SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS LAB REPORT

STRAIN GAUGES AND LOAD CELLS

AAMNA SAEED
27008593
aamna.saeed@student.reading.ac.uk
NOVEMBER 27, 2019
Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Methods............................................................................................................................................ 2
Full Bridge Configuration ............................................................................................................... 3
Half Bridge Configuration............................................................................................................... 5
Results .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Full Bridge Configuration ............................................................................................................... 6
Half Bridge Configuration............................................................................................................... 7
Discussion and Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 8
References ...................................................................................................................................... 10

1
Introduction
A load cell is a force gauge, which consists of a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal.
The electrical signal’s magnitude is directly proportional to the force being measured. There are four
different types of load cells; pneumatic, hydraulic, strain gauge and capacitance.

The load cell used in this experiment was strain gauge. When stress or strain is applied to the strain
gauge the electrical resistance changes. This resistance is directly proportional to the strain or stress
being applied to load cell, which makes it is very easy to calibrate the strain gauge. The strain gauge
was calibrated at the start of the experiment before recording the results to ensure the accuracy of
the results.

The electrical resistance from the strain gauge is linear, therefore it can be converted to force which
can then be converted into weight. This concept was studied and applied during the experiment where
different weights were added on the scale pan of the load cell and the output voltage readings were
recorded.

The load cell was used in 2 different configuration during this experiment:

1. Full bridge
2. Half bridge

In the first half of the experiment full bridge circuit was used to determine the output voltage when
different weights were placed on the load cell. The relationship between them was observed by
plotting a graph. The graph was and then used to calculate the responsivity by determining the
gradient of the line.

The experiment was then repeated, but this time using the half bridge configuration. The responsivity
calculated for the full and half bridge circuit was then compared. The gain of the amplifier and the
maximum strain induced on the load cell was also calculated. This experiment was done to distinguish
the differences between the full bridge and half bridge configuration.

Methods

Figure 1.1 Wheatstone Figure 1.2 Full bridge unbalanced strain

Figure 1.3 Half bridge strain gauge
bridge configuration gauge circuit (All About Circuits, n.d.)
circuit (All About Circuits, n.d.)
(Load Cell Central, n.d.)

When a single strain gauge measures the change in the electrical resistance, the measured value is
very small. Therefore the Wheatstone bridge configuration is used to measure the change in
resistance in the circuit. This is useful as the measurement provided using this configuration is
extremely accurate.

In this experiment the load cell was used in full and half bridge configuration as a weight measurement
transducer. The strain gauges had resistance of 120 Ω and the gauge factor of 2. In a full bridge circuit,

2
the 4 resistors shown in figure 1.1 are replaced by 4 strain gauges shown in figure 1.2. Where as in
the half bridge configuration only 2 resistors are replaced by strain gauges while the other two
resistors, have identical resistance, this is shown in figure 1.3. The strain gauges are bonded onto a
beam which tends to deforms when the weight is applied. This deformation causes change in the
resistance and the output voltage is measured.

Breadboard
terminals

Figure 2.1 Triple Output Power Figure 2.2 Resistor pad Figure 2.3 Potentiometer Figure 2.4 Breadboard
Supply (bottom) and Digital
Multimeter (top)

Non-inverting terminal (+ve) Scale pan

Ground terminal
Vo terminal

Inverting terminal (-ve)

Figure 2.5 Op-amp
Figure 2.6 Load Cell

In both circuits, the load cell (figure 2.6) was connected to a potentiometer (figure 2.3) and to the
(741) operational amplifier (op-amp) (figure 2.5) using the terminals on the breadboard (figure 2.4).
The op-amp was then connected to a 47KΩ resistor on the resistor pad (figure 2.2). This was the Rf
value used to configure the op-amp. The load cell and the op-amp were also connected to the triple
output power supply (figure2.1). This was done so that ±15V could be supplied to the op-amp and 5V
for the strain gauge bridge excitation Vs. Finally, the op-amp Vo was connected to the digital
multimeter (figure 2.1) to display the output voltage. The op-amp amplified the output voltage to a
readable value as the output voltage from the bridge circuit is very small. The output voltage was
displayed on the multimeter. All the equipment was connected using banana plug cables.

Full Bridge Configuration

4 Strain Gauges
( 1, 2, 3 and 4 )

1 2

3 4

Figure 3.1 Setup of load cell using full bridge circuit Figure 3.2 Full bridge circuit diagram

3
The circuit formed after all the connections were in place is shown in figure 3.1. Finally, the multimeter
was turned on and the output voltage was displayed. The output voltage changed when force was
applied to the scale pan (figure 2.6) of the load cell. However, when no force was applied the voltage
displayed wasn’t zero. Therefore, the load cell had to be calibrated. The potentiometer was used to
calibrate the load cell. This was done by rotating the potentiometer cursor until the voltage displayed
was zero. This method is known as second balancing. To check if the calibration was done properly
force was applied to the scale pan and was then removed to see if the output voltage went back to
zero.

Next, the maximum output voltage reading was taken by pressing down as far as possible on the scale
pan. This was done so that the maximum output voltage and the responsivity can be used to
determine the range of the load cell. To calculate the responsivity, different weights (0-0.1kg) were
placed on the scale pan and the output voltage was recorded. The results were then plotted on a graph
so the relationship between weight and output voltage could be observed. The responsivity was
determined by calculating the gradient of the graph.

The equation of responsivity is:

𝑽𝒐
𝒓= 𝑾
(V/kg) (equation 1)

which was rearranged to make W the subject of the equation. Where, r = responsivity, Vo = output
voltage and W= weight.

After that, the values of responsivity and maximum output voltage were inserted into the equation to
determine the range of the load cell. In this experiment, the range was the maximum weight the load
cell could take as the minimum weight was zero.

To test the accuracy and reliability of the results an object with unknown weight was then placed on
the scale pan and the output voltage was recorded. The output voltage and the responsivity was used
to calculate the weight of the object.

The gain of the op-amp was also calculated using the Rf value and the resistance of the strain gauge.
Using the maximum output voltage the maximum strain induced in the load cell was determined. By
using the equation:

(equation 2)

Where, Vo is the maximum output voltage, Vs is the voltage supplied to the load cell, GF is the gauge
factor, δl/l is the strain and (Rf)/(R/2) is the gain of the amplifier.

4
 Half Bridge Configuration

Connection
P
1 2
Figure 4.1 Setup of load cell using half bridge circuit Figure 4.2 Resistors 1 and 2 swapped for
two strain gauges

2 Strain Gauges
1
(1 and 2 )

Figure 4.3 Half bridge circuit diagram

By making adjustments to the circuit the full bridge circuit was converted into the half bridge circuit.
Before making any changes to the circuit the output power supply was switched off. This was done as
a safety precaution and also to ensure that no damage was done to the equipment being used. After
that, two strain gauges were swapped for two 120 Ω resistors, as shown in figure 4.2 and 4.3. The
resistors were connected to the load cell using the breadboard terminals (figure 4.2). Also, a new
connection point (P) (figure 4.1) was made that connected the load cell to the non-inverting terminal
of the op-amp.

The circuit formed after all the connections were in place is shown in figure 4.1. Finally, the power
supply was turned on and the output voltage was displayed on the multimeter. The output voltage
varied when force was applied to the scale pan. However, when the force was removed the output
voltage wasn’t displayed as zero. Once again the potentiometer was used to calibrate the load cell.
The cursor was rotated until the output voltage was zero. To check if the calibration was done properly
the force was applied and then removed to see if the output voltage went back to zero.

After that the scale pan was pushed down to it’s maximum and the voltage displayed was recorded.
The same weights (0-0.1kg) used in full bridge configuration were now used to determine the output
voltage when the weights were placed on the scale pan of the load cell. These values were then plotted
on a graph and the responsivity was deduced by calculating the gradient of the line. The same equation
of responsivity (equation 1) and the maximum output voltage was used to calculate the range of the
load cell. The gain of both configuration was same. The maximum output voltage was also used to
determine the maximum strain induced in the load cell.

Finally, the maximum output voltage, responsivity and maximum strain induced for both configuration
was compared, to determine the differences between the full and half bridge.

5
Results
Full Bridge Configuration
The maximum voltage recorded when the scale pan was pushed down was 11.82V.
A table (table 1) was created to record the output voltage values when different weights were placed
on the scale pan of the load cell.

Weight (kg) Voltage Output (V)

0.00 0.00
0.02 0.08
0.04 0.18
0.06 0.27
0.08 0.37
0.10 0.46
Table 1 output voltage when different weights were placed on the load cell

The values from the table were used to plot a graph to determine the relationship between the output
voltage and weight.

output voltage - weight relationship (full bridge)

0.5
y = 4.6571x - 0.0062
0.4
Output Voltage (V)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
-0.1
Weight (kg)

Figure 5 output voltage and weight relationship using full bridge configuration

As shown in figure 5 the responsivity calculated was 4.6571V/kg and 0.0062 was the due to the error
in calibration of the load cell. This is known as zero error. The responsivity equation was rearranged
and the range of the strain gauge was determined.
𝑽𝒐
𝑾= (𝑘𝑔) (equation 3)
𝒓
11.82
= = 2.5393914668 kg
4.6571
The range of the load cell was 2.54kg.

The output voltage of 0.31V was recorded when an object was placed on the scale pan. Using equation
3, the weight of the object came out as 0.067 kg.

The gain of the amplifier was calculated using the equation:

6
 𝑹𝒇
𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏 = − (equation 4)
𝑹
𝟐
47000
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = − = −783.33333
120
2
Where Rf is the feedback resistor and R is the resistance of the strain gauge resistor.

Gain of the amplifier was -783.33

The strain induced on the load cell was calculated using by rearranging equation 2, to make δl/l the
subject of the equation
𝜹𝒍 𝑽𝒐
= (equation 5)
𝒍 𝑹𝒇
𝑹⁄ ∗ 𝑮𝑭 ∗ 𝑽𝒔
𝟐
𝛿𝑙 11.82
= = 0.0015089426
𝑙 783.33 ∗ 2 ∗ 5
The maximum strain induced in the load cell was 0.0015 (2 s.f).

Half Bridge Configuration

The maximum voltage recorded when the scale pan was pushed down was 5.50 V.
A table (table 2) was created to record the output voltage values when different weights were placed
on the scale pan of the load cell.

Weight (kg) Output Voltage (V)

0.00 0.00
0.02 0.05
0.04 0.09
0.06 0.14
0.08 0.19
0.10 0.23
Table 2 output voltage when different weights were placed on the load cell

7
The values from the table were used to plot a graph to determine the relationship between the
output voltage and weight

output voltage - weight relationship (half bridge)

0.25
y = 2.3143x + 0.001
0.2
Output Voltage (V)

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Weight (kg)

Figure 6 output voltage and weight relationship using half bridge configuration

As shown in figure 6 the responsivity calculated was 2.3143 V/kg and 0.001 was due to the error in
the calibration of the load cell. This is known as zero error.

Using equation 3 range was calculated:

5.50
𝑊 = = 2.3760964438 kg
2.3143
Where Vo= 5.50 and r= 2.3143. The range was 2.38 kg (2 s.f.).

The gain of the amplifier was the same in both configuration which was -783.33.

The strain induced on the load cell was again calculated using equation 5:
𝛿𝑙 5.50
= = 0.0007021306
𝑙 783.33 ∗ 2 ∗ 5
Rf
Where Vo= 5.50, R = 783.33, GF= 2 and Vs= 5.
⁄2

The maximum strain induced in the load cell was 0.00070 (2 s.f.).

Discussion and Conclusion

The strain gauge is used to measure strain, which is the ratio of change in length to the original length
of a material. When the force is applied, the strain gauge gets distorted and conducting material in
the strain gauge experiences change in its resistance. This change of resistance can be measured using
full and half bridge configuration.

Full bridge is more sensitive compared to half bridge. This is because in full bridge all 4 elements of
the bridge are active whereas in half bridge only 2 elements of the bridge are active. The two active
elements in half bridge are arranged as shown in figure 1.3. When weight is placed on the scale pan,
a downward force is applied, the strain gauge on the underside compresses and the strain gauge on
the upper side stretches. The strain gauges compress and stretch by the same amount. On the other

8
hand, in the full bridge, as there are 4 active elements, they are arranged as shown in figure 1.2. When
a weight is placed on the scale pan a downward force is applied, two strain gauges placed underside
experiences compression and the other two on the upper side experiences tension. Thus, using full
bridge configuration increases the sensitivity of the measurement and the temperature compensation
is also achieved.

As can be seen in figure 5 and in figure 6 both half bridge and full bridge circuit has a linear relationship
between output voltage and weight. The output voltage increased when the weight placed on the
scale pan increased. However, both configurations had different responsivity. The responsivity of full
bridge was 4.66V/kg, whereas, for half bridge the responsivity was 2.31V/kg, which was approximately
half of the full bridge. Similar results were observed when the maximum output voltage was measured
using the two circuits. The maximum output voltage of full bridge circuit was 11.82V and for half bridge
it was 5.50V. Unlike the responsivity and the output voltage which was approximately half for half
bridge circuit the range was very similar for both circuits. The range of load cell in full bridge and half
bridge configuration was 2.54kg and 2.34kg respectively. This therefore means that the maximum
weight that can be placed on a load cell would be the same regardless the configuration of the circuit.
As the full bridge circuit is more sensitive than the half bridge circuit, the true value of the range would
be closer to the value calculated using the full bridge configuration. However, the experiment should
be repeated to improve the accuracy of the range calculated.

Moreover, the gain of the amplifier in both configuration was same, as the strain gauge had resistance
of 120Ω and the external resistor used in half bridge also had resistance of 120Ω. The gain of the
amplifier was -783.33. When the maximum strain induced in load cell was calculated, for full bridge it
was 0.0015 and for half bridge it was 0.00070. These results were expected, as the full bridge has 4
active elements, therefore, the strain induced would also be twice of that of half bridge.

As explained above in full bridge configuration results section, at output voltage of 0.31V the weight
of the object calculated was 0.067kg. At the same voltage using equation of the graph in figure 5, the
value of the weight came out as 0.068kg. Which was an indication that the experiment was conducted
accurately.

Although, the results collected from the experiment were fairly accurate there still was a small error
observed when the equation of the line was calculated for both configuration. It would be better if
more weights were used to determine the relationship between output voltage and weight. This
would have given an accurate value of responsivity. Moreover, repeating the experiment for each
configuration at least 2 times would make the results more accurate. This would be really important
because calibrating the load cell using potentiometer was very difficult. The output voltage kept
fluctuating and getting output voltage as zero was really challenging. Repeating would reduce the
errors in the output voltage. This would also be very beneficial as the output voltage value was used
to calculate all the other values such as responsivity, range, maximum output voltage and strain
induced. This therefore will ensure that all the calculated values would be very close to their true
value.

The experiment should also be done using the quarter bridge configuration, so that a comparison of
all the configurations could be done. The range could then be compared to determine how sensitive
full bridge is than half and quarter bridge.

9
References
All About Circuits (n.d.). Half-Bridge strain gauge circuit. [image] Available at:
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-9/strain-gauges/ [Accessed 30 Nov.
2019].

All About Circuits (n.d.). Full-Bridge strain gauge circuit. [image] Available at:
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-9/strain-gauges/ [Accessed 30 Nov.
2019].

Elektron.pol.lublin.pl. (1998). Strain Gauge Measurement – A Tutorial. [online] Available at:

http://elektron.pol.lublin.pl/elekp/ap_notes/NI_AN078_Strain_Gauge_Meas.pdf [Accessed 29 Nov.
2019].

Load Cell Central (n.d.). Wheatstone bridge configuration. [image] Available at:
https://www.800loadcel.com/load-cell-and-strain-gauge-basics.html [Accessed 28 Nov. 2019].

Prielipp, L. (2019). [image] Available at: https://realpars.com/load-cell/ [Accessed 27 Nov. 2019].

Windmill Software. (n.d.). Understanding Strain Measurement with Strain Gauge Bridges. [online]
Available at: https://www.windmill.co.uk/strain-measurement.html [Accessed 30 Nov. 2019].

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