MATTER IN OUR SURRONDING

Matter and its Forms

Matter can be defined as anything that occupies space, (i.e., has a volume), possesses mass,
offers resistance and can be felt through one or more of our senses.

Particulate Nature of Matter

Intensive investigation by scientists over the years led to the development of a mental model
(the minuscule particles couldn't be actually seen at that time) known as 'dynamic particle
model'. All matter is assumed to be made up of particles that are very small, which may be
atoms, molecules or ions.

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

1. PARTICLES OF MATTER HAVE SPACE BETWEEN THEM- when we make tea,
coffee or lemonade (nimbu paani ), particles of one type of matter get into the spaces between
particles of the other. This shows that there is enough space between particles of matter.
Similarly particles of sugar, salt, Dettol, or potassium permanganate get evenly distributed in
water.
2. PARTICLES OF MATTER ARE CONTINUOUSLY MOVING- Particles of matter are
continuously moving, that is, they possess what we call the kinetic energy. As the temperature
rises, particles move faster. So, we can say that with increase in temperature the kinetic energy
of the particles also increases.
3. PARTICLES OF MATTER ATTRACT EACH OTHER- Particles of matter have force
acting between them. This force keeps the particles together. The strength of this force of
attraction varies from one kind of matter to another.
States of Matter
1. THE SOLID STATE- all solids have a definite shape, distinct boundaries and fixed volumes,
that is, have negligible compressibility. Solids have a tendency to maintain their shape when
subjected to outside force. Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape,
so they are rigid.
2. THE LIQUID STATE- Liquids have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume. They take up
the shape of the container in which they are kept. Liquids flow and change shape, so they are not
rigid but can be called fluid. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids. This is
due to the fact that in the liquid state, particles move freely and have greater space between each
other as compared to particles in the solid state.

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3. THE GASEOUS STATE- Gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids.
The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder that we get in our home for cooking or the oxygen
supplied to hospitals in cylinders is compressed gas. In the gaseous state, the particles move
about randomly at high speed. Due to this random movement, the particles hit each other and
also the walls of the container.

Matter Can Change its State Water can exist in three states of matter–
·  Solid, as ice,
·  Liquid, as the familiar water, and
·  Gas, as water vapour.
EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE
On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to the
increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating with greater speed. The energy supplied
by heat overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. The particles leave their fixed
positions and start moving more freely. A stage is reached when the solid melts and is converted
to a liquid. The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric
pressure is called its melting point.
The melting point of ice is 273.16 K. The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into
liquid state is also known as fusion.
Solid ----heat----> Liquid  -------------------heat--> Gas 
          <---cool----                  <---cool---------------
So, we infer that the state of matter can be changed into another state by changing the
temperature.
EFFECT OF CHANGE OF PRESSURE
Increasing or decreasing the pressure can change the state of matter. Applying pressure and
reducing temperature can liquefy gases.
For an example, Solid carbon dioxide (CO2) is stored under high pressure. Solid CO2 gets
converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere* without coming
into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.
Thus, we can say that pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance, whether it
will be solid, liquid or gas.
Evaporation
Particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. At a given temperature in any gas,
liquid or solid, there are particles with different amounts of kinetic energy. In the case of liquids,
a small fraction of particles at the surface, having higher kinetic energy, is able to break away
from the forces of attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapour. This phenomenon
of change of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.

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FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
The rate of evaporation increases with–
• An increase of surface area: We know that evaporation is a surface phenomenon. If the surface
area is increased, the rate of evaporation increases. For example, while putting clothes for drying
up we spread them out.
• An increase of temperature: With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get
enough kinetic energy to go into the vapour state.
• A decrease in humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air. The air around
us cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapour at a given temperature. If the
amount of water in air is already high, the rate of evaporation decreases.
• An increase in wind speed: It is a common observation that clothes dry faster on a windy day.
With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapour move away with the wind,
decreasing the amount of water vapour in the surrounding.
HOW DOES EVAPORATION CAUSE COOLING?
In an open vessel, the liquid keeps on evaporating. The particles of liquid absorb energy from
the surrounding to regain the energy lost during evaporation. This absorption of energy from the
surroundings make the surroundings cold.
After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof or open ground because the large latent
heat of vaporisation of water helps to cool the hot surface.
Why should we wear cotton clothes in summer?
During summer, we perspire more because of the mechanism of our body which keeps us cool.
We know that during evaporation, the particles at the surface of the liquid gain energy from the
surroundings or body surface and change into vapour. The heat energy equal to the latent heat of
vaporisation is absorbed from the body leaving the body cool. Cotton, being a good absorber of
water helps in absorbing the sweat and exposing it to the atmosphere for easy evaporation.
Why do we see water droplets on the outer surface of a glass containing ice-cold water?
Let us take some ice-cold water in a tumbler. Very soon we see water droplets on the outer
surface of the tumbler. The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass
of water, loses energy and gets converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets.

A solid
(a) as a definite characteristic shape tends to resist deformation of its shape
(b) is relatively non-compressible Example: Diamond

Solids can be classified as:

Crystalline
A definite well-defined external geometric shape such as cube, octahedron or tetrahedron
characterizes the solid. internally, particles are orderly arranged in a three-dimensional
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pattern. Example: Common salt and copper sulphate

Amorphous
Amorphous solids (solids without definite structure) do not exhibit clear-cut external
geometrical shapes. Their internal particle arrangements are less regular; they do not have
a defined melting point and display a tendency to deform more easily. Example: Glass
and plastic.
Glass does not resist deformation very well. It softens rather than melts when heated and sags
and flows on heating over a long period of time.

In liquids
the intermolecular space or the void is slightly more than that of solids while the
intermolecular attraction is less. The average distance between particles is of the order 10-7
to 10-5 cm. When compared to solids, the particles of liquids are relatively loosely packed.
This type of packing leads to a greater mobility of the molecules and liquid particles can
move about but cannot separate and so can flow.
As a result, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape. It takes the shape of the
container in which it is placed. As the intermolecular space is not much, like solids, a liquid
cannot be compressed much, even if high pressures are applied. A liquid has only a single
free surface the layer that is exposed to the surroundings. The boiling point of a liquid is
above room temperature. The liquid state is an intermediate state between solids and gases.
A liquid
has a definite volume no
characteristic shape
takes the shape of the container
is fluid - is able to flow and change shape without separation is
essentially non-compressible Example: Water and milk

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In gases, the intermolecular attractions are very poor. The particles are loosely packed at
random and the voids between particles are very large. As a result, a gas does not have a
definite shape or a definite volume. It will assume the shape and the volume of the container
in which it is placedEffect

4TH STATE OF MATTER

A fourth state called plasma refers to the super heated gaseous state. This state is a mixture of
electrons and positively charged ions with unusual properties. It is found at extremely high
temperatures such as interiors of the sun or stars. Astronomers reveal that 99% of all matter
in the universe is present in the plasma state.
5TH OF MATTER
A fifth state has recently been revealed that refers to the super cooled In the super cooled
state atoms lose their separate identity and get condensed. They behave like a single 'super
atom'. The existence of this state was first envisaged in 1925 by Albert Einstein, who based
the idea on the work by Satyendra Nath Bose, the Indian physicist, who had predicted a class
of fundamental particles called 'BOSONS' that were named after him.

A 'Super atom' was actually created on the 5th of June 1995 by the scientists Wieman and
Cornell. They chilled atoms of a gas, to the lowest temperature ever achieved, and created a
new state of matter called BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE.
Using lasers and an exotic evaporation method, they plunged the temperature of RUBIDIUM
gas almost to 'absolute zero' or -273oC. All atomic motions come to a stand still at this
temperature.

Inter-conversion of the States of Matter

Depending on the conditions of temperature and pressure, matter can exist in any of the three
main states i.e., solid, liquid or gas. Matter can be inter- converted from one state to the other
by the addition or removal of heat energy.

When a chemical compound is heated, it may undergo a chemical change called

decomposition and as a result, an entirely new compound is formed. For example, when
calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

Effect of Temperature on Matter Fusion or Melting

When we heat a solid, we add energy to the system increasing the vibration of the particles.
Eventually these particles break free from their binding forces and fuse. Fusion is the change
of state from solid to liquid. This is generally referred to as melting.. During melting, the
temperature of a substance remains constant till the entire substance is converted into liquid
due to the latent heat of fusion. The extra heat is used up in changing the state by overcoming
the forces of attraction.
Sublimation
Some solid substances when heated get converted directly to the gaseous or vapour state
without first passing through the liquid state is called as sublimation. When a sublimable
solid substance is heated, it is said to 'sublime' into a gaseous state; and when sublimable
substances are cooled from their vapour state, the solid obtained is called the 'sublimate'.
Some sublimable substances are: iodine, camphor, naphthalene, dry ice carbon dioxide) etc.

Vaporization and Evaporation

When molecules of a liquid escape from its surface and go into vapour (gaseous) phase, it is
called evaporation or vaporization. Evaporation is a slow change of a liquid into a gas on its
surface. It is process of escaping of molecules spontaneously from the surface of the liquid
to vapour state. The greater the surface area of the liquid exposed to atmosphere, greater will
be the evaporation. Similarly, at higher temperatures but below boiling point, there will be
more evaporation. As the temperature increases, the particles gain more energy and move
more rapidly. For this reason the possibility of some particles overcoming the inter-particle
forces of attraction and escaping increases. So, higher the temperature, higher is the rate of
evaporation. Low humidity in the atmosphere also raises the rate of evaporation.

Boiling of a liquid occurs at a point, when it is freely converted into vapour. At this point,
called the boiling point, the vapour pressure within the liquid is equal to the external pressure
or the atmospheric pressure on the liquid. Thus, molecules escape easily in a gaseous state.
At the boiling point, the temperature remains constant till the entire mass of the liquid is
converted into gas due to the latent heat of vaporization.

Water boils at 100oC at 1 atmospheric pressure. When dissolved impurities are present in
the liquid, the boiling point is increased and the freezing point gets decreased. When you
add a small amount of urea or sugar in water, its boiling point will be more than 100 oC and
its freezing point will be less than 0oC.

Latent heat of vaporization.

The amount of heat required by one kilogram of liquid into gas at atmospheric pressure at its
boiling point is known as latent heat of vaporization.

Solidification or Freezing
When the liquid produced by melting a crystal is cooled, it eventually solidifies or freezes.
The temperature at which the liquid freezes under one atmospheric pressure is the normal
freezing point. The change from liquid state to solid state is called solidification or freezing.
Water freezes at 0oC. Gases On heating gases,
The kinetic energy increases and the inter-molecular forces of attraction decreases. As a
result the particle are more spread out with a bigger volume. In other words the gaseous state
undergoes expansion on heating