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Linear friction welding

a
M.M. Shtrikman
a
National Institute of Aviation Technologies
Version of record first published: 20 May 2010.

To cite this article: M.M. Shtrikman (2010): Linear friction welding, Welding International, 24:7, 563-569

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 Welding International
Vol. 24, No. 7, July 2010, 563–569
Selected from Svarochnoe Proizvodstvo 2008 61(12) 35 – 40
Linear friction welding
M.M. Shtrikman
National Institute of Aviation Technologies
The constantly increasing loading of the structures and
components in different areas of engineering requires the
application of new structural materials with special
properties. One of the important requirements is high
weldability. However, new materials, produced by the
methods of complex alloying and heat treatment, are
sensitive to the thermal-strain cycle of fusion welding
Downloaded by [University of Western Cape] at 10:01 24 November 2012
which is used most widely in industry. Therefore, in the
last couple of decades, investigators in different countries
paid special attention to a method of producing a
permanent joint in metals and alloys without melting, in
particular, friction welding.
There are various types of friction welding1,2. The
application of each method is determined by the special
features of the design of the welded joint and the
component. The best-known method is a method of
friction welding in which the thermal energy is generated
by rotation of components (preferably axisymmetric, or at
least one of them should be axisymmetric) in relation to
each other. In contrast to this method, linear friction
welding (LFW) (or ‘vibrational welding’1) is designed for
permanent joining of non-axisymmetric workpieces.
Heating is ensured by the work of friction forces in
low-frequency translational displacement of the com-
ponents (or of one of the components) in relation to each
other under pressure (Figure 1). The friction surfaces are
heated more uniformly than in welding with rotation in
which the circumferential speed and, consequently, the
temperature in heating increases with increase in the
distance from the axis of rotation from the minimum
value in the centre to the maximum value on the
periphery. Correspondingly, in LFW the welded joint has
more uniform structure and properties in comparison with
friction welding with rotation.
The physics of the processes of LFW and rotational
friction welding is identical: the deformation-temperature
effect results in the formation of conditions on the contact
surfaces essential for the formation of metallic bonds. The
process takes place in several stages2 – 4 in the following
sequence:
. as a result of dry friction and heating, the contact
surfaces are characterized by the formation of fresh
areas, the area of these surfaces subsequently
ISSN 0950-7116 print/ISSN 1754-2138 online
q 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09507110903569149
http://www.informaworld.com
increases together with the increase in the friction
coefficient from 0.25 to 0.554,5;
. the contact surfaces come together to the atomic
interaction distance leading to the mutual diffusion
of the atoms, other physical –chemical processes
(the number and the density of dislocations increase
together with the number of vacancies; the structure
is refined and the metal is activated in the zone of
contact surfaces, bonding takes place; metallic
bonds form over the entire contact surface);
. increasing temperature reduces the elastic and
increases the ductile component of the formation,
especially in materials with a fine-grained structure;
deformation resistance decreases, the properties of
the material becomes similar to those of viscous
fluids; the effect of friction pressure eject the
plasticized material from the zone of contact
surfaces to the periphery outside the limits of the
zone, a flash forms, and possible defects are
displaced from the joint;
. when the amplitude of oscillations decreases to zero
and the components occupy the required position,
the components are subjected to upsetting resulting
in the formation of the final joint.
Vairis and Frost5 noted the importance of the initial
stage of the process, because this stage is characterized by
the formation of temperature conditions essential for
subsequent stages of the process of LFW. To determine
these conditions, the authors carried out modelling of
thermal and mechanical processes: analytical – using the
heat conductivity equations of solids6, and numerical by
the finite element method, and also experimental
measurements of temperature on the contact surface. The
calculations and experiments were carried out at the
following conditions: frequency of oscillations 30 Hz;
amplitude 0.92 mm; the contact surface area 60 mm2, alloy
Ti6Al4V.
The experimental results show that the conditions
favourable for welding are formed when the contact
surface is heated uniformly. This is important for
ensuring the flow of the material across the entire contact
surface. The temperature in heating in the centre of the
 564 M.M. Shtrikman

7
9
6

10 11

Figure 1. Diagram of LFW.

12

contact surfaces, determined by calculations and exper-

iments4,5, is 900 and 9958C, respectively.
Vairis and Frost4 obtained interesting results in the 13
experimental investigations of the behaviour of the 5 14
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parameters of LFW in individual stages of the process

I– III (Figure 2). The amplitude (0.92 –3.00 mm) and
oscillation frequency (10 – 119 Hz) were varied. The axial
displacement and the shear force were recorded in the
entire welding cycle.
Friction heating is characterized by a decrease in the
yield limit of the material. This results in plastic
deformation of the material, ejection of the flash and
axial shortening.
It was also shown in Vairis7 that the superplasticity of
alloys of the Ti6Al4V type intensifies the plastic flow in
LFW. Vairis3 concluded that there is a limit for heat input
below which the formation of sound-welded joints is not
possible because in these conditions individual hot spots
form on the contact surface, and the plasticized material is
subsequently ejected from these spots. This is
accompanied by the formation of a discontinuous flash
with projections indicating that it is necessary to increase
the heat input. It is recommended to increase the heat input
by increasing the oscillation frequency in order to produce
6
5 5.5
I II
Compression force P (kN)
4
3
2
15
1
Figure 3. Diagram of experimental equipment for LFW9: (1)
the generator for fatigue testing, (2) the pin, (3) the pulling bar,
(4) the setting pin, (5) fixator (stationary), (6) the axis of rotation,
(7) the arm of the lever, (8) the pneumatic section for transferring
frictional and forging pressure, (9) the switch (fused), (10) the
joint, (11) the fixator (oscillating), (12) welded specimens, (13)
strain gauges, (14) pneumatic section and (15) the setting sleeve.
sound joints. The formation of a high-quality joint is
indicated, according to the authors, by the formation of a
homogeneous continuous flash on all sides of the joint with
the largest length in the direction of oscillation.
6.0
Throughout the entire cycle of LFW, the material of the
III

Axial displacement (mm)

4 5.0 welding zone remains in the solid-phase condition.

4.5
3
4.0
Consequently, the process has a number of important
2 3.5 advantages:
1 3.0
0 2.5 . The possibility of welding dissimilar materials,
–1 2.0
1.5 including the materials which cannot be welded by
–2
–3
1.0 fusion welding. Consequently, the combination of
K 0.5
–4 the materials and the structure of materials used for
0
–5 –0.5 blades and discs can be optimized.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . The fine-grained structure and density of the
Time (s)
material are optimum in all the zones of the welded
Figure 2. Dependence of the shear force and axial displacement joint so that impact toughness4 and fatigue
of time4 (Ti6Al4V, oscillation amplitude 3 mm, frequency 12 Hz characteristics8 are high.
and frictional pressure 42.9 MPa). . High accuracy of welded structures.
 Welding International 565

1
2

3
31 4
5
6

29 30 7

25 26 27 28 8
10 11
9

12
24 20 21
18
23 22
19 14 15 16 32 13

17
33

Figure 4. Diagram of production equipment for LFW10: (1) the

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section for securing the fixator, (2) regulation of the mechanism

of the transfer lever, (3) the main shaft, (4) the main support
blocks, (5) the unit with the bar for translational movement of the
spring, (6) the sidebar with the strain gauge of the reversing
spring, (7) locator, (8) return spring, (9) oscillating fixator, (10)
parallel beams, (11) the support maintaining the oscillating
fixator, (12) the clutch, (13) engine, (14) coupling, (15) the
camshaft, (16) the cam, (17) the arm for applying axial force, (18)
each lever, (19, 21) the hinged-lever sections, (20) the slide block
and regulator of the axial spring, (22) the limiter of the hinged-
lever block, (23) the shaft of the cam, including upsetting, (24)
the device for transferring forging force, (25) the cam unit, (26)
the slide block of the axial spring, (27) the guiding stop of the
axial spring, (28) the axial spring, (29) the mechanism for
releasing the fixator, (30) the non-oscillating fixator, (31) the
beams, parallel to the fixators, (32) the flywheel and (33)
increased rigidity of the plate of the drive. Figure 5. LFW equipment: (a) LinFric and (b) MTS Systems
Corporation.

. The automated process, ensuring a high level of

control of the process and quality of the welded
joint.
. No need to use welding tools.
The LFW process requires specialized equipment with
automatic control of the energy and time parameters of the
process. However, the publications, mostly by foreign
investigators, do not contain sufficient data on LFW
equipment. Stokes9 describes equipment for welding
plastics working in the frequency range 120 – 240 Hz with
the amplitude of up to 5 mm. The results of the
experiments carried out in experimental equipment at
Bristol University, which can be used to weld specimens
with a contact area of up to 120 mm2 with a pressure of up
to 150 MPa, amplitude up to 5 mm and frequency up to
25 Hz, were used in the development of new equipment10
with a minimum hysteresis, capable of working in a wide
range of frequencies (10 – 10,000 Hz) and amplitudes
(0.92 – 5.0 mm). In equipment, friction and forging
pressures can be regulated, and the service life of the
equipment is very long (107 cycles, i.e. 500 joints at a
frequency of 1 kHz).
Figures 3 and 4 show the diagrams of experimental
equipment designed at Bristol University9 and of
production equipment10. In the latter, the fixator 9 is
rotated (Figure 1) using the disc-shaped cam 16 with
sinusoidal projections rotated by an electric drive. The set
of changeable cams with different number and height of
the projections can be used to regulate the amplitude and
frequency of oscillations. The return high compression
spring 8 is used for returning and compressing the fixator
with the component of the cam 16. The equipment is fitted
with a device for measuring temperature, force and other
parameters.
The TWI in Great Britain uses low-cost equipment for
LFW, LinFric (Figure 5(a)), designed as a result of the
European project Craft LinFric11 and using the stored
energy concept. The equipment has a hydraulic drive,
similar to the drives used in the fatigue testing machines,
with rapid transfer of energy to hydraulic accumulators.
 566 M.M. Shtrikman

^ 4.0 mm, the allowance for positioning less than

0.25 mm.
Thompson Company (Great Britain) – producer of
friction welding equipment – started work in 2008 on
design and production of a wide range of LFW
equipment13. The first equipment is the model E100
which, according to the claim of the commercial director
of the company, A. Shilton, will be used for joining a large
range of types of components in aerospace technology and
for oil, gas, and energy branches of the industry.
The main functional units in the equipment for any
technological variant of the LFW process are
. the generator of linear (or angular) oscillations of
Figure 6. A welded blisk of a compressor.
the moving element in the friction pair;
. the power unit for applying friction and upsetting
forces to the joint;
The overall dimensions of equipment are such that blisks
. devices for accurate fixation and positioning of the
can also be welded.
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welded elements taking into account the movement

MTS System Corporation – producer of aviation
engines – reported LFW equipment operating since 1992
up to now12. The equipment (Figure 5(b)), using MTS
technology, is designed for joining hollow titanium blades
with the rotor of a fan of the first stage manufactured by
Pratt and Whitney (F119), and also for welding various
automobile structures, joints in plastic pipes, etc. The
equipment utilizes the technical solutions applied in MTS
machines for fatigue testing: hydraulic tracking systems of
the drive, integral sensors, the system for controlling and
collecting information, etc. The characteristics of MTS
LFW equipment11: force up to 40000 kN, oscillation
frequency up to 250 Hz with the amplitude up to
of these elements in service in the conditions of
restricted access to the welding zone;
. the system for controlling the parameters and
regulating the process;
. gas shielding devices (in welding active metals).
In 2001, the TWI started work on a group project14 for
the producers and repair companies in the area of power
engineering, aviation construction, and industrial gas
turbines produced from steels and alloys based on titanium
and nickel and also other materials.
The initial advantages and technical possibilities of the
LFW process were utilized by large foreign companies

(a) 120
1
100
2
80
%

60
40
3
20
0
2001– 2005 2006– 2010 2011– 2015 2016 – 2020 Total
Year

(b) 120
100
4
80
%

60
5
40
20
6
0
2001– 2005 2006– 2010 2011– 2015 2016 – 2020 Total
Year

Figure 7. Prediction of the volume of production and repair of blisks in the period 2001– 2020 (a) and the main processes of profiling the
blades (b). (1) European community (military), (2) USA (military), (3) blisks (civil), (4) electrochemical treatment, (5) high-speed milling
and (6) LFW.
 Welding International 567

(a)

(b)
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Figure 8. Blades (a), produced by precision stamping and a disc

with projections and (b) for joining with the blades.

Rolls-Royce, Pratt and Whitney, MTU Aero Engine and

General Electric for solving acute problems such as the
development of production technologies for producing and
repairing of working discs, including discs with blades
(Figure 6), compressors and turbine engines.
There is a strong demand for blisks in the market15 for
heavily loaded compressors in military and also civil gas
turbine aviation engines. Prediction of the demand for the
blisks is shown in Figure 7. The rapid increase in the
demand for the blisks, regardless of the more complicated
repair operations in the replacement of worn blades in the
blisks containing temporary joints with the disc, is
explained by the large increase in the service life of
engines and technical –economical parameters of the
production of the blisks. The need to solve the problem of
Figure 9. Geometry of the contact surface of the disc – blade
repair has become an impetus for the development of the friction couples.
technology of LFW of blisks.
The application of LFW in the manufacture of blisks is
characterized by a number of important advantages: the root section with the accuracy of positioning the
aerodynamic profile on the angular position of the
. There are no mechanical joints between the blades
blade not greater than 0.2 mm and 0.28, respect-
and the disc. This greatly increases the service life8
ively16.
and reduces the weight of the blisk by 20%, thus
. The new technology of reconditioning defective and
reducing the dimensions and weight of the
worn blades greatly increases the service life of the
connected components.
engines.
. The manufacture of large diameter discs does not
. The production costs of the engines are reduced.
require stamping of large blanks.
. After welding the blade of a complicated design, The MTU Group company produces blisks for
only minimum finishing machining is required in PW6000, TP400, EJ200, and F119 engines17. Figure 8
 568 M.M. Shtrikman
Figure 10. Fixing the blade in the holder.
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shows a stamped blade and a blank of a disc prepared for
LFW. The contact areas on the projections of the disc and
in the base of the blade, used as friction surfaces in LFW,
are clearly visible.
The geometry of the contacting surfaces of the friction
couple strongly influences the quality of the welded joint.
Work is being continued to improve the geometry of the
projections and the friction surface. The following
assumptions have been made in a number of patents:
. the contact surface is in the disc – blade friction
couple should be adequate to each other as regards
geometry, i.e. compatible (Figure 9(a))i;
. oscillations in LFW in the tangential direction in
relation to the circumference of the disc are
preferredii;
. the contact surfaces of the disc and the blade should
contain two or more flat areas, with the intersection
lines of these areas parallel to the direction of
oscillation (Figure 9(b))iii;
. as a result of more intensive frictional heating
caused by the increase in the friction surface, the
contact surfaces of the disc and the blade compatible
in the geometry are wedge-shaped. The sides of the
wedge contain grooves in the disc and matched
projections in the blade as regards the shape
(Figure 9(c)).iv
Various devices have been proposed for the generation of
oscillatory movement in LFW of blades with the disc;v
design solutions have been proposed for securing
(Figure 10) and fixing the moving component (mostly
blades);vi the methods of ensuring more efficient contact of
the friction surface of the blade on the disc during mutual
oscillations,iv,vii and also the method of protection against
damage of the edges of the projection during oscillations.viii
2
∝
Figure 11. The gas shielding device for LFW of the blade 2
with a disc 1 made of titanium alloys.
Rolls-Royce was granted a patent for the method of
reconditioning the aerodynamic profile of the blade or its
damaged section.ix The Chinese Northwestern polytechni-
cal Institute has obtained a patentx for the method of LFW
of aluminium with steel, including a cyclogram and
limiting values of the energy and time parameters of the
process. To protect the metal heated during welding against
the effect of air, the experts of MTU Motoren und Turbinen
have proposed a method of protecting the material with an
argon flow and a gas shielding devicexi for the LFW of
blades with discs made of a titanium alloy (Figure 11).
The clear leaders in the number of inventions are the
companies Rolls-Royce, United Technologies and MTU
Aero Engine.
Analysis of scientific and technical literature shows
that the most extensive development of the technology of
LFW has taken place in the production of large- and
medium-sized blisks17. The MTU Group supplies blisks
for the compressors of aircraft engines for military and
civil aircraft (Figure 12).
The process of LFW is also used in other areas of
technology in addition to engine construction. The method
is also used in aircraft construction. Experts of the Boeing
Co. have proposedxii to produce the complicated section of
the structures by LFW of the individual elements, one or
several at the same time, to the basic component. It is
necessary to machine large components.
Methods have been proposed for the manufacture of
structures of transport systems from different materials
using LFW of the joints in wheel rimsxiii and for welding
the braking blocks.xiv
LFW is also used for joining components made of
thermally hardening of plastics18,19.
According to the views of the TWI20, the method of
LFW will be used in the production of flat-link hinged
chains, gears, copper busbars of electric buses and other
components. To widen the range of application of the
process, it is necessary to reduce the cost of equipment.
 Welding International 569

x. Patent 101020275/2007 (CN).

xi. Patent 0937531/1998 (EP).
xii. Patent 2005/0127140, 2007/0090155 (USA).
xiii. Patent 97/3814 (PCT/US).
xiv. Patent 6237384 (USA).

References
1. Welding in engineering. Moscow: Mashinostroenie; 1978.
p. 387– 400.
2. Vill’ VI. Friction welding of metals. Moscow: Mashino-
stroenie; 1970. 169 p.
3. Vairis A, Frost M. On the extrusion stage of linear friction
welding of Ti6AlV. Mater Sci Eng. 1999;A271:477– 484.
4. Vairis A, Frost M. High frequency linear friction welding of
a titanium alloy. Wear. 1998;217:117– 131.
5. Vairis A, Frost M. Modelling the linear friction welding of
titanium blocks. Mater Sci Eng. 2000;A292:8 – 17.
6. Carsloe GS, Eger DK. Heat conductivity of solids. Moscow:
Nauka; 1964. 560 p.
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7. Vairis A. Superplasticity effects and strain rate dependency

in a material joining process. J Eng Sci Technol. Review
2008;4– 8.
8. Wilhelm H, et al. Linear friction bonding of Ti alloys for
aero engine application. Proceedings of the 8th World
Figure 12. Aircraft (a) and aircraft engines (b) which use the Titanium Conference; 1995 Oct; Birmingham.
blisks, supplied by MTU Group: (1) Airbus, (2) European fighter 9. Stokes VK. Vibration welding of thermoplastics. Part 1.
and (3) turbopropeller aircraft. Phenomenology of the welding process. Polym Eng Sci.
1998;(28):718– 727.
In conclusion, it should be mentioned that the 10. Vairis A, Frost M. Design and commissioning of a friction
welding machine. Mater Manuf Process. 2006;21:766– 773.
application of the process of LFW in the production of
11. LinFricw Concortium: www.linfric.com. 2005 June.
important components (engines for military and civil 12. www.mts.com/aesd/aerospace engine.
aircraft) is mainly the result of the high degree of 13. www.manufacturingtalk.com/news/tmp/tmp123.
reproducibility of the parameters of the process and the 14. Linear friction welding of blisks for power generation,TWI
quality of the welded joint. The unique technical Ltd. www.twi.co.uk; 2001.
15. Busmann M, Kraus J, Bayer E. An integrated cost-effective
possibilities of LFW enable the designers and also
approach to blisk manufacturing. www.mtu.de/en/
production and prepare companies to use the method (in technologies/engineering_news/071106_eberlein.pdf (MTU
many cases as the only feasible method) for welding Aero Engines, Germany, Munich).
important joints in structures. 16. Nunn ME. Aero engine improvements through linear friction
welding. 1st International Conference on Innovation and
Integration in Aerospace Sciences. Queen’s University
Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK; 2005 Aug.
Notes 17. Busmann M, Bayer E. Market-oriented blisk manufacturing,
i. Patent 6095402/200 (USA). A challenge for production engineering. www.mtu.de (MTU
ii. Patent 2005/0006440 (USA). Aero Engines GmbH).
iii. Patent 7125227/2006 (USA). 18. Thermoplastics friction welding process. www.twi-
iv. Patent 2271816/2004 (GB). prossesional.com/content/jk59.
v. Patent 323490/2002 (EP), 10260465/2004 (DE). 19. Friction welding, thermoplastics technic//www.en.wikipe-
vi. Patent 213088/2001, 0624418/1997, 0404531/1993 (EP). dia.ogr/wiki/friction_welding.
vii. Patent 6219916/2001 (USA). 20. Wanjara P, Jahazi M. Linear friction welding of Ti– 6Al –
viii. Patent 5865364/1996 (US). 4V: processing, microstructure, and mechanical-property
ix. Patent 1604770/2005 (EP). inter-relationships. Metall Mater Trans. 2005;36A(8):2149.