Objectives

This experiment has two main goals. First, to introduce the basic operating principles of several
common methods of temperature measurement such as, liquid-in-glass thermometers,
thermocouples and thermistors and how to calibrate these devices. Second, to introduce the
concept of dynamic response of thermal systems, ways of measuring this response and factors,
which influence this behavior.

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Theoretical Background
Temperature Measuring Devices

Thermocouples

When a pair of electrical conductors (metals) are joined together, a thermal emf is generated
when the junctions are at different temperatures. This phenomenon is known as the Seebeck
effect. Such a device is called a thermocouple. The resultant emf developed by the
thermocouple is in the millivolt range when the temperature difference between the junctions is
~ 100 0C. To determine the emf of a thermocouple as a function of the temperature, one
junction is maintained at some constant reference temperature, such as ice-water mixture at a
temperature of 0 0C. The thermal emf, which can be measured by a digital voltmeter as shown
in Figure 1, is proportional to the temperature difference between the two junctions. To calibrate
such thermocouple the temperature of the second junction can be varied using a constant
temperature bath and the emf recorded as a function of the temperature difference between the
two nodes.
Figure 1 Measuring the EMF of a Thermocouple

The output voltage, E, of a simple thermocouple circuit is usually written in the form,

(1)

where T is the temperature in 0C, and E is based on a reference junction temperature of 0 0C.
The constants A, B and C are dependent on the thermocouple material.

Providing a fixed reference temperature for the reference junction using an ice bath can make
the use of a thermocouple cumbersome. Hence, commercially available thermocouples usually
consist of two leads terminating in a single junction. The leads are connected to a
thermocouple signal conditioning ‘box’ containing an electrical circuit which provides a reference
voltage equal to that produce by a reference junction placed at 0 0C, a process called ‘ice point
compensation’. These thermocouple signal conditioners or ‘power supplies’ usually display the
temperature directly and or provide a voltage output that is proportional to the thermocouple
temperature. A similar thermocouple signal conditioner with a digital temperature display and
an analog voltage output is used in the present experiment.

Thermistors

The thermistor, a thermally sensitive resistor, is a solid semi conducting material. Unlike metals,
thermistors respond inversely to temperature, i.e., their resistance decreases as the
temperature increases. The thermistors are usually composed of oxides of manganese, nickel,
cobalt, copper and several other nonmetals. The resistance is generally an exponential function
of the temperature, as shown in Equation 2:
 (2)

where R0 is the resistance at a reference temperature, T0, while b is a constant, characteristic of

the material. T0, the reference temperature, is generally taken as 298 K (25 0C). Since all
measurements made with thermistors can be reduced to detecting the resistance changes, the
thermistor must be placed in a circuit and the resistance changes recorded in terms of the
corresponding voltage or current changes. The formula relating the voltage (or current) changes
to the resistance changes for a given circuit has to be determined theoretically or empirically, or
by a combination of both.

In the design of thermistor circuits, one must take the precaution that within the range of the
operating conditions, the circuit remains stable at all times. Thermistor resistance varies
inversely with temperature. The voltage applied directly across a thermistor causes its
temperature to rise, and its resistance to decrease. Sufficiently high voltage may cause thermal
"runaway" (curve A in Figure 2), in which condition, higher currents and temperatures are
induced until the thermistor fails, or the power is reduced. A series resistor, introduced to limit
current, ensures stability (curve B). Thermal "runaway" will, in all probability, permanently
damage the thermistor, or change its characteristic properties.

Figure 2 Thermistor Behavior and Thermal Runaway

To increase the precision of the measurement, one should add a voltage divider to the circuit
shown in Figure 4(a). This will convert it to a Wheatstone bridge circuit, as shown in Figure
4(b). The out-of-balance voltage, DV, can then be measured and related to the resistance of
the thermistor. A correct choice of resistors R2 and R3 will remove the mean DC value of DV.
Note that although the bridge circuit can increase the precision of the readings, the sensitivity is
still the same as for the simple voltage divider circuit shown in Figure 4(a). The simple DC
bridge circuit of Figure 4(b) is generally satisfactory for most applications.
Figure 3 Thermistor Circuit

Considering this circuit, we shall now derive the relation between T and DV. In general,

(3)

Assume R1 = R3. Then,

(4)

Rearranging for RT,

 (5)

The relation between T and RT is given by,

(6)

or,

(7)

Substituting for RT from Equation 5, we have

(8)

If we further assume R1 = R2 = R3 = Rb, we have,

(9)

T is not a linear function of V, and so any linear analog recorder will be in error when linear
interpolation is used between calibration points (for small ranges in temperatures, the error may
be negligible). If we measure E along with our scans of the DVs, then the only unknowns in
Equation 9 are R0 and b. These unknowns are determined by calibration experiments. You will
perform a 3 or 4 point static calibration of both the thermocouple and the thermistor.

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Dynamic Response of Thermal Systems

When temperature measurements of a transient process are made, it is important to verify that
the dynamic response of the measuring device is fast enough to accurately track the time
varying temperature. In the second part of this experiment, we will study the influence of
different parameters on the transient response characteristics of a thermal system. In this
experiment, we will measure the response of thermocouple (or a modified thermocouple). The
thermocouple is modeled as a spherical ball, as shown in Figure 4. The thermocouple
temperature is, T, mass m and specific
Figure 4 – Thermocouple bead modeled as a simple thermal system

heat capacity c. If the sphere is suddenly exposed to an environment at temperature Tµ, then,
after making the appropriate assumptions, the energy balance for this transient process is given
by:

The solution for the above first order equation is the well known exponential decay given as:

where the time constant t = mc/hA. In this experiment, we will examine the influence of
properties suh as mass, surface area and specific heat capacity of the bead on its dynamic
response.

Apparatus
The following apparatus is used in conducting the experiments:

1. Constant temperature bath: The constant temperature bath is capable of providing liquids at
constant temperatures between approximately 10 to 90 0C. Several different temperatures will
be used in the calibration procedure. Note how the settings are made and set the bath for a low
temperature.

2. Thermocouples: The thermocouple used in this experiment is connected to a power supply,

which has a digital temperature display and an analog output. The analog output is connected
to the ADC card. The thermocouple will be calibrated by placing it in the constant temperature
bath and recording the digital display and the voltage output using the computer and the ADC
card.

3. Thermistor: Examine the thermistor provided; it will already be connected to a Wheatstone

bridge circuit. You will calibrate it by placing it in the constant temperature bath along with the
thermocouple and recording the output voltage. Thermocouples with different beads.

4. Wheatstone bridge circuit: For the thermistor.

5. Personal Computer and Analog-to-Digital (ADC) converter: This will be used to digitize and
record the voltage signal form the thermocouple and thermistor as a function of time.

6. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD): The RTD will be immersed in the constant
temperature bath for the duration of the experiment. The temperature indicated by the RTD will
serve as the reference temperature (i.e., actual temperature of the bath).

Click here to see apparatus

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Experimental Procedure
I. Thermocouple and Thermistor Static Calibration

The static calibration for the thermocouple and the thermistor will be done at the same time.

1. Connect the outputs of the thermocouples and the thermistor to the appropriate channels on
the ADC card. Start the LabView program that is used for data acquisition. Ask the TA’s for
assistance.

2. Place the thermocouple and the thermistor in the constant temperature bath. Place the in the
constant temperature bath. Starting with the bath at the lowest setting, between 20 –0 0C.

3. Record the temperature of the RTD.

4. Record the thermocouple temperature and the voltage reading.

5. Record the thermistor out-of-balance voltage, DV, and

6. Repeat for three other different temperatures.

II. Time Response Measurement

1. Set the constant temperature bath between 20 and 40 0C.

2. Using the LabView program provided, monitor and record the outputs of the thermocouple as
you rapidly move the thermocouple from the constant temperature bath and place them in the
ice bath.

3. Now change the constant temperature bath temperature to somewhere between 60 and 80
0C and repeat step 2.

4. Without changing the constant bath temperature, repeat step 2 with the larger size
“thermocouples”. Note the diameter and the material of all the thermocouple beads.

Question to be Answered
1. Discuss the principles of operation of thermocouples and thermistors. Compare the
advantages and drawbacks of using the two devices.

2. Plot the static calibration data for the thermocouple and the thermistor, i.e. plot temperature
vs. voltage. Does the voltage output confirm the expected trends? How and why?

3. Is the temperature in the constant temperature bath truly constant? Did you notice
temperature fluctuations, and if so, what was their magnitude? What is the effect of these
fluctuations on the accuracy of your static calibration?

4. Is there a discrepancy in the RTD temperature and the temperature displayed on the
thermocouple digital display? Is the discrepancy constant over the entire temperature range?
Discuss reasons for this discrepancy.

5. Determine the time constants for the smallest thermocouple at the two different temperature
settings. Would you expect the time responses to be the same or different and why?

6. Determine and compare the time constants for the larger diameter thermocouples. Keeping
in mind the physical parameters which govern the time response, is this trend expected?