International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing

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 IMMT International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing

Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 (21pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/abdfd7

Topical Review

Towards understanding the

brittle–ductile transition in the extreme
manufacturing
Tao Zhang1,2,3, Feng Jiang1,2, Hui Huang1,2, Jing Lu1,2, Yueqin Wu1,2,
Zhengyi Jiang3 and Xipeng Xu1,2
1
National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Intelligent Manufacturing Technology of
Brittle Material Products, Xiamen 361021, People’s Republic of China
2
Institute of Manufacturing Engineering, National Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People’s
Republic of China
3
School of Mechanical, Materials, Mechatronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Wollongong,
Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia

E-mail: jiang@uow.edu.au and xpxu@hqu.edu.cn

Received 26 August 2020, revised 27 November 2020

Accepted for publication 26 January 2021
Published 24 February 2021

Abstract
The brittle–ductile transition (BDT) widely exists in the manufacturing with extremely small
deformation scale, thermally assisted machining, and high-speed machining. This paper reviews
the BDT in extreme manufacturing. The factors affecting the BDT in extreme manufacturing are
analyzed, including the deformation scale and deformation temperature induced
brittle-to-ductile transition, and the reverse transition induced by grain size and strain rate. A
discussion is arranged to explore the mechanisms of BDT and how to improve the machinability
based on the BDT. It is proposed that the mutual transition between brittleness and ductility
results from the competition between the occurrence of plastic deformation and the propagation
of cracks. The brittleness or ductility of machined material should benefit a specific
manufacturing process, which can be regulated by the deformation scale, deformation
temperature and machining speed.
Keywords: brittle–ductile transition, deformation scale, deformation temperature,
grain size, strain rate

1. Introduction removed material usually experiences plastic deformation in

Brittle, ductile and brittle–ductile material removal modes are
artificially categorized during machining processes [1–4]. The
Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any fur-
ther distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the
title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
the ductile removal mode (DRM), while brittle fracture occurs
during chip formation in the brittle removal mode (BRM) [5].
The material removal mode has a significant effect on the sur-
face integrity of the machined surface [6, 7], machining forces
and energy consumption [8, 9], and the life time of machined
components [10]. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding
of the mechanisms of brittle and ductile removal and their
influential factors is essential.

© 2021 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd on behalf of the IMMT
2631-7990/21/022001+21$33.00 1
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001
Several aspects determine the material remove mode. The
surface topography is one of the most used criterions [11].
The DRM always leads to a smooth and crack-free surface,
and plastic plow in the machined surface [8, 12]. However,
determining the material removal mode by the surface topo-
graphy alone is not rigorous. The subsurface damage should
also be considered. A single grit scratching experiment of hot-
pressed alumina was conducted. Although the groove did not
present any observable damage, severe damage with pulver-
ization occurred in the subsurface. And the pile-up on two
sides of the groove was due to the side flow of the pulver-
ized material instead of the plastic deformation [13]. There-
fore, subsurface damage should also be considered to judge
the material removal mode. Plastic deformation mechanisms,
including phase transformation [14, 15], slip [16] and twining
[17], have been found in the subsurface when the material is
removed by DRM. Chip morphology is also used to determ-
ine the material removal mode; the layer-type and particle-type
chips are associated with DRM and BRM, respectively [18].
Acoustic emission is another effective technology for the in-
process monitoring of material removal mode [19, 20].
The material removal mode has been comprehensively
studied based on the above identification methods [21–24].
These materials, such as nature stone [25, 26], advanced engin-
eering ceramic [27, 28], semiconductor [29–31], are usually
removed with BRM in conventional machining operations,
while other materials like metals often present ductile removal
characteristics [32–34]. It is worth pointing out that the mater-
ial removal mode depends on the machining conditions. It has
been verified that the transition of the material removal mode
may occur in extreme manufacturing, which involves man-
ufacturing at extremely small deformation scales [35], high
temperature [36, 37], and high speed machining [38].
The brittle–ductile transition (BDT) in the manufactur-
ing processes has been studied in detail, and some related
review articles have been published. However, most of liter-
ature focuses on the ductile mode machining of the mater-
ials that possess brittle removal characteristics in conven-
tional machining operations by reducing the machining scale
[39]. Few reviews involve the effect of other factors, such as
machining temperature and stain rate, on the BDT, which are
also involved in extreme manufacturing. This paper reviews
the BDT in extreme manufacturing, not only brittle-to-ductile
transition but also ductile-to-brittle transition. Then, the more
comprehensive factors are analyzed, which depicts the effect
of the deformation scale, deformation temperature, grain size
and strain rate on the BDT. Next, a discussion is arranged to
explore the nature of BDT. Finally, the conclusions and out-
look are presented.
2. The BDT in the extreme manufacturing
2.1. The manufacturing processes with extremely small scale
The BRM is an obvious characteristic of materials, such
as stone, advanced engineering ceramic and semiconductor,
which are used in manufacturing processes at the conventional
deformation scale. However, the DRM has been found in some
2
Topical Review
50
Ductile
The ratio of brittle removal (%)
mode
40
2 µm
30
2 µm
20 2 µm
10
2 µm Brittle mode
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Maximum undeformed chip thickness (µm)
Figure 1. The material removal mode and machined surface
morphology of SiC for different maximum undeformed chip
thicknesses [46].
manufacturing processes, such as single point diamond turn-
ing, ultra-precision grinding and micro-milling [40–42], in
which the material removal scales are extremely small.
The critical deformation size is defined as the boundary
between BRM and DRM in the manufacturing processes of
these materials [43]. For example, in single point diamond
turning, a diamond tool with a larger radius and extremely
sharp cutting edge combined with extremely small cutting
depth and feed is the key to acquiring a thin chip [44]. As
for ultra-precision grinding, the ultra-fine grain and nanoscale
maximum undeformed cutting thickness related to the grain
density and grinding parameters guarantee that more material
is removal by the ductile mode [45].
The surface finish is one of the important factors to judge
the material removal mode. The machined surfaces with DRM
are usually damage-free with material accumulation due to
plastic flow; and those with BRM show obvious brittle frac-
ture. The results of the high-speed grinding of SiC depicted
that the material removal gradually transitions from brittle
to ductile modes with maximum undeformed chip thickness
decreases, as shown in figure 1 [46].
The chip morphology is another important factor to judge
the material removal mode [47]. The layer-type chips and
particle-type chips usually reveal the DRM and BRM, respect-
ively. The chip morphology of a l monocrystalline Si by single
point diamond turning is shown in figure 2. It shows the chip
morphology transited from particle-type to layer-type as the
maximum undeformed chip thickness declined from 690 nm
to 20 nm, which indicates the transition of material removal
mode [48].
2.2. The manufacturing processes at high temperature
Thermally assisted machining is another approach to acquire
the DRM of those materials which usually present brittle
removal characteristics in conventional machining processes
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001
(a)
18 kV ×15000 1 μm
(b)
15 kV ×10000 1 μm 0006
Figure 2. The chip morphology of a single Si crystal by single point
diamond turning of (a) dmax = 20 nm and (b) dmax = 690 nm [48].
[49]. Compared with small-scale machining processes, the
primary aim of thermally assisted machining is to achieve
DRM at the conventional machining scale [50]. The key to
thermally assisted machining is the provision of an external
heat source, including plasma [51], laser beam [52], gas torch
[53] and induction heating [54]. The focused research is laser
assisted machining because it provides high, local temperat-
ure increases on the workpiece in front of deformation zone;
only the volume of material to be removed is effectively heated
[55]. In this way, the effect of an external heat source on the
workpiece can be significantly reduced [56].
Numerous studies have been carried out regarding the use
of laser-assisted machining to increase the machinability of
materials presenting brittle characteristics at the conventional
machining scale [56]. The transition from BRM to DRM has
been found due to the involvement of laser beam [57]. The
comparative study of conventional and laser-assisted grind-
ing of zirconia (ZrO2 ) ceramic with a cBN grinding wheel
has been implemented. BDT occurred in the subsurface mor-
phology of the machined surface, showed in figure 3, due to
the elevated temperature. Obvious cracks can be found on the
subsurface due to the BRM in the conventional grinding of
ZrO2 ceramic. However, the cracks on the subsurface were
suppressed in the laser-assisted grinding because of the BDT.
3
Topical Review
The piled-up material, found in figure 3(b), also presented non-
negligible plasticity of ZrO2 ceramic during the laser-assisted
grinding [58].
2.3. High speed machining
With the development of high-speed cutting machine tools
and advanced cutting tool technologies, high-speed machining
technologies play an increasingly important role. The advant-
ages of high-speed machining include low cutting forces and
temperature, low wear of cutting tools, and high productivity
[59, 60]. It is worth pointing out that heat generation in high-
speed machining is confined to a thinner area, which produces
a high local temperature and temperature gradient. There is
less time for heat to enter the workpiece, which results in a
lower finished workpiece temperature [61]. However, the chip,
cutting tool and tool/chip interface temperature may be more
complex [62, 63]. The cutting speed in high-speed machining
is significantly improved compared with that of conventional
machining. Extremely high cutting speed has been realized by
increasing either the diameter of the cutting tools or workpiece
and increasing the rotation speed of spindle [64]. In addition,
modified light gas guns have been used to study the high-speed
machining processes [38, 65]. The chip formation mechanism
is one of the study focuses of high-speed machining [66, 67],
and Liu et al have conducted a systematic study in this area
[68].
The chip morphology is also the main basis for identify-
ing the material removal mode [69]. Cutting experiments of
7050-T7451 aluminum (Al) alloy with different cutting speeds
have been carried out. The chip morphology transforms as
cutting speed increases, as shown in figure 4. When the cut-
ting speed was 2500 m min−1 , the chip root depicted a large
area of dimples spreading over the separation zone, and ductile
fracture occurred at the separation point. When the cutting
speed was 7000 m min−1 , the chip was removed as fragments.
Cleavage steps and crystalline fractures were observed on the
fracture surface, which are typical characteristics of brittle
fracture [70].
The evolution of the finished surface with the increase
of cutting speed also proves that BDT occurs during high-
speed machining. Figure 5 shows the finished surface of ortho-
gonal cutting experiments of Inconel 718. When the cutting
speed was 800 m min−1 , the smooth machined surface was
obtained through DRM. However, when the cutting speed was
7000 m min−1 , BRM induced brittle tearing and degraded the
surface quality [71].
3. The factors affecting the BDT
3.1. Deformation scale dependence of brittle-to-ductile
transition
As for the deformation scale dependence of brittle-to-ductile
transition for these materials presenting the failure of brittle
fracture in conventional deformation scale, small-scale testing
techniques make the study possible. These testing techniques
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001
Grinding parameters˖ap=15 μm, vs=12 m/s, vw=5 mm/s
(a) Conventional grinding
Ground surface
40 μm
Ground surface
Lateral cracks
Growing cracks
4 μm
Figure 3. The subsurface morphology of ZrO2 ceramic: (a) conventional grinding and (b) laser-assisted grinding [58].
include indentation and scratching at the micro- and nano-
scales and micro-compression and micro-bending [72–74].
Advanced technologies such as (in situ) scanning electron
microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope
(TEM) make the characterization of plastic deformation at
micro- or nano-scale more intuitive and credible [75, 76].
It is worth pointing out that nano-scratching can introduce
a scratch with varied deformation scale, which may directly
present the critical deformation scale of BDT. It could also be
determined by micro-compression and micro-bending using a
series of specimens with different sizes.
Micro-scratching has been carried out to study the evol-
ution of the deformation mode of sapphire using Vickers
indenter, as shown in figure 6 [77]. Deformation can be
divided into three stages depending on the scratching depth.
In the brittle fracture dominated stage, irregular debris and
spalling occurred because of the intersection of lateral and
radial cracks, as shown in figure 6(a). In the coexistence
stage of plastic deformation and brittle fracture, initial radial
cracks and torn and segmented chips appeared, as shown
in figure 6(b). In the pure plastic deformation stage, the
4
Topical Review
(b) Laser-assisted grinding
Ground surface
20 μm
Ground surface
Piled up material
4 μm
scratching grooves and long shavings were smooth, and loc-
alized plastic flow resulted in curled shavings ejected from
the scratches. The results showed that the ductility of sapphire
increases as the deformation scale decreases; and pure plastic
deformation occurs at sufficiently small deformation scales.
BDT due to the decline of the deformation scale has
been observed in other materials, such as GaAs, SiC and
Si [78, 79]. The mechanisms of deformation scale induced
brittle-to-ductile transition have been comprehensively stud-
ied. The decline or absence of the natural defect popula-
tion because of the decreased deformation scale increases the
strength of these materials, presenting brittle characteristics
in conventional deformation scale, which enables the plastic
deformation mechanisms can be activated [80–82]. In gen-
eral, the material strength and plasticity follows the Weibull
distribution, i.e. a larger deformation scale deforms the mater-
ial in a more brittle fashion due to the higher probability of
having a critically oriented flaw in a larger volume [83]. It
has been pointed out that cracks could be suppressed, and the
plastic deformation could be observed as long as the deform-
ation scale is sufficiently small [84].
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001
(a)
View direction
Lens: X500 100.00 μm 100 μm
(b)
Lens: X20 2.00 mm
View direction
50 μm Lens: X500
Lens: X200 250.00 μm
Figure 4. The SEM micrographs of the fracture surface on the chip roots (a) cutting speed: 2500 m min−1 and (b) cutting speed:
7000 m min−1 (uncut chip thickness: 0.10 mm) [70].
Liu et al proposed that brittle materials could undergo con-
siderable plastic deformation when the deformation scale is
small enough, which causes the stress intensity factor K I to
be less than the fracture toughness K C due to the three fol-
lowing effects [18, 85]. Firstly, the small deformation scale
will lead to the obvious negative rake angle effect in the single
point diamond turning, abrasive machining [86, 87], which
places extremely high compressive stress on workpiece mater-
ials in deformation zone, significantly reducing K I . Secondly,
at the mesoscale of deformation (0.1–10 µm), yield strength
enhancement due to dislocation hardening related to the dis-
location elastic interaction increases K C . Thirdly, at the meso-
scale of deformation, strain gradient accommodated by geo-
metrically necessary dislocations strengthens the yield stress,
which also increases K C .
The common plastic deformation mechanisms include the
slip, twinning and phase transformation [88]. The most rep-
resentative example of slip-related plastic deformation is the
micro-compression of diamond. It is widely accepted that dia-
mond does not deform plastically at room temperature and
5
Topical Review
Dimples
10 μm Lens: X2000
Ductile
fracture
Lens: X500
10 μm Lens: X2000
Large cracks
5 μm Lens: X5000
Crystalline fracture
5 μm Lens: X5000
often fails in catastrophic brittle fracture. However, a recent
study reported the unprecedented dislocation plasticity in the
micro-compression of diamond with sub-micrometer pillars
[89]. As shown in figure 7, the systematic study showed that
the sliding of dislocations primarily determines the plasti-
city. The defect-free diamond pillar suppresses the cracks and
raises the maximum stress level [90], which activates the dis-
location.
The decline of deformation scale may activate other plastic
deformation mechanisms. Compared with macroscopic speci-
mens, the micro-compression of polycrystalline ZrO2 depic-
ted the absence of defects significantly increases compress-
ive strength up to 8 GPa with a failure strain of 7%, which
is four times larger than that of macroscopic tests. The
higher stresses activate plastic deformation. The TEM and
STEM observations suggest that the phase transformation
was the main plastic deformation mechanism [91]. In addi-
tion, the decline of the deformation scale induces twinning
and a combination of the three kinds of plastic deformation
mechanisms [92].
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

(a) where E is the Young’s modulus of materials, H is the hard-

ness, K C is the fracture toughness, σ y is the fracture toughness
Ra=0.237 μm and yield stress respectively and ψ is BDT factor of materials.
The brittle-to-ductile transition induced by the decline of
deformation size has been comprehensively studied in experi-
ments, and the representative experimental results are listed in
table 1.

3.2. Deformation temperature dependence of

brittle-to-ductile transition

In addition to the reduced deformation scale, elevated tem-

perature could also enable plasticity in these materials that
present brittle fracture at room temperature. Elevated temper-
30 μm Lens: X1000 ature induced brittle-to-ductile transition has been extensively
studied. The micro-compression of monocrystalline Si with a
pillar diameter of 2 µm has been carried out at different tem-
(b)
peratures and a constant loading rate of 0.5 mNs−1 ; the results
Ra=0.902 μm are shown in figure 8 [103]. The micro pillar directly failed
in brittle fracture at room temperature. However, a BDT was
found in which the micro pillar deformed plastically without
catastrophic failure, although some cracking was still observed
in figure 8(b). Figure 8(c) depicts a micro pillar that had exper-
ienced substantial plastic deformation, which verifies that the
Cracks Brittle tearing cracks were suppressed in the monocrystalline Si micro pil-
lar. These results are consistent with an earlier study, which
reported that the BDT temperature was about 500 ◦ C [104].
Similar results have been found in the micro-compression of
single crystal MgAl2 O4 [105] and small punch tests of poly-
crystalline Al2 O3 [106]. These results demonstrate that elev-
ated temperature can induce the BDT.
30 μm Lens: X1000 One of the research focuses of elevated temperature
induced plasticity is to expand the ductile regime. The scratch-
ing test of RB-SiC ceramics was implemented at varied tem-
Figure 5. The finished surface at different cutting speeds: peratures. The wedge scratching mode was used with a Vickers
(a) cutting speed is 800 m s−1 and (b) cutting speed is indenter to study the ductile-to-brittle transition under differ-
7000 m min−1 (uncut chip thickness is 0.10 mm) [71]. ent scratching temperatures. Figures 9(c)–(f) shows that the
scratch length undergoing plastic deformation increased with
The critical deformation size has been proposed, which is the rise of temperature, which indicates a positive correlation
expressed as following [79, 83, 93]: between the critical deformation scale of BDT and deforma-
tion temperature [107].
( )2
KC The mechanism of elevated temperature induced brittle-
dcrit = λ (1) to-ductile transition is related to the thermal activation. The
σy
dislocation motion is more difficult because of the high
energy of covalent and ionic bonds in some materials at room
where the dcrit is the critical deformation scale of brittle-to- temperature [108]. Therefore, ionic-bonded and covalent-
ductile transition; K C and σ y is the fracture toughness and yield bonded materials, such as semiconductors and ceramics,
stress respectively; λ is the flaw geometry constant. It has been always present catastrophic brittle fracture. Plastic deform-
pointed out that when the deformation scale is less than dcrit , ation involves dislocations that move from one equilibrium
the smaller deformation zone cannot provide sufficient elastic position to the next, during which the dislocation must over-
energy for the rapid crack propagation, and material failure come the Peierls–Nabarro lattice resistance [109]. As shown
occurs by plastic deformation [83]. in figure 10, each peak represents the resistance applied on
Bifano et al [94] proposed an empirical equation for the the dislocation during the dislocation motion process. The area
depth of BDT. The critical penetration depth hc is given by: under the curve represents the energy consumed during the dis-
( ) ( )2 location motion. The atoms in solids always vibrate randomly
E KC near their equilibrium positions. Atoms vibrate more rapidly at
hc = ψ (2)
H σy higher temperatures, which increases the thermal energy ∆G

6
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

(a) (b)
D: 2.71 μm II I I Shavings
D: 1.05 μm
W: 19.0 μm W: 7.38 μm
Tearings
45°
30°

45°

II
I Radial cracks
II
Spalling pits 40 μm 20 μm
(c) (d)
Curled shaving
30° M R1
− S2
[0110] S1
ction
ing dire
Scratch
30° R3
R2 C-plane
D: 0.73 μm M
10 μm
W: 5.11 μm

Figure 6. The morphology of the scratching grooves made using a Vickers indenter conducted on the C-plane of sapphire: (a) the
scratching depth is 2.71 µm, (b) the scratching depth is 1.05 µm, (c) the scratching depth is 0.73 µm and (d) the schematic illustration of
scratching direction [77].

(a) (b) (c)

]
11
[1
=
g

50 nm 50 nm

(d) (e) (f)

ce
rfa
su
e
t ur
ac
Fr

Dis
loc Dis
ati loc
o ns ati
50 nm 50 nm on 50 nm
s

Figure 7. Multiplication and motion of dislocations in a diamond pillar (a) and (b) are the bright-field and dark-field TEM images of the
diamond pillar respectively, (c) is the selected area for the electron diffraction pattern, (d) is a fracture surface of diamond due to first-stage
compression, and (e) and (f) are the dislocations emitted from the fracture surface in subsequent deformation [89].

7
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

Table 1. The results of BDT induced by the decline of deformation size.

Critical load or size of

Materials Test method brittle-to-ductile transition Note Reference

Single-crystal silicon Nanoindentation Depth: 54.63 nm Indenter type: Berkovich [95]

Load: 138.64 mN Tip radius of indenter: 50 nm
Crystal plane: (1 0 0)
Single-crystal silicon Nanoscratching Load: 11–16 mN Indenter type: Rockwell (90◦ ) [96]
Tip radius of indenter: 1 µm
Crystal plane: (1 0 0)
Scratching direction: <1 0 0>
Single-crystal silicon Nanoscratching Depth: 36 nm Indenter type: Cantilever with [97]
Load: 118 µN diamond coated tip
Tip radius of indenter: 100 nm
Crystal plane: (1 0 0)
Scratching direction: <1 0 0>
6H–SiC Nanoscratching Depth: 75 nm Indenter type: Berkovich [98]
Load: 12.2 mN Tip radius of indenter: 940 nm
Crystal plane: (0 0 0 1)
YAG Nanoindentation Load: 10 mN Indenter type: Berkovich [99]
Tip radius of indenter: 90 nm
Crystal plane: (1 1 1)
AlN ceramics Nanoscratching Depth: 420–600 nm Indenter type: Berkovich [100]
Tip radius of indenter: 90 nm
RB-SiC ceramics Nanoindentation Load: 60–70 mN (Si matrix) Indenter type: Vickers [101]
Load: 40–60 mN (SiC particle)
Lithium luminosilicate Nanoscratching Depth: 335.10 nm Indenter type: Berkovich [102]
glass ceramics Load: 268.60 mN Tip radius of indenter: 100 nm

(a) (b) (c) Where τ y is the yield stress, A and n are material constants,
∆Hτ is the energy parameter related to the activation of dis-
location motion, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the deform-
ation temperature, σ f is the fracture stress, τ f is the corres-
ponding shear stress of σ f , S is Schmid factor. τ y and τ f are
2 μm
the critical shear stresses for dislocation motion and fracture,
respectively. There is a negative correlation between τ y and T.
τ y for a crystal is weakly temperature dependent and can be
regarded as a constant [112]. In general, τ y is larger than τ f
for these materials presenting brittle fracture at room temper-
ature. However, BDT can be acquired by rising the deforma-
2 μm 2 μm tion temperature. The brittle-to-ductile transition temperature
T BDT could be obtained by combining equations (3) and (4),
Figure 8. The change of deformation mode with different which is expressed as [112, 115, 116]:
deformation temperature of (a) 25 ◦ C, (b) 200 ◦ C and (c) 500 ◦ C
[103].
∆Hτ
TBDT = [ ]. (5)
kln ASε̇σ1/f n
and decreases the resistance energy consumed during the dis-
location motion process. Therefore, dislocations move easily
at high temperatures [110, 111]. Increased temperatures facil- The BDT induced by the elevated deformation temperat-
itate dislocation motion better than brittle fracture, which con- ure has been comprehensively studied, and the representative
tributes to the brittle-to-ductile transition [112]. experimental results are listed in table 2.
The competition between dislocation motion and brittle
fracture is quantitatively described in the following equations 3.3. Grain size dependence of ductile-to-brittle transition
[112, 114]:
[ ] White layer is a common phenomenon in manufacturing pro-
∆Hτ cesses for these materials presenting obvious plasticity in con-
τy = Aε̇ exp −
1/n
(3)
kT ventional manufacturing, especially for high-speed machin-
ing, in which the grain refinement has been widely observed
τf = Sσf (4) [119–121]. The grain distribution below the machined surface

8
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

(a) (b)

Laser
Feed
Indenter

RB-SiC specimen ρ = 200 nm

Kislter 9129 AA

Movement direction of worktable Vickers indenter

Dcutile DBT Brittle Dcutile DBT Brittle

11.8 μm 21.9 μm

(c) 100 μm (d) 100 μm

Dcutile DBT Brittle Dcutile DBT Brittle

24.5 μm 32.1 μm

(e) 100 μm (f) 100 μm

Figure 9. Elevated temperature scratching of RB-SiC: (a) the schematic illustration of the scratching test, (b) the Vickers indenter used in
the test with the round tip, (c) the scratch at room temperature, (d) the scratch under at 200 ◦ C, (e) the scratch at 600 ◦ C and (f) the scratch
at 900 ◦ C [107].

F,τ τ
T0<T1<T2<T3
τ0
T0=0 T1 T2 T3
F0 , τ0 ΔG1
τ1
F1, τ1
ΔG2 ΔG3
λ τ2
F2, τ2

O X O T
(a) (b)

Figure 10. The effect of deformation temperature on the dislocation motion: (a) schematic of a dislocation overcoming barriers with the
assistance of thermal energy and (b) the relationship between the deformation temperature and the stress used for overcoming barriers [113].

is shown in figure 11. It depicted that the white layer can be contributes to the ductile-to-brittle transition in the machining
divided into two layers including the recrystallization (RX) processes.
layer and transition layer. There were 200 nm sized nanocrys- The grain size has a significant effect on the mechanical
tal grains in the RX layer with large angle grain boundaries. properties of materials, which can be expressed by the Hall–
A transition layer with low angle grain boundaries and sub Petch relationship [124, 125]. The following formula quantit-
grains formed below the RX layer. There were larger grains atively establishes the relationship between the yield strength
with small angle grain boundaries in the deformed buck layer and grain size, where the yield stress increases as the average
[122]. It has been reported that brittleness and hardness in the grain size increases [126]:
white layer were significantly higher compared with the buck /
√
material due to the severe grain refinement [121, 123], which σy = σ0 + ky d. (6)

9
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

Table 2. The results of BDT induced by the elevated deformation temperature.

Brittle-to-ductile
Materials Test method transition temperature Note Reference
◦
Single-crystal silicon Pillar indentation splitting test About 250 C The diamond cube corner [117]
indenter was used and a facet
edge of the cube corner was kept
aligned with the (0 1 0) plane
GaAs Micro-pillar compression 300 ◦ C The diameter of micro-pillar is [103]
2 µm.
GaAs Indentation experiment 200 ◦ C Indenter type: Vickers [112]
Crystal plane: (0 0 1)
GaAs Four-point bend test 300 ◦ C–380 ◦ C Sample size is 35 × 3 × 1 mm, [112]
and the 35 × 3 mm2 top and
bottom faces of the sample were
cut parallel to the (0 0 1) plane.
ZrO2 and Al2 O3 Small punch test 1100 ◦ C (For ZrO2 ) 1250 ◦ C Disk-shaped specimen with the [106]
(For Al2 O3 ) diameter of about 10 mm and
thickness of 0.5 mm.
4H–SiC Compression experiments 1100 ◦ C(ε̇ = 3.6 × 10−5 s−1 ) Parallelepiped-shaped samples [118]
1030 ◦ C(ε̇ = 2.6 × 10−5 s−1 ) with the basal (0 0 0 1) plane at
45◦ to the compression axis.
MgAl2 O4 Micropillar compression About 200 ◦ C The diameter of micropillar is [105]
2.5 µm.

RX layer
Machined surface Boundaries: rotation angle
White layer
Low angle (<15°)
Large angle
Trans. layer

High angle (>15°)

grain boundary

Boundaries: Twin
1 μm (a) Plane normal: 1 1 1
Direction: 1 1 1
Deformed buck layer

Subgrain Angle: 60°

111

001 101
2 μm 2 μm (d)
1 μm (b) (c)

Figure 11. Subsurface grain distribution of nickel (Ni)-based superalloy (S135H) after orthogonal cutting (a) and (b) at 0–2.5 µm from the
machine surface, (c) and (d) at 0–12 µm from the machine surface [122].

where σ y is the yield stress, σ 0 is a material’s constant
for the starting stress for dislocation movement, ky is the
strengthening coefficient (a constant specific to each material),
and d is the average grain diameter.
The relationship between the yield stress or hardness and
the average grain size of copper is shown in figure 12, which
was summarized by Tschopp et al [127]. It has been reported
that yield strength could be improved by more than five times
when the materials transit from micro-sized to nano-sized
grains [128] (figure 12).
However, the elongation of materials decreases with the
decrease of grain size. The relationship between elongation
and average grain size summarized by Liu et al is shown
in figure 13 [129]. They concluded that brittleness increased

10
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001
Figure 12. The relationship between yield stress or hardness and
the grain size of copper [127].
Figure 13. Grain size dependence of uniform elongation [129].
with the decrease of grain size. Therefore, the ductile-to-brittle
transition may occur in materials with extremely small grain
size.
The brittle fracture of nano-grained Cu and Ni with
ultrahigh strength has been found in the tensile test, which was
identified by fracture morphology [130], as shown in figure 14.
The strengthening mechanism for fine-grained materials is that
the dislocation slip is substantially suppressed by grain bound-
aries of the extremely small grains [131]. However, grain
boundary sliding or diffusional creep is not active enough to
accommodate plastic straining at ambient temperature, which
leads to brittle fracture [132].
It has been summarized that the plastic deformation mech-
anisms differ according to grain size and transit smoothly with
the decline of average grain size [133]. The dominated plastic
11
Topical Review
1800
Ni (28 nm)
Specimen 100 μm
1500
Fracture
1200 morphology
Stress (MPa)
1 mm
Cu (26 nm)
900 100 μm 100 μm
600
300
Cu Ni
0.5 μm
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Strain (%)
Figure 14. The stress–strain curves for Ni and Cu [130].
deformation mechanism is dislocation motion when the grain
size is larger than 10 nm, in which the Hall–Petch relation-
ship is widely confirmed [134, 135]. However, strength and
brittleness decrease when the grain size is less than about
10 nm, which is called the inverse Hall–Petch effect [136].
This effect is the result of other plastic deformation mech-
anisms, such as grain boundary sliding and grain rotation
[137]. It is worth noting that the size of refined grain dur-
ing the high speed machining usually larger than 10 nm
[138–143]. Therefore, the decline of strength and brittleness
with the decrease of grain size is rarely involved in extreme
manufacturing.
3.4. Strain rate dependence of ductile-to-brittle transition
Machined materials are often subjected to dynamic loadings.
The mechanical behaviors of materials subject to high strain
loading differ from those subject to static or quasi-static load-
ing [144, 145]. The different mechanical test methods are used
to acquire similar strain rates consistent with specific manufac-
turing processes, as shown in figure 15 [71, 146, 147].
It has been reported that both the tensile strength and
yield strength of these materials presenting obvious increase
of plasticity as the strain rate increases, and plastic fail-
ure strain declined with the growth of strain rate [148], as
shown in figure 16. The connecting curve EDCBA repres-
ents the critical condition where the material fails, which
was named the ‘fracture locus.’ figure 16 shows that the brit-
tleness increased as the strain rate increased. The ductile-
to-brittle transition occurs as long as the strain rate is high
enough.
The stress wave theory is often used to analyze the mechan-
ical behaviors of materials that have high strain rates. Accord-
ing to the theory, the brittleness induced by high strain rate
should be defined as pseudo brittleness. The materials subject
to high strain rate deform locally, near the impact positions,
and the rest of the part presents no obvious plastic deforma-
tion, which is a mechanism of pseudo brittleness [149]. The
materials fail in a ductile manner when pseudo brittle fracture
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

Figure 15. The strain rate ranges for different manufacturing processes and the corresponding test methods [71].

Elastic region The unloading waves mainly include the reflected elastic
σ wave generated at the end of specimens and the elastic wave
E Stable plastic region
In

F induced by the unloading impact, as shown in figures 17(a) and

cr

D
ea

(b), respectively [113]. As for the effect of the reflected elastic

se

C wave generated by the end of specimens on the deformation

of
st

distribution, it is depicted by a bar with length of l impacting

ra
in

with a rigid object. When the time t is from zero to l/c0 , both
ra

B the elastic and plastic compression waves propagate from the

te

Fracture left end to the right end of the rod. The elastic compression
locus wave propagates faster than plastic compression wave. When
the elastic compression wave reaches the right end at time
A l/c0 , the reflection generates the elastic tensile wave. Then,
Unstable plastic region
the elastic tensile wave, functioning as an unloading wave,
propagates from the left end to the right end and unloads the
elastic and plastic compression waves in turn, which propagate
ε
from the left to right. When the elastic tensile wave reaches the
left end at time 2l/c0 , the elastic and plastic compression waves
Figure 16. The mechanical response of materials under different
strain rates [148]. are completed unloaded. Finally, the local residual plastic
deformation zone with length x1 forms, which depicts the local
deformation of the impacted material. The effect of the elastic
occurs. The velocity of the stress wave can be expressed by the wave, induced by the unloading of impact on the deformation
following equations [150, 151]: distribution is shown in figure 17(b). It is depicted by a bar
√ with semi-infinite length impacting with a rigid object. The
1 ∂σ ∂σ elastic tensile wave, functioning as the unloading wave, is gen-
c0 = (σ ⩽ σy , = E) (7)
ρ0 ∂ε ∂ε erated at time tu , and the unloading process of earlier elastic
and plastic compression waves is similar to those shown in
√ figure 17(a).
1 ∂σ ∂σ The difference between the elastic wave velocity and
cP = (σ > σy , < E) (8) the plastic wave velocity and the unloading waves cause
ρ0 ∂ε ∂ε
the materials subject to impact to deform locally. The
where c0 and cp are the elastic and plastic stress velocities, most obvious example of this is the Taylor impact test,
respectively. ρ0 is the density of materials. σ and ε are the in which the projectiles are accelerated to impact a rigid
stress and strain, respectively. σ y is the yield stress, and E is wall [152, 153]. Five distinct deformation and fracture
Young’s modulus. The above equations suggest that the plastic modes in the projectile during Taylor impact tests for steels
stress velocity is always less than the elastic stress velocity, have been reported, as shown in figure 18 [154–157]. The
which cooperates with unloading waves to make materials projectiles always deform or fracture locally close to the
deform locally during the impact process. impact end.

12
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

(a)
t X1

Separation

t=2l/c0 Un cp c0
(Elasloading
tic te wave
nsile
wave
)
e

Reflection
av
w
si ic

cp c0
es st
on

t=l/c0
pr Pla

e
n wav
ressio
comp
m

c
Elasti
co

l x l
O X1

X1
(b) t )
a ve ave
w w
g le
d in nsi
a e
Unloading of lo ic t Plastic
c0 cp
Un ast compression wave c0
impact loading l
(E
tu e
av Unloading
tic w cp
l as ion c0
E ss
p re
m
co

σ σ0 O O X1 x
Yield stress

Elastic deformation zone Plastic deformation zone Undeformed zone Residual plastic deformation zone

Figure 17. The effect of unloading waves on the deformation distribution of (a) the elastic wave induced by reflection and (b) the elastic
wave induced by the unloading of impact [111].

(a) (b) (c)

(e)
(d)

Figure 18. The five distinct deformation and fracture modes in the projectile: (a) mushrooming, (b) tensile splitting, (c) shear cracking,
(d) fragmentation and (e) petalling [154].

13
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

(a) (b)
Shear wave velocity
Mean dislocation velocity

ag
dr

Relativistic effect
re
Pu

(d) (c)
Thermal activation

Stress

Figure 19. The relationship between stress and mean dislocation

velocity [160].

Figure 20. The grain refinement process of a single titanium

When a bar with velocity V is impacted, the strain at the powder particle subject to impact of (a) spraying titanium particle
impact end is εV. , and their relationship can be expressed as onto the substrate, (b) entanglement of dislocations, (c) formation of
dislocation cells and sub-grains; and (d) breaking-up, rotation and
the following formula [71, 149]: recrystallization of sub-grains [161].

ˆεV √
1 ∂σ
V= . (9)
ρ0 ∂ε
0

The plastic wave velocity V cr is expressed as following:

ˆεm√
1 ∂σ
Vcr = (10)
ρ0 ∂ε Brittleness
0
Propagation of crack

where εm is the strain when ∂σ/∂ε is zero, which means that Competition
the plastic wave velocity is zero. If the velocity of impact V
exceeds plastic wave velocity V cr , the strain at the impact end Plastic deformation

will be larger than εm , which is the stain corresponding to

tensile strength. The materials will fail in the form of pseudo Ductility
brittle fracture.
Dislocation kinematics provides another perspective to
explain the brittle-to-ductile transition when materials subject
to impact. Plastic deformation is the combined result of dislo-
cation motion, mechanical twinning and phase transformation
[158]. Figure 19 expresses the plastic deformation at different
strain rates when only dislocation movement is considered. It
Figure 21. The mutual transition relationship between brittleness
is worth pointing out that the variation of stress was due to and ductility of materials.
the change of strain rate. In general, there is a positive correl-
ation between stress and strain rate for a specific strain [159].
The dominant factors affecting the mean dislocation velocity a high enough strain rate, which leads to the ductile-to-brittle
is thermal activation, pure drag and relativistic effect in turn transition.
as the stress increases, and the mean dislocation velocity is Severe grain refinement also contributes to the ductile-to-
always less than the shear wave velocity due to the relativistic brittle transition of materials presenting obvious plasticity.
effect [160]. The velocity of the dislocation relative to the load- The grain refinement is much more severe during impact
ing tends toward zero with increasing loading velocity. There- deformation than quasi-static deformation. The results of
fore, the dislocation seems to be fixed when the material has metal particle impact tests suggest that the impact process

14
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001 Topical Review

Dislocation plasticity Brittle fracture

in diamond
Ductile fracture
Diamond pillar

Max
10 nm

De a
Dis

In
loc

cr
cl e

Stress increase ratio

ati

in of
e
on
10
Deformation scale

In
t

e
poin

s
50 nm

cr

of oa
100 nm Yield

ea

gr din
se

l
ia
n
Curved diamond

of

si at
needle

te

ze e
g
m

/
r
ion scale

pe
ra
1 μm

tu
f
Decline o

re
500 nm
1
deformat

Chip morphology evolution of

7050-T7451 aluminum alloy
als
ateri
rials
mate le

V=5000 m/min
ile m
Duct
Britt

Area under curves 100 μm

=absorbed energy

V=1000 m/min

Strain

Figure 22. The BDT in the extreme manufacturing.

can lead to the formation of nano-sized grains, in which
the dynamic RX caused by adiabatic shear instability plays
a major role [161, 162]. The grain refinement is shown in
figure 20.
4. Discussion
Covalently or ionically bonded materials generally present
brittle characteristics because of their high bond energy, which
makes plastic deformation more difficult to induce than nuc-
leation or propagation of cracks in conventional deformation
conditions. On the contrary, the metallic bonded materials
present ductile characteristics due to their low bond energy
[108]. However, there is a mutual transition between the brit-
tleness and ductility of materials. The nature of BDT is the
competition between the ease of plastic deformation includ-
ing dislocation motion, twining and phase transformation,
and crack propagation. The mutual transition relationship
between brittleness and ductility of the material can be vividly
described by an ouroboros as shown in figure 21, which is a
symbol of infinite circulation. The factors that can promote this
circulation include deformation scale, deformation temperat-
ure, strain rate and grain size.
The BDT described in this review is shown in figure 22.
With regard to the deformation scale, the resistance of crack
propagation increases as deformation scale decline, because
the decreased deformation zone does not provide sufficient
elastic energy for the rapid propagation of cracks [83], sig-
nificantly improving the fracture strength [163]. The resist-
ance of crack propagation exceeds that of plastic deformation
when the deformation scale is small enough, which induces
plasticity in materials that usually present brittle characterist-
ics. When the material is removed at a small enough scale,
the materials remove through the ductile mode instead of the
brittle mode. As for the deformation temperature, the res-
istance of plastic deformation decreases with the increase
of deformation temperature because of the rise of thermal
energy [105, 106, 164]. The resistance of plastic deformation
is lower than that of crack propagation as long at high enough
deformation temperatures, which facilitates brittle-to-ductile
transition. Thermally assisted machining can ensure that the
material is removed with ductile mode at relatively large
deformation sizes because the heat expands the plastic domain
of machined materials. Grain boundaries could improve the
resistance of plastic deformation. The ductile-to-brittle trans-
ition occurs when the resistance of plastic deformation is
improved above that of crack propagation. As for the deform-
ation rate, the dislocations seem to be fixed when the mater-
ials are subject to high enough strain rates, which is a way
of improving the resistance of plastic deformation to induce
the ductile-to-brittle transition. Therefore, the materials that
present ductile characteristics at conventional deformation
rate can be removed with brittle mode as long as the cutting
speed is high enough.
The brittleness or ductility of machined materials should
benefit a specific manufacturing process, which can be
regulated based on the BDT analyzed in this review. As for the
manufacturing of semiconductor wafers, which present typ-
ical brittle removal characteristics in conventional machining
conditions, ductile removal in the finishing process should be
guaranteed by the polishing process with the extremely small
deformation scale to acquire a defect-free machined surface
[165, 166]. Advanced engineering ceramics are in increasing

15
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 (2021) 022001
demand in automotive, aerospace and military fields due to
their high temperature strength, low density and good wear
resistance. The machining of these ceramics is expensive due
to the short tool life and low machining efficiency. In addition,
surface and subsurface damage is often introduced in conven-
tional machining conditions, which severely reduces the ser-
vice life of machined components [167]. The DRM with larger
deformation scale could be acquired in the thermally assisted
machining of these ceramics [49, 168].
The suitable improvement of the brittleness of those mater-
ials presenting high ductility in conventional machining con-
ditions helps improve the machining performance in extreme
manufacturing [70]. For example, the cutting force could be
reduced in the high-speed machining of ductile materials due
to the strain rate induced ductile-to-brittle transition, which
may benefit the machining of low rigidity components with
high precision [169, 170]. In addition, energy consumption
could be reduced in high-speed machining due the strain rate
induced ductile-to-brittle transition depicted by the area under
the stress–strain curves, as shown in the figure 22 [171],
which may be related to the low cutting temperatures present
in high-speed machining operations. Another example is the
lower surface roughness in high-speed machining [172]. The
side flow of workpiece materials due to high ductility makes
the measured surface rougher than those achieved through
theoretical calculations [173]. The side flow may decrease
due to the reduced ductility in high-speed machining opera-
tions, which contributes to the low roughness. However, the
machining speed should be limited because the high brittle-
ness may worsen the surface integrity [71], and the most suit-
able machining speed for specific materials could be determ-
ined based on the BDT of the machined materials.
5. Conclusions and outlook
This review discusses the BDT of material mechanical behavi-
ors and its effect on the material removal mode in the extreme
manufacturing. The following conclusions are presented:
(a) The decline of deformation size and the rise of deform-
ation temperature induce the brittle-to-ductile transition
of material mechanical behaviors; in contrast, the decline
of grain size and the rise of strain rate could induce
the ductile-to brittle transition of material mechanical
behaviors.
(b) The nature of the mutual transition between brittleness and
ductility of material is the competition between the ease of
occurrence of plastic deformation and crack propagation.
(c) The brittleness or ductility of machined materials should
benefit a specific manufacturing process, which can be reg-
ulated by the deformation scale, deformation temperature
and machining speed.
The main factors affecting the BDT in the extreme man-
ufacturing are reviewed. In fact, the BDT can be governed
by coupled factors, such as thermal-mechanical coupling,
because the majority of manufacturing processes involve
coupled multi-factors. However, the majority of studies aim
16
Topical Review
to analyze the BDT single factor and avoid multiple factors
through the design of experiments or numerical simulations,
which creates a gap between the BDT mechanisms and its
application in manufacturing processes.
Moreover, the extreme manufacturing processes involving
high-temperature, high-speed and energy fields make the study
of BDT more challenging. Traditional quasi-static, micro- or
nano-tests cannot simulate these extreme conditions. New test-
ing technologies should be developed to promote the study of
BDT under high-speed and high-temperature conditions and in
energy fields. Specifically, the study of BDT in energy fields,
such as chemical and magnetic fields, should be paid more
attention since it might be highly beneficial to the development
of energy assisted manufacturing technologies.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge support from the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
51835004).
ORCID iDs
Tao Zhang  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8446-7710
Feng Jiang  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4938-7798
Yueqin Wu  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3511-4270
Zhengyi Jiang  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8676-7461
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