gular aren, gula agriculture
mangkok), 248–249, 253 coconut plantations, 250
Sugar Experiment Station, coffee, 127
Pasuruan, 247 estate crops, 207
Sugarcane (Saccharum, tebu) oil palm, 246
altitudinal zones, 71 pepper growth, 127
areas grown in, 127 rice, 204
classification as estate crop, rubber, 176, 246
250 shifting cultivation, 200–
experiment station 201, 203–204
establishment, 4 tea, 127, 363
lowland alfisols, 222 wheat crops (gandum), 357
lowland vertisols, 244, 246–248 altitudinal zones, 71–72
mineral nutrition studies, 15, andosols, 401, 403, 405, 420,
17 429, 433–434, 435
Sugarcane Experiment Station of climate, 64, 65, 72
West Java, 247 equator, 53
Sukamandi Rice Research evapotranspiration rates, 118
Station, 6 experiment station
Sulawesi establishment, 3–4
acreages of major Indonesian geography, 28, 29
food crops, 125 geomorphology, 30, 35–38
69071.indb 544 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM

Index 545
highland brown podzolic Sundaland heather forest
soils, 369, 370, 371, 376, system, 382
377, 378, 379 Superphosphate, 205
highland podzols/spodosols, Surakarta, 228
382, 383, 384, 386, 391, Surface area, 138
394, 395–396 Surface horizon, andosols, 400
liparitic and rhyolitic parent Surface potential, 105
materials, 228 Surface soils
lowland oxisols, 131 andosols, 407, 408
lowland podzols (padang highland podzols/spodosols,
soil), 382, 390 394
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Sustainable agriculture, 201
podzolic soils, 179, 181, Svedjebruk, 202
183, 186, 191, 192, 193, 196,
Swamp forest, peat, 254–255,
197, 198–199
259–260, 265–266, 267
estate crops, 207
Swamps
rice cultivation, 204
coastal flora, 85
shifting cultivation, 200–
Kalimantan, 41
201, 203–204
monsoons, 61 Papua (West Irian), 50
peat soils/histosols, 261, 262, peat formation, 256–257, 271
263 peat swamp forest, definition,
peat swamp forest, 260 254–255
soil maps, 15 Sumatra, 37
soil surveys, 5 Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas),
transmigration program, 169–170, 203, 245
22–23, 35 Swidden agriculture, 201–202
universities with agriculture
and soil science
departments, 9, 10 T
vegetation, 80, 81
coastal flora, 85 Taiga (boreal forest), 298
mountain flora, 89 Talaud Island, 328
Sumatran Tropical Pine Forest, Talisse estate, 250
397 Talpetate soils, 414
Sumba, 46 Taman Sari, 341, 372
Sumbawa, 29, 46 Tampanuli, 370, 383
Sunda land mass, 39 Tanah adat, 35, 201
Sunda Shelf area, 29, 31, 84 Tanah gambut; See Peat soils/
Sunda Strait, 28, 33, 117, 181 histosols (tanah gambut)
69071.indb 545 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM

Tanah padang (padang soils, Tectona philippiniensis, 225

lowland podzols), 382, Tegal, 169
389, 390, 394 Tegalans (fallow lands), 222, 224
Tangerang, 168, 181 Teluk Cenderawasih, 48
Tangkuban Prahu Volcano, 351, Temperate climates/temperate
412, 420 regions
Tani (Ceiba pentandra, kapok, alfisols, 115, 210
petani), 174, 203, 213, 223, andosols, 405
224–225, 246 Bray test calibration, 352
Tanimbar Islands, 48 brown podzolic soils, 370
Tapanuli, 376, 387, 388 comparison of C and C/N
Taro, 203 ratios with tropical soils,
Tasikmadu, 140, 231 115
Tawang Manggu, 305, 341 humification in, 114
Taxonomy, soil; See Classification peats, 256
of soils podzolic latosols and, 295
Tea (Camellia sinensis/theifera, podzols/spodosol formation,
Thea sinensis), 2, 126, 174, 391
250 podzols/spodosols horizons,
andosols, 434 394, 395
highland alfisols/gray-brown precipitation/evaporation
podzolic soils, 354, 362 ratio and weathering
lowland ultisols, 206 intensity, 118
mountain soils, 334 red-yellow podzolic soils,
shade system, 437 181–182, 188
soil conservation programs, subhumid climates, 216
326 ultisols, 198
upland soils, inceptisols/ Temperate region crops
brown forest soils, 316, andosols, 434
322–325 at higher altitudes, 75
Teak (Tectona grandis, jati), 89 highland alfisols/gray-brown
lowland alfisols, 225–227 podzolic soil, 354
lowland vertisols, 232, 246 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
tropical monsoon forests, 79 316
vegetation provinces, 82 upland cultivation, 170
Tebu (sugarcane); See Sugarcane upland soils, inceptisols/
(Saccharum, tebu) brown forest soils,
Tectona grandis; See Teak (Tectona 317–321
grandis, jati) Temperate region forests,
Tectona hamiltoniana, 225 314–315
69071.indb 546 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM

Index 547
Temperate region (reophilous) Terra rossa soils, 209; See also
peat, 256, 257, 258, 269 Alfisols, lowland (red
Temperature Mediterranean soils)
altitude and, 68 Terra roxa soils, 131, 209
and nutmeg cultivation, Tertiary formations
328–329 geomorphology, 30
subalpine zone, 91 Kalimantan, 41
brown podzolic soils, 370 lowland oxisols, 132
equatorial climate, 53 lowland ultisols, 181
inceptisol formation, 296, 297 lowland vertisol/grumusol
latosol/oxisol climate areas, formation, 229
140 pleistocene volcanic materials
lowland oxisols, 141 mixed with, 181
and soil formation Tertiary hills, lowland vertisol/
comparison of temperate grumusol formation, 229
and tropical soils, 116 Tertiary origin, lowland ultisol
ultisols/red-yellow
parent materials, 179
podzolics, 182
Textural B horizons, 123, 188,
upland soils, 293
341, 344; See also Argillic
tea and coffee requirements,
(Bt) horizons
126–127
Texture
tropical climate, 54
brown podzolic soils, 375–376
upland soils, inceptisols/
Davidson soils, 154
Tengger, 357 highland alfisols/gray-brown
Tension zones, 178, 179, 293 podzolic soils, 347
inceptisols/brown forest soils, highland podzols/spodosols,
309 396
lowland ultisols, 197 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
ultisols/red-yellow podzolic 316
soils, 189 lowland alfisols, 211–212, 218
Tephrosia spp., 176 lowland oxisols, 137, 153
Terminalia catappa (Ketapang lowland ultisols, 190–192, 198
tree), 87, 88 lowland vertisols, 237–238
Terminology; See specific peat soils/histosols, 277–278
soils and classification soil sequence in hilly country,
systems 215
Ternate, 45 Thea sinensis; See Tea (Camellia
Terong (Solanum melongea, sinensis/theifera, Thea
eggplant), 170 sinensis)
69071.indb 547 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM

Theobroma cacao (cacao), 224, 250, lowland alfisol parent

326 materials, 211
Thermic plinthic Kandidiudults, lowland alfisols, 215
190 lowland podzol formation,
Thermic rhodic kandidults, 295 387
Thermograms (DTA); See lowland vertisol/grumusol
Differential thermal formation, 229
analysis lowland vertisols, 231
Thin sections, 335, 410, 411, 412 peat/histosol classification,
Thorp-Smith zonal system, 13 268–269
Tidal lowlands, 254 soil sequence in hilly country,
Tidal swamps, 257, 272 215
Tidore, 45 Toposequence, lowland vertisols,
Tifton soil, 190 227–228
Timber, 78, 82, 132, 260 Topsoils
albizia, 327, 438 inceptisols, 298
shifting cultivation, 202
306
teak, 223, 225–227
margalites versus rendzinas,
tree farming, 397
233–234
Torrox, 139, 141, 151, 152
Total element analysis, lowland
Timberline, 72, 90, 91, 353
alfisols, 220
Timor, 46, 210, 357
Tourmaline, 211
geography, 29 Towuti Lake, 43
monsoons, 59 Toxicity, peat soils/histosols,
vegetation provinces, 82 274–275
Tirs, 234, 235 Toxins, peat formation, 255
Tlekung highlands, 357 Trade winds, 52, 59
Toba Lake, 37, 397 Transformation, silicification/
Tobacco, 206, 250 desilification, 104
andosols, 433–434 Transition zones, altitudinal
lowland alfisols, 222, 223 lowland oxisol soil profile,
lowland vertisols, 244 144–145
Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), simultaneous podzolization
317 and laterization, 76, 110,
Tomatoes, upland soils, 130
inceptisols, 320–321 upland soils, 293
Topogenous peat, 256 podzolic latosols, 294–295
Topography Transitional peat, 256
69071.indb 548 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM

Index 549
Transitional soils Tropical gray-brown podzolic
brown podzolic soils, 368, 375 soil, 343, 347, 348, 349; See
podzolic latosols, 294–296 also Gray-brown podzolic
Translocation soils (alfisols)
aluminum and iron, 102, Tropical humid climate
106–108, 119, 120 terminology, 72
clays; See Clay mobilization/ water movement in soil, 73
movement/translocation Tropical monsoon climate; See
minerals, 99 also Monsoon climate
organic matter, 107 altitudinal vegetation zones,
podzolization, 98 84
soil colloids, 99 altitudinal zones, 71
Transmigration program, 22–23, soil formation, 73
34–35, 201, 288 Tropical monsoon forest
Transport, parent materials, climate requirements, 64
137–138 climax vegetation, 78–79
Tropical monsoons, 57
Tree farming
Tropical peats, 257, 262, 269
albizia, 325–328
Tropical podzols, intrazonal, 382
peat soils/histosols, 283, 286,
Tropical rain forest; See Rain
291
forest
spodosols, 397
Tropical savannah, 65
Tropical savannah forest, 79
brown forest soils,
Tropical soils, U.S. system and,
316–317 142
Triassic formations, Ceram, 46 Tropical spodosols, 391
Triple superphosphate, 205 Tropical zone, 70
Tristiana obavata/sumatrana, 260 Tropofluvents, 142
Trop- (prefix), 346 Troporthents, 142
Tropaquents, 142 Troposaprist/tropisaprists,
Tropi- (prefix), 269–270 269–270
Tropical black soil, 235 Tropudox/tropudults/
Tropical brown earth, 149 tropudalfs, 142
Tropical chernozem, 227; See also Trumao soils, 414
Vertisols, lowland Tuban, 32, 212, 213, 219, 231, 232,
Tropical climate, 59 233, 237, 241
altitudinal vegetation zones, Tuffs; See Volcanic material
84 Tumar tapanuli (Pinus merkusii),
concept of, 54–55 17, 72, 89, 380, 397
terminology, 51–52 Turf soil, 227, 235
69071.indb 549 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM

Tussock grass, 91 charge characteristics,

Two:One layer clays, 220–221 193–194
brown podzolic soils, 378 chemical characteristics,
podzolic soils, 346, 350, clay mineralogy, 194–197
351 particle size distribution,
lowland vertisols, 227, 238, 240 190–192
quartz content, 132–133
U soil formation
aluminum oxide/iron
Udox, 139, 151, 152
oxide ratios, U.S. versus
Udults, 189
Indonesia, 119, 120
Ultisols, highland/upland, 130,
parent materials, 116
296
soil morphology, 182–186, 187
kandic great group diagnostic
USDA classification issues,
features, 345
95–96
podzolic latosols, 296
Umbric andosols, 433
Ultisols, lowland (red-yellow
Umbrisols, 375
podzolic soils), 129, 130,
177–209 Universities
argillic (Bt) horizons, 154 cooperative programs with
climate, 130, 181–182 U.S. universities, 11–12
clove production, 127–128 post-World War II period, 8
land use and evaluation University of Indonesia, 8, 9
agricultural operations, Upland rice; See Rice cultivation,
200–209 upland rice (ladang rice,
basic soil properties and, padi gogo, padi huma)
199–200 Upland soils, 293–331
evaluation of analytical andosols, 337
properties, 197–199 brown podzolic soils, 368, 370
lowland alfisol comparison inceptisols, 296–313, 314
with, 210 agricultural operations,
lowland oxisol classification 316–331; See also
issues, 154 Agricultural operations,
lowland podzols and, 389, 390 upland soils, inceptisols
parent materials of, 179–181 analytical properties,
percent of total area, 124 313–315
physicochemical basic soil properties; See
characteristics, 190–197 also Land use, inceptisols
69071.indb 550 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM

Index 551
chemical characteristics, U.S. Agency for International
311–312 Development (USAID), 11
clay mineralogy, 312–313, U.S. Department of Agriculture
314 (USDA) classification and
climate, 302–304 taxonomy categories
land use and evaluation, andosols, 400–401, 414–415,
313–331 416
parent materials of, 299–301 brown podzolic soils, 115, 368,
particle size distribution, 374–375
physicochemical podzolic soils, 337–338,
characteristics, 309 344, 345
soil classification, 306–309 highland podzols/spodosols,
soil morphology, 304–306 381
oxisols, absence of plinthite in inceptisols/brown forest soils,
profiles, 145, 146 298, 304, 307
podzolic latosols, 294–296 limitations of, 122, 124, 139,
ultisols/red-yellow podzolics, 141
130, 179, 296 lowland alfisols/terra rosa
vertisols/margalitic, 231 soils, 216
Uplands lowland oxisols/latosols, 130,
altitude and climate, 67–72 131, 141, 142–143, 150–151,
altitudinal zones, 70 152, 153
estate and industrial crops, lowland ultisols/red-yellow
126 podzolic soils, 130,
rice cultivation (padi huma), 184–186, 188–189
126, 169, 202, 203, 289 lowland vertisols, 236
soil formation, 76 methodological issues, 7
humus formation and peat soils/histosols, 130, 254,
accumulation, elevation 268, 269–270
and, 141–142 podzolic latosols, 115, 296
simultaneous podzolization revision of older system,
and laterization, 76, 110, 94–102, 104–105
130 tropical soils, tropu- series,
temperate region crops at 142
higher altitudes, 170 U.S. soils
transitional zone, 293, 294–295 alfisols, 115, 119, 120–121, 216
tropical, 71 brown forest soils, 307–308
Urbanization, 25 brown podzolic soils, 368, 369
Urea, 205 gray-brown podzolic, 340
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Miami silt loam (alfisol), 119, rain forest and mountain

120–121 rain forest, 88–89
oxisols, 157 subalpine, 90–91
peat soils/histosols, 284–285 andosols, 408
soil formation, 116, 118–119 climate classes, 64, 65
thermic rhodic kandidults/ climax, 61, 77–79
Davidson soils, 295 tropical monsoon forest,
ultisols/red-yellow podzolics/ 78–79
Tifton soil, 190 tropical rain forest, 77–78
vertisols, houston clay, 235 tropical savannah forest, 79
U.S. taxonomic system highland alfisols/gray-brown
latosols/oxisols, 76 podzolic soils, 342,
terminology, 74–75 352–353
USDA; See U.S. Department of highland brown forest soils
Agriculture classification (inceptisols), 314
and taxonomy categories highland brown podzolic
Usox, 139 soils, 373, 377, 379
Ustalfs, 216 highland podzols/spodosols,
Ustic moisture regimes, 141, 216 381–382, 387–389
Ustox, 141, 151, 152 humus iron podzol, 388
Ustults, 189 lowland alfisols, 213
lowland ultisols, 186
monsoon, 60–61
V provinces, 79–83
East Indonesian, 80–81
Van Steenis system, 70, 72 South Indonesian, 81–83
van’t Hoff law, 116 West Indonesian, 80
Variable-charge soils, 193, 195, and soil erosion, 21
240, 428 Vegetation maps; See Maps
Vegetable crops; See also specific Vereenigde Oost Indische
vegetables Company (VOC), 2, 28
andosols, 434 Vermiculite, 164
highland alfisols/gray-brown Verplichte, 435
podzolic soil, 354 Vertisols
lowland oxisols, 163, 169, 170, percent of total area, 124
171 upland, 231
Vegetation, 77–91 Vertisols, lowland, 227–253
altitudinal zones, 84–91 climate, 127, 230–231
cloud-belt forest, 89–90 geographic distribution,
coastal flora, 84–88 227–228
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Index 553
grumusols, 130 Volcanic glass, 134–135, 384, 403
land use and evaluation, brown podzolic soils, 371
agricultural operations, podzolic soils, 339
244–253; See also inceptisols, 299, 300, 301
Agricultural operations, Volcanic material
lowland vertisols andosols, 400, 401, 402, 403,
analytical properties, 404, 415, 420
evaluation of, 242 basaltic tuffs, 44
basic soil properties and, brown podzolic soils, 370, 371,
242–244 372, 373, 378
evaluation of analytical highland alfisol/gray-brown
properties, 242 podzolic soil parent
parent materials of, 228–230 materials, 338, 339, 350
physicochemical highland podzols/spodosols,
characteristics, 237–241 383, 384
chemical characteristics, liparitic tuffs, 38, 116
238–239 lowland alfisol parent
clay mineralogy, 239–241 materials, 210, 211, 221
particle size distribution, lowland oxisols, 132, 133,
237–238 135–137, 147, 163
soil classification, 235–236 rejuvenation, 152
soil morphology, 232–235 terminology, 150
soil sequence in hilly country, lowland ultisols/red-yellow
215 podzolic soils, 180, 192,
terminology, 236 198, 199
Vigna sinensis (long beans, lowland vertisol/grumusol
kacang panjang), 170 formation, 229, 239, 242
Virgin conditions, lowland mineralogical composition of;
ultisols, 199 See specific materials
Virginia tobacco, 223, 244 podzolic latosols, 295
Vitric, diagnostic critierion, 416 soil formation from, 117
Vitric andosols, 416 liparitic versus dacitic,
Vitric materials, 415, 416 116; See also Dacites/
andosols, 415 dacitic parent materials;
highland alfisols/gray-brown Liparites/liparitic tuffs
podzolic soils, 339 and soil fertility, 74
inceptisols, 299, 300, 301 Volcanoes, 27, 30
VOC; See Vereenigde Oost Java, 32, 34
Indische Company Maluku, 45
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Nusa Tenggara, 47 strength of soil solution

Sulawesi, 43, 44 and weathering, 117–118
Sumatra, 38 ultisols/red-yellow podzolic
Vorm–snoei, 365 soil suborders, 188–189
ustox soils, 141
Water movement; See also
W Leaching; Percolation;
Translocation
Waduks, 166 in lowland vertisols, 243
Wallacea, 29 and soil formation, 73–74
Wallace line, 29 Water potential, 280
Warm fronts, 58 Water resources and
Waste recycling, 18 management issues,
Wasteland, slash/burn system 20–22, 25
and, 201 Water retention/wetness
Water andosols, 420
peat formation, 256 peat soils/histosols, 280–282
peat soils/histosols, 261–262, ultisols/red-yellow podzolic
277 soil suborders, 188
Water, soil USDA classification criterion,
andosols, 420 188
carbon dioxide dissolution in, Water table, peat soils/histosols,
111, 112, 120 283, 284–286
lowland oxisols, 141 Wayang Volcano, 338, 339, 340
lowland vertisols, 242–243 Weak dry season, 55
movement of Weathered clay, lowland
clay migration, 105, 106 ultisols/red-yellow
micronutrient mass flow, 75 podzolic soils, 200
monsoon areas, 114 Weathering, 102
oxisol/latosol classification, allophane, 423
149 aluminum oxide/iron oxide
peat soils/histosols, 270–271, ratios, U.S. versus
277, 280–282 Indonesia, 120
available water, 281–282 andosols, 418
and crop production, highland alfisols, 338
282–283 highland brown podzolic
moisture tension, 280–281 soils, 378, 379
and redox reactions, 109 inceptisols/brown forest soils,
soil formation 309–310
in monsoon zones, 113–114 lowland oxisols, 131, 156
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Index 555
classification and tea cultivation, 363
nomenclature, 149 West monsoon, 59
and clay mineralogy, 161 West New Guinea (Irian Jaya),
clay mineralogy, 161 47, 48
and clay mineralogy, 162 West Papua, 7
modal profiles, 143 acreages of major Indonesian
parent materials, 138 food crops, 125
lowland soils, 129 geography, 28
lowland ultisols/red-yellow highland podzols/spodosols,
podzolic soils, 191, 198 383, 386, 391, 394, 395, 396
mountain regions, 333 nutmeg species, 328
pedochemical, 191 peat soils/histosols, 261, 262,
percolating water and, 112–113 263
podzolic latosols, 295 Wet/dry seasons; See also Dry
soil formation, 101, 116–121 seasons
carbon dioxide in solution altitudinal variations, 68, 69
and, 111
climate classifications based
desilicification, 75–76
on, 61–67
geochemical, 191
Mohr system, 62–65
precipitation/evaporation
Schmidt and Ferguson
ratios and weathering
system, 65–67
intensity, 117–121
equatorial climate, 53
temperature and, 116
Weathering intensity, 117, lowland alfisols, 212, 215–216,
118–121 223–224
Weber line, 29 lowland vertisols, 230, 238
Weeding, clean, 176 monsoons, 60, 61
West Indonesian vegetation peat soils/histosols, 262, 263
province, 80 red-yellow podzolics, 181–182
West Irian; See Papua (West ultisols/red-yellow podzolics,
Irian) 181–182
West Java Wetlands, peat formation, 257,
annual precipitation, 54, 55 268
climate, 72 Wetness; See Water
inceptisols, 303 retention/wetness
lowland oxisols, 140 Wheat crops (gandum), 354,
lowland ultisols, 179, 183, 196 356–359
lowland vertisols, 230–231 White alkali soils (aridisols), 99
sugarcane growth, 247 White pepper, 127
tea and coffee plantations, 127 White-split disease, 330
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Wild fires in tropical peatlands,

130, 202, 260, 287
Y
Wind Yapen, 48
cloud-belt forest, 90 Yayasan Kelapa Minehassa, 250
Yellow-brown earths, 187
equatorial climate, 52
Yellow earth, 149
frontal borders, 58 Yellow margalites, 235
monsoons, 55 Yellow podzolic soils
subalpine zone, 91 elevation in hilly rolling
Wisconsin Ice Age, 116 topography, 188
Wissel Lake, 231 organic carbon content,
World Reference Base (WRB) for 192–193
Soil Resources, 98, 129, Yellowish-red latosols/oxisols,
160
130, 267–268
Yields, crop
andosols, 400, 415, 416–417 apples, 355
brown forest soils (cambisols), coffee, 437
296; See also Inceptisols lowland oxisols, 163–164
(brown forest soils, lowland vertisols, 244
cambisols) mineral nutrition studies, 15,
brown podzolic soils, 367, 375 17
cheluviation/chilluviation, oil palm, 207, 208
rice, 166–167, 205
381
rubber, 177
inceptisols/brown forest soils, tea, 367
306–307 upland rice, 205–206
lowland podzols as intrazonal Yucca (Manihot utilissima,
tropical podzols, 382 cassava), 125, 156, 163, 169,
Wurm Ice Age, 116 202, 203, 222–223, 245, 284
X Z
Xerults, 189 Zeolite, 134–135
Zeta potential, 105
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
Zinc application to citrus crop,
lowland oxisols/latosols, 159 174
lowland ultisols/red-yellow Zinc chelates, 75
podzolics, 197 Zircon, 180, 211, 383, 384
lowland vertisols, 239 Zola (Russian), 380, 390
69071.indb 556 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM

Index 557
Zonal distribution of soils lowland oxisols, 148
monsoon climate, 13–14 podzolic latosols, 294–296
Thorp-Smith system, 13 Zones, climate, 61–67
Zonal divisions of soil forming altitudinal vegetation zones,
processes, 110, 121–125 67–72
Zonal geography, Papua (West Mohr system, 62–65
Irian), 48–49 Schmidt and Ferguson
Zonal soils system, 65–67
brown forest soils as, 306 soil formation; See Climate
brown podzolic soils, 368–369, effects on soil formation
370, 375 and properties
elevation and, 386 transitional, simultaneous
highland podzols/spodosols, podzolization and
382 laterization, 76, 110, 130
69071.indb 557 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM

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Soils in The Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia

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Soils in The Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia

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Soils in the

Humid Tropics and

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Agricultural Engineering Robert M. Peart, University of Florida, Gainesville

Crops Mohammad Pessarakli, University of Arizona, Tucson

Environment Kenneth G. Cassman, University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Irrigation and Hydrology Donald R. Nielsen, University of California, Davis

Microbiology Jan Dirk van Elsas, Research Institute for Plant

Plants L. David Kuykendall, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Soils Jean-Marc Bollag, Pennsylvania State University,

Soil Biochemistry, edited by A. D. McLaren and G. H. Peterson

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Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

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No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number‑13: 978‑1‑4200‑6907‑5 (Hardcover)

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Tan, Kim H. (Kim Howard), 1926‑

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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Chapter 1 The development of soil science in

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Chapter 2 Geomorphology of Indonesia..................27

Chapter 3 Climate of Indonesia.................................51

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3.2.1 The climatic system of Mohr...............62

Chapter 4 Vegetation of Indonesia........................... 77

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4.3.1 The coastal flora.....................................84

Chapter 5 Soil formation, classification, and

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Chapter 6 Soils in the lowlands of Indonesia...... 129

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6.3.6.2 Significance of basic soil

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6.5.6.3 Agricultural operations......244

Chapter 7 Soils in the uplands of Indonesia.........293

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7.3.5.1 Particle size distribution.....309

Chapter 8 Soils in the mountains of Indonesia... 333

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8.3.5 Physicochemical characteristics........375

Chapter 9 Andosols of Indonesia............................399

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9.6.2 Chemical characteristics.....................421

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the proper formation of crystalline clays. Though the

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altitudinal variations in vegetation, have a pronounced

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10 years provided him with excellent opportunities for

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soils and vertisols) and histosols (tropical peat soils); (2)

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the dawn of new experiment stations are examined in

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1.2.2 The Kentucky Contract Team (KCT) and

1.2.7 National conferences and